
Glass. 



Book-- 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 




J C. Adams, Kditor, ouMua i^t-a-MUe Ha* b.i luciliua AavucdUd m Una JJuuk, Newton County, Ga. 



Tilling the Soil 



FOR 



Profit and Pleasure 




Successful Southern Tillers 

A Compendium of Agricultural Science and Practice 

on Field, Orchard, and Garden Crops, Spraying. 

Soils, the Feeding and Diseases of Farm 

Animals, Dairy Farming and Poultry 

in the Southern States. 



. . Bv . . 

JAMES CLYDE ADAMS, S. B. 

Illustrated. 

The Austell Publishing Co.. Atlanta, Ga. 



iLIBHARYo(CON.iKES3 

juN 6 "Jy^a 

301-^ a. 



^ 






Entered According to Act of Congress with the 

Librarian of Congress, by J. C. Adams, 

1908 

All Rights Reserved 



THE AUSTELL PUBLISHING CO., 
Atllnta, Ga. 



Preface 



We have no apologies to offer for bringing out this book. Having been raised on t'he farm ; Uved in 
several of the Southern States, and traveled in all of them, we believe that we are in a position to know 
the wants and needs of the farmers. 

The South is the Garden Spot of America. If men will only develop her resources, they need not fear 
what the rest of t'he world may do. Primarily the South is an agricultural section. Other industries are 
important and necessary, but they should not, neither can they take the place of agriculture. The world 
must have the grains and cereals, cotton and wool, silk and tea, fruits and vegetables, horses and mules. 
The South can produce these articles cheaper than any other section. But to produce them a revolution 
must take place in her methods of Cultivation. Agriculture, the oldest of the arts, has not kept pace with 
the other arts and industries. There are many reasons why Agriculture is so far behind. The principal 
reason why there has not been more progress in our own section is ignorance. The farmers have been 
uneducated. They have relied on brawn instead of brain. Up to this time there has never been issued, 
as we know of, a strictly Southern agricultural book. The country is not crowded with books on this line 
as on others. Some agricultural books have been sold in the South, but they were written by Northern 
men, published by Northern houses, and have not been adapted to our needs. These books are all right 
for the sections t'hey were written for. but they will not do here. The sale of these books, no doubt 
accounts for the idea so prevalent that books will not help the farmer. We are not so foolish 
as to believe that you can take a book, and just by reading it make an excellent crop of 
corn, wheat or cotton, but we do believe, and our experience backs us up in the belief, that there 
are many valuable suggestions in books that will be of incalculable benefit to the farmer. What is true of 
farming is true of other professions. The physician, whom you call into your home cannot rely on his 
medical books altogether, but he must use common sense and judgment. Just so with the farmer. He 
cannot farm by book methods alone, but by using the suggestions as given in books that are suited 
to his country, with good common sense, he can liave better success than without the book. 

It has been our aim to have the book practical. We have selected practical men to write and revise 
the different departments with the idea of giving to the farmer a work that he can read and understand. 
Every department of the book has been edited and revised by men who live in the South, and who know 
our conditions and needs. 

We are under obligations to many men throughout the South who have given us encouragement in 
our efforts to bring out this book. The work could not be as great a success as it is without their aid. 
Especially are we under obligations to each of the editors and to those who furnis'h us many of the illus- 
trations. J c. ADAMS. 



To the men of the South who have borne the heat and 

burden of many days and summers without 

receiving their just reward, this book is 

DEDICATED 

iWith a prayer that it may aid the Southern Farmer in 
receiving the just recompense for his efforts. 



Publisher's Preface 



It may be of interest to the readers of tliis book to know something of the metTiods used in produc- 
ing it. The Editor of the book, Mr. Adams, was born and reared upon a Southern farm. He knows from 
experience what it is to labor on the farm. He has traveled in every Southern State among the farmers. 
He is a graduate of Emory College. While in college he made a special study of the sciences. All of 
this qualified liim for the work of gathering together the material for a Great Southern Farm Book. He 
secured back files, and subscribed to the leading Southern farm papers. He also secured books covering 
every topic possible, even securing some books from across the Atlantic Ocean. From this matter he 
compiled, what he thought, an excellent farm book. (With the exception of the Horse Department, Flo- 
ral Department, And The Use of -Improved Farm Machinery, which were written by their respective au- 
thors as they now stand.) However, in order to produce the very best book possible, he secured for each 
department an editor especially gifted in his particular line, to revise the department, thereby bring- 
ing out the very best book possible. 

Many people do not get the full value of a book because they do not know what it contains. Read 
your book; know what it contains; make it your companion. When you cannot find what you want, con- 
sult the Index in the back of the book. The Index was made to use. 

. Publisher. 



Board of Editors. 



FARM DEPARTMENT— 

Edited and Revised by F. J. Merriam, Editor of 
Southern Ruralist, Atlanta, Ga. 

GARDEN DEPARTMENT— 

Edited and Revised by F. J. Merriam, Editor of 
Southern Ruralist, Atlanta, Ga. 

FRUIT DEPARTMENT— 

Revised by P. J. Berckmans, Augusta, Ga. 

FLORAL DEPARTMENT— 

Edited by H. G. Hastings, Florist and Seedman. 

Member of Southern Florists' Association, x^t- 
lanta, Ga. 

FERTILIZER DEPARTMENT— 

Edited and Revised by Prof. W. F. Massey, for- 
merly Prof, of Horticulture and Botany, N. C. 
College of Agriculture & Mechanical Arts. For- 
merly Editor of Practical Farmer, Phila. Mem- 
ber of American Association and the National 
Geographical Society of Washington, Lecturer 
at Farmers Institutes, in various States, and 
contributor to the leading farm papers. 

INSECT DEPARTMENT— 

Edited and Revised by R. I. Smith, formerly 
State Entomologist for Georgia, formerly As- 
sistant Entomologist Maryland Agricultural 
College. Entomologist for t'he North Carolina 
Experiment Station. Raleigh, North Carolina. 

IRRIGATION DEPART^NIENT- 

Edited by J. C. Adams. S. B., Mesena, Ga. 

ENEMIES TO THE FARM— 

Edited by J. C. Adams, S. B., Mesena, Ga. 

USE OF THE IMPROVED FARM MACHIN- 
ERY— Edited by G. F. Hunnicutt, A. B., Editor 
of the Southern Cultivator, Atlanta, Ga. 



BEE DEPARTMENT— 

Edited by J. C. Adams, S. B., Mesena, Ga. 

HORSE DEPARTMENT— 

Edited by C. A. Gary, B. SC, D. V. M. Prof, of 
Physiology and Veterinarj^ Science at the Ala- 
bama Polytechnic Institute: Veterinary of the 
Alabama Experiment Station, Director of Far- 
mers Institutes & State Veterinarian of Ala- 
bama, Auburn, Alabama. Also by Dr. J. C. 
Curryer, Asst. Supt. Mankato, Minn., Foun- 
der of the Minnesota Horseman. 

HOG DEPARTMENT.— 

Edited and Revised by Gen. Thos. T. Munford, 
Head of Diversification Farm No. 3. Union- 
town, Ala. Also by J. P. Conner, V. M. D. 
Alabama Experiment Station, LTniontown, Ala. 

SHEEP DEPARTMENT— 

Edited and Revised by William Lea, ]\Iarietta, 
Ga. 

COW DEPARTMENT— 

Edited and Revised by C. L. Willoughby, B. 
Agri., Secretary Georgia Dairy and Live Stock 
Association; Dairyman and Animal Husband- 
man, Georgia Experiment Station. Experiment, 
Ga. 

POULTRY DEPARTMENT— 

Edited and Revised by H. F. Reils, Editor South- 
ern Fancier, Secretary Atlanta Poultry Asso- 
ciation, Atlanta, Ga., and J. A. P. Wolf, Mem- 
ber National White Wyandotte Club, ?,Iember 
North Carolina Poultry Association ; Member 
Piedmont Poultry Association ; Director Poul- 
try Department, Forsyth County Fair, Winston, 
N. C. and Central Carolina Fair, Greensboro 
N. C. , Rural Hall, N. C. 



Table of Contents. 



BOOK I. 

FARM DEPARTMENT. 

FARMING, THE SOIL, SEED NEICEi&SARY 10 

PARTS OP THE PLO'WBR.— Perfect flower. Imperfect 

flower. How tbey are fertilized 10-11 

ALFALFA OR LUCBRN. — Number of cuttings per year, 

Suitable soil. Bacteria necessary, How to inoculate 

land, Alfalfa as a soil improver 11-13 

BARLEY. — Suitable soil, Preparation of land, Its value 

as a stock food 13-14 

BEGGAR WEED. — Used as a forage plant, When to cut . 14 
BROOM CORN.— Its use. Suitable soil, How to cultivate . 14 
CASTOR BEAN. — Suitable soil, Method of cultivation . . 15 

CHUFAS. — Used for fattening hogs, Method of cultiva- 
tion 15 

CRIMSON CLOVER.— Feed crop and soil renovator ... 16 

CORN. — Suitable soil, Preparation of land, Harrowing 
necessary, iSelecting seed corn. The best fertilizer. 
Variety to be used. When to plant. How to cultivate, 
Methods of harvesting corn 16-21 

COTTON. — Long staple. Where grown. Short staple. 
Land suitable for cotton, Preparation of land. How 
to cultivate 21-23 

COW PEAS. — Their value as a land renewer. Value as 
a fornge plant. How to cultivate. When to cut for 
hay. How to cure hay during wet weather .... 23-25 

GRASSES. — Bermuda grass. Carpet grass. Crab grass, 
Johnson grass, Kentucky blue grass. Meadow fescue 
25-27 

LESPEDEZA. — Leguminous iplant. Suitable for South. 

only 27 

MILLET. — Foxtail millet. Barnyard millet. Broomcom 
millet, When to cut millet for hay, Requires warm 
weather 27-2S 

OATS. — Suitable soil, The winter turf sod oat. Enemies 
to oats 28 

PEANUT. — ^Leguminous plant. Used for fattening hogs. 

When to plant and methods of cultivation 2S-29 

POTATOES. — Irish potatoes, An ideal soil tor. Prepara- 
tion of land for. Size of pieces to be used. Keeping 
late potatoes. Sweet potatoes. How to bed. How to 
cultivate. How to dig potatoes. Methods of keeping 

29-34 

RICE. — Land suitable for. How to prepare land for, Se- 

lec-tion of seed. Methods of treating rice just after 

planting. Importance of flooding. The irrigation 

plant. The time to harvest rice. By-products of rice 

34-3S 

RYE.— Its use. Soils adapted for rye. Preparation of 

ground. Planting 3S 

SORGHUM — Its use. Suit.nble land, Planting and culti- 
vation 39-40 

SUGAR CANE.— -Suitable land. Preparation of land. Fer- 
tilizers. Methods of manufacture 40 

SUN FLOWER.— 44 

TOBACCO. — Climate and fertilizers as they affect the to- 
bacco. Varieties grown in the South, Soil upon which 
tobacco should be grown, Fertilizers for tobacco. 
Making the seed bed. Preparatin'i of land. When and 
how to set out. Topping tobacco. Harvesting tobacco. 
Worming tobacco 45-5i 



VE3LVET BEANS. — iLeguminous plant. Its value as a 

feed crop 52 

VETCH. — How to cultivate. Inoculation of land .... 53 
WHEAT. — Its importance. Wheat farming upon soil fer- 
tility. Soils suitable for wheat. When to plant. When 
to harvest 54-55 ' 



BOOK II. 
GARDEN DEPARTMENT. 

MARKET GARDENING.— Money in gardening. Soils 
suitable for gardening. Location of garden, Fertili- 
zers for gardens 53 

HOW TO PREPARE A SEED BED.— Its size. Location, E3 
COLD FRAMES. — How to make a cold frame. Ventila- 
tion necessary 59-GO 

THE GERMINATION OF SEE©.— What temperature 
necessary for the germination of seed, Seeds lose 

their vitality, Mulching 60-61 

ROTATION OF GARDEN CROPS.— Its importance. ... 61 
PACKING AND SHIPPING VEGETABLES.— Must ship 
when there is a demand and when they can be kept. 

Proper crate necessary. Appearance of crate 62 

THE FARMER'S GARDEN.— Shape of garden. Early or- 
dering of seed necessary. Thorough cultivation nec- 
essary (j2 

VEGETABLES NOTE'S.— 63 64 

ARTICHOKES.— Used as hog feed. Suitable soil, Culti- 

vation 54 

ASPARAGUS.— How to raise plants. Suitable soil, Cul- 
tivation 65-66 

BEANS. . V.nrieties of beans. Suitable soil. Sensitive to 

frost. How to plant and cultivate 66 

BEETS.^Suitable soil. Preparation of land. Cultivation C7 

CABBAGE.-^Suitable soil. Early cabbage. Fertilizers, 
Healthy plants necessary. Growing late cabbage.' 
Dispose of the crops as early as possible 67-69 

CELERY.— Most suitable land. Thorough preparation of 

the land necessary. Transplanting celery. Irrigation. C9 

COLLARDS.— . ' iQ 

CUCUMBERS. — Suitable land. How to produce early 

. cucumbers " ^0 

CARROTS.— How to plant and cultivate 71 

EGGPLANT. — How to start plants and to transplant 

them Yj^ 

KALE.— ' '. ' '. 72 

LETTUCE.— Forcing lettuce. Varieties 72 

MUSHROOMS. — Temperature necessary for mushrooms. 
Preparation of mushrooms beds. How to plant and 

cultivate mushrooms 73-74 

MTJSKMELON.— Suitable soil To secure an early crop. 

How to plant and cultivate, Varieties 74-75 

OKRA or GUMBO.— 75 

ONIONS. — Metbods of growing onions, first with sets. 
Second, sowing seed in fall and transplanting in ear- 
ly spring. Third, by sowing seed in open ground in the 
spring. How to get sets and plants started. Suitable 
soil. Fertilizers. How to plant and cultivate. Har- 
vesting onions. New onion culture 76-77 



PUMPKIN. — Methods of cultivation 77 

KAUISH. — Methods of cultivation '^^ 

RUTABAGAS.— Suitable soil. How to plant and culti- 
vate '^ 

SAGE. — Its use and cultivation '^ 

SALSIFY or VEGETAB.LE OYSTER.— How to cultivate . 79 

SQUASH. — Summer squash. Winter squa.sh '9 

SWEET CORN.— Use Southern seed, Cultivation, Suita- 

l3le soil . ''^" 

TEA. — Experiments made at Pinehurst, S. C, How to cul- 
tivate ^'^ 

TOMATOES.— How to start the plants. Fertilizers, Trans- 
planting, Handling tomatoes. Varieties Si) 

TURNIP.— ^-'■ 

WATERMELON.— Should be rotated, Preparation of 

the land. Cultivation *■" 

FUNGOUS DISEASES OF GARDEN PLANTS.— Aspara- 
gus rust, Anthrocnot^e, Rust, Black rot of cabbaiie. 
Clubfoot, Leaf blight, Damping off, Powdery mildew 
Downy mildew. Tomato blight, Tomato black rot. . !>2-t>5 



BOOK III. 
FRUIT DZPARXr.lENT. 

APPLES. — Where grown. Ideal location of orchard. 
When transplanted. Preparation of trees, Fertilizers, 

When gathered S9-90 

BLACl-iBERKIES.- Value of cultivation, pruning 91 

CHERRY.— Suitable soil. Variety 92 

CHESTNUT.— 92 

DEWBSKrt\.— How propagated. How planted 92 

CHINCAPIN 93 

FIG.- Suitable soil. Cutting. Smyrna fig. Wild fig. Polli- 
nation, Fertilizers, How shipped 93-93 

GRAPES. — Selection of site for vineyard, Propagation 

of grapes. Layering, Fertilizer for 95-97 

MULBERRY.— Varieties, Propagation 97 

ORi\NGBS. — Budding, Transplanting seedling trees, 

Protection • 97 

PEACH.— ^Soil, Preparation of the land. Planting, Culti- 
vation, Fertilizer, pruning. Borers, Thin curculio. 

Brown rot. Spraying of peaches 9S-103 

PEAR.— Preparation of orchard. Thinning pears. Varieties in;j 

PECAN. — Propagation, Suitable soil. ... 104 

JAPANESE PERSIMMON.— Varieties 104 

•PINKAIJPLE. — How soil is fertilized. Sheds for pineap- 
ples 105 

PLUMS.— Varieties, European plum, Japanese, American lOG 

QUINCE. — How and when planted 106 

RASPBERRy.--Black raspberry 107 

STRAWBERRY. — Its importance. Raised for the market. 
Soil suitable for, Preparation of soil, Systems of 
planting. Hill system. Wide matted row. Directions 
for cultivation. Mulching, Sex of blossoms . . . 107-110 
FUNGOUS DISEASES.— Cedar ball fungous or rust, 
Black rot. Leaf blight or leaf spot. Fire blight. Peach 
scab or black spot. Brown rot. Peach curl. Peach 
yellows. Peach rosette, .Shothole fungous. Plum blad- 
ders. Anthraenose scab. Bird's eye rot. Black rot, 
Downy mildew, or brown rot. Powdery mildew, An- 
thraenose cane rust, Anthraenose blight. Spring 
orange rust, Strawberry leaf blight. Mildew. . 110-114 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING TREES.— What plants are 
budded, When to bud. Tools necessary to bud. Graft- 
ing, Cleft grafting. Whip or tongue grafting. . . 114-116 

TREE PRUNING. — Wounds in pruning. The stub. How 
to use shears. Painting a wound. When to prune. 
What to do with the wood removed. Special direc- 
tions or pruning, berries, peach, pear, plum . . . 117-119 

SPRAYING.— Considered under the INSECT DEPART- 
MENT ..... 244 

FRUIT ON THE F.\iR.VI.— Increasing size of fruit, meth- 
ods for the same, Fruit notes 119 



BOOK IV. 
FLORAL DEPARTMENT. 



A PLEA FOR MOKE OF THEM 124 

FLOWERS FROM SEED 124 

HOW TO SOW FLOWER SEED 124 

THE SOIL. Planting the Seed. Sowing in Boxes ... 125 

AGERATUM 125 

ALYSSUM 125 

ABRONIA 125 

AMARANTHUS 12G 

ASTERS 126 

ANTERRJHINUM 127 

BALSA.M. (Touch-Me-Not, or Ladles Slippers) 127 

BELLIS PERENNIS, (or Double English Daisy) .... 127 

CARNATION • 127 

CACALIA. (Tassel Flower) 12S 

C.A.NNAS 12S 

COLEUS 12S 

CHRYS.\NTHEMUM V2'.) 

COSMOS 129 

DAHLIAS 130 

DIANTHUS. (or Garden Pinks) 130 

DELP'HIMIUM (Larkspur) 131 

BSCHSCHOLTZIA (or Garden Poppy) 131 

GAILLARDIA 131 

HELIOTROPE 131 

FORGET-ME-NOT 131 

HOLLYHOCKS 131 

IBERIS (or Candytuft) 132 

LANT-\NA 132 

M-\RVEL of PERU 132 

MARIGOLDS 132 

NASTURTIUMS 132 

PANSIES 133 

PETUNIAS 133 

PHLOX DRUMMONDIE 133 

RICIUMS (or Castor Bean) 134 

POPPIES 134 

SALVIA SPLENDEUS (Scarlet Sage) 1.34 

SWEET PEAS 134 

SWEET WILLIAMS 135 

VIOLETS 135 

VINCA 135 

VERBENA 135 

ZINNIAS 13G 



ARISlX)TOCHIA Cor Dutchman's Pipe;. . . ; 136 

BALiLOON VINE ISG 

CUMBEKS FOR PORCHES and TRELLIS 136 

BALSAM APPLE 136 

CYPRESS VINE 136 

JAPANESE MORNING GLORY 137 

COBEA SCANDEUS 137 

JAPANESE HOP (Humulus Japanicus) 137 

ALL EASILY OBTAINED 138 

ABOUT SEED BUYING 138 

FLOWERS FROM BULBS 139 

OUT-DOOR CULTURE 139 

THE NARCISSUS FAMILY 140 

CROCUS 140 

BULBS— POT AND WATER CULTURE 141 

BULBS FOR SPRING PLANTING 142 

TUBE-ROSES 142 

GLADIOLI 142 

CALADIUMS 143 

CANNAS and DAHLIA 143 

THE ROSES 143 



BOOK V. 
FERTILIZER DEPARTMENT. 



THE USE OF FERTILIZERS.— Restoration of our soils. 
Nitrogen, Potash, Soils of good mechanical make-up. 
Deep breaking and thorough pulverization of the 
soil necessary. Water in soils, Getting nitrogen from 
the air, Potash and phosphoric acid necessary tor a 
legume plant. What diflerent plants require, Impor- 
tance of a well balanced fertilizer. How plants get 

food from the air 150-159 

THE SPECIAL VALUE OF BARN-YARD MANURE.— 

Organic matter 159 

COTTON SEED -A.S A FERTILIZER ICO 

LIME AS A FERTILIZER 160 

LAND PLASTER 161 

FISH AS A FEiRTILIZER 161 

FERTILIZER FORMULAS.— How to make them, Wliat 

is a filler 1G2 

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OP THE SOIL.— Of little value 

to the farmer 1G3 

HOW A FARMER MAY ANALYZE HIS SOIL.— By ac- 
tual tests 164 

FORMULAS FOR DIFFERENT CROiPS.— General formu- 
las, Cotton formulas, Wheat formulas. Corn formu- 
las. Watermelon and sweet potato formulas. Fruit 
tree formulas, Fertilizers for truck farming. . . . 166-173 

HOME MADE FERTILIZERS 173 

COMPOSTING 173 



BORING INSECTS ATTACKING THE PEAOH.— The 
Peachtree Borer, The Fruit-tree Bark-Beetle, The 
Peach Twig Borer, The Curculio 186-197 

PLANT LICE INJURIOUS TO THE PEACH.— The New- 
Plum Aphis, The Black peach Aphis, Root Knot, or 
Nematode Gall 197-199 

CATERPILLARS. — The American Tent Caterpillars. 

Other Caterpillars 199 

APPLE INSECTS. — Woolly Aphis, Apple Tree Borers, 
Round Headed Borer, Flat Head Borer, The Coa- 
ling Moth, The American Tent Caterpillar, Apple 
Curculio, Canker Worms, Seventeen Year Locust, or 
Cicada 200-205 

THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL 205-211 

INSECTS FREQUENTLY MISTAKEN FOR COTTON 
BOLL WEEVIL. — The cow-pea-pod weevil. The 
Acorn and Chestnut weevils. The Blood Weed Weev- 
ils, Other short' beetles. Click Beetles, The Cotton 
Sharpshooter, The Cotton Boll Worm 211-213 

THE COTTON BOLL WORM 213 

THE COTTON CATERPILLAR 216 

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN AND TRUCK CROPS 
The Corn Stalk Borer, Corn ?oot Worm, The Squash 
Vine Borer, Cutworms Squash Bug, The Cucumber 
Beetle, Colorado Potato Beetle, Flea Beetles, Cab- 
bage Worms, Plant Lice 217-224 

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO.— Cutworms, The 
robacco Stalk Worm, The Spined Tobacco Bug, 
Bud Worms, The Tobacco Leaf-Miner, The Horn- 
Worm or Tobacco-Worm 224-226 

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN.— The 
Grain weevils. The Grain Moths, Flour and Meal 
Moths, The Flour Beetles, The Meal Worms,. . . 2;26-232 

ORANGE INSECTS.— The White Fly, The San Jose 
Scale, The Cottony Cushion Scale, The Red Orange 
Scale 232-234 

HOUSEHOLD PESTS.— Bedbugs, Fleas. The Carpet Bee- 
tle or ••Buffalo" Moth, The Clothes Moth, Spiders, 
Book Moths, Flies 234-237 

PRACTICAL RECIPES.— The Screw Worm 237 

SPRAYING, INSECTICIDES, AND FUNGICIDES . . . 239 

DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING INSECTICIDES.— Lime 

Sulphur-Salt Wash, Kerosene Emulsion, Paris Green, 
Paris Green Mixture, Arsenate of Lead, Hellebore. 
Pyrethum, Tobacco, Whale Oil Soap, Potash Lye .40-241 

FUNGICIDES.— Bordeaux Mixture, Copper Sulphate So- 
lution, Liver of Sulphur, Ammoniacal Copper Carbo- 
nate Solution. Formalin or Formaldehyde, Corrosive 
Sublimate, Carbon Bi-Sulphide 241-243 



BOOK VII. 
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. 



BOOK VI. 

INSECT DEPARTMENT. 

SCALE INSECTS AFFECTING THE PEACH.— The San 
Jose Scale, Putnam's Scale insect, Cherry Scale, West 
Indian Peach Scale Peach Lecanium, Plum Fulvi- 
naria . ., 176-186 



IRRIGATION. — The importance of irrigation. Amount of 
water necessary for plants. Rainfall in the Southern 
States. Irrigation in Georgia, Relation of soil to irri- 
gation. Water supply. Irrigation in Texas, Irrigating 
the orchard. Irrigation of celery, Irrigation of onions. 
Irrigation of rice 25G-262 

DRAIN.'iGE.- The purpose of drainage. Depth of drams. 
Distance between drains, Kind of drains, The fall 
for drains. Size of tiles to use, Terracing. . . . 263-267 



BOOK VIII. 
ENEMIES TO THE FARM. 

MICE AND RATS.— Kemedies 272 

RABBITS 272 

MOiL^S.— Are tliey destrucUve 272 

JOHNSON GRASS 273 

BERMUDA GRASS 273 



BOOK IX. 
IMPROVED MACHINERY AND TOOLS. 



THE IMPORTANCE AND USE OF FARM TOOLS.— The 
importance, Must clear land of stumps and rocks . . 276 

TOOLS TO BE USEO IN THE PREPARATION OF 
LAND IN CULTIVATION OF CROPS.— The plow, 
Harrow, Weeder, Light harrows. Cultivators . . 277-279 

TOOLS TO BE USED IN SAVING AND UTILIZING 

THE FARM PRODUCTS 279 

CARE OF FARM TOOLS 279 



BOCK X. 

BEE CULTURE. 



MONEY IN BEE CULTURE 284 

BEGINNING WITH BEES 285 

HIVES. — Cheaper to buy hives than to try to make them. 

Size 28G 

SWARMING OF BEES.— How to tell when they will 

swarm. Hiving the bees 287 

FEEDING OF BEES.— It is a poor practice 288 

STING AND HOW TO AVOID BEING STUNG. . . . 288-289' 
BEE NOTES 290 



BOOK XI. 
THE HORSE. 

INTRODUCTION 293 

EXTERIOR ANATOMY, OR THE OUTER FORM OF 

THE HORSE 295-307 

SHOEING THE HEALTHY FOOT OF THE HORSE. 307 309 
THE AGE OF THE HORSE DETERMINED BY THE 

TEETH 309-316 

LAMENESS AND THE DISEASES ASSOCIATEHD WITH 
IX. — Thrush, Canker, Corns, Laraitis or Founder, 
Quittor, Cracks in the wall of the Hoof, Horny tu- 
mor of the Wall, Side Bones, Navicular Disease, 

Ring Bone, Splints, Bone Spavin 317-329 

DISEASES OF THE TENTDO'NS AND LIGAMENTS, 

Curb 329-331 

DROPSICAL CONDITIONS OF THE SYNOVIAL SACS. 331 

INFLAMMATION OF AN ARTICULATION 332 

DISEASES PRODUCING LAM:ENESS AT THE SHOUL- 
DER 333 



PARALYSIS OF NERVES OF SHOULDER 333 

PARALYSIS OF THE RADIAL NERVE 334 

DISEASE OF THE LARGE BLOOD VESSELS AT THE 

SHOULUEK 33-1 

INFLAMMATION OF THE MUSCLE THAT WORKS 

OVER THE POINT OF THE SHOULDER 335 

DEEP-SEATED ABSCESSES NEAR THE POINT OP 

THE SHOULDER 335 

DISEASE OF THE HIP REGION 335 

P.\RALYSIS OF NERVES 335 

HIP JOINT DISEASE 336 

DISEASE OF THE BLOOD VESSELS 336 

DISEASES OF THE STIFLE.— Dislocation of the Pa- 
tella or knee cap, Outward dislocation of the Patella 33G 

SHOE BOIL 337 

FRACTURES 33S 

WOUNDS 340 

SNAKE BITES 342 

FISTULOUS WITHERS 342 

POLL EVIL 342 

DISEASES OF DIGESTIVE ORGANS.— Choke, Indige.s- 
tion and Colic in Horses, Chronie Indigestion, Spas- 
modic Colic, Flatulent or Wind Colic, Worms or Ani- 
mal Parasites that Live in the Stomach, or Intes- 
tines, Bots or Grubs in the Stomach of the Horse. 
Diarrhoea, Inflammation of the Bowels 343-349 

DISEASES OP THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.— Distem- 
per or Strangles, Bronchitis, Pneumonia or Lung Fe- 
ver, Pleurisy, The "Bellowsed" Horse, or Heaves, 
Spasm of the Diaphragm 350-35C 

DISEASES OF THE URIN.\RY ORGANS.— Inflamma- 
tion of the Kidneys, Irritable Condition of the Blad- 
der 356-357 

INFECTIOUS AND CO'NTAGIOUS DISEASES.— Glan- 
ders, Inlhienza, Rabbles in the Hoife, Cerebrospi- 
nal, Meningitis Potechial Fever, Anthrax, Tetanus, 
Big Head in Horses and Mules 357-365 

CONDITIONS AND DISEASES OF COMMON INTER- 
EST OCCURRING IN BREEDING ANIMALS.— 
Sterility 368-373 

DISEASES OF THE EY'E.— Diseases of the Eyelids, 
Wounds of the Eyelids, Inflammation of the Eyelids, 
EBthropium, Folding inward of the Lid, Ectropium 
Kolling outward of the Lid, Ptosis, Falling of the Up- 
per Lid, Diseases of the Haw or membrana Nicti- 
tans. Diseases of the tear apparatus, Diseases of the 
Tissues suhhounding the Eye and in the Orbital 
Cavity, Diseases of the Con.iunctiva, Diseases of the 
Cornea, Keratitis or Corneitis, Infectious Conjunc- 
tivitis and Keratitis, or Infectious Inflammation of 
the Conjunctiva and Cornea, New Growthsi on the 
Cornea, Diseases of the Iris, Closure of the pupil. 
Cataract, Amaurosis, Glaucoma, Hydropthalmus, Dis- 
location of the Eye Ball-Exopthalmus, Animal para- 
sites or the Eye, Strabismus, Squinting or Crosseye, 
Some of the causes of Indistinct Vision and Shying, 
Periodic Opthalmia, Mooublindness, Methods of Ex- 
amining the Eyes 374-402 

CONTROLLING THE HORSE.— Education of the Horse 
in the Stall, The Halter Puller. Kicking and Pawing 
in the Stall. Educating the Horse to Back, Controll- 
ing the Actions of the Horse by his Tail, Manner 
of tying the Halter Strap to the Tail, Novel but Prac- 
tical Method of Hitching Horses, Controlling the 
Hind Feet in Shoeing. Position of the Horse in 
Shoeing Important, Beecher on the Horse, Horses' 
Teeth, How Long have Horses Worn Shoes, Man's 



Great Helper, Feeding Horses, Adirondack Murray 
on Shoeing, Teaetiing Teams to Pull. Horses need 
Light, Means and Methods of Controlling our Horses, 
Some of the Laws Governing our Horses, Handling 
by the Head, Stallion or Safety Bridle, Applying the 
Safety Bridle, Method of Using the Safety Bridle, 
A Good Cheap Riding Bridle. Handling Umbrella, 
Power of Man over the Horse. First Lesson in Har- 
ness Satisfactory. Persuasive Control of the Horse, 
The Wilfully Vicious Kicker, The Switcher and 
Kein Catcher, The Balky Horse 4U2-42S 



BOOK XII. 
THE HOG. 

INTRODUCTORY 433 

SHELTERS. — Expensive shelters not necessary 434 

PEEDL\'G.— Grasses, Meal, Milk 434 

PROTECTION OF BROOD SOWS 435 

HEAD OF THE HERD 435 

SALT AND ASHES 435 

HOG RAISING PROFITABLE 435 

THE BREEDS. — The Berkshire, Poland China, Duroc- 
Jersey, The Chester-Whites, Victorias, Yorkshire 

435-436 

HOG FEEDS THAT FATTEN.— The peanut, corn and 

meal 437 

THE SCRATCHING POST 438 

KEEPING MEAT THROUGH TPIE SUMMER 438 

PICKLING MEAT 438 

WHY HE FAILED WITH HOGS 439 

HOG, PHILOSOPHY 439 

DISEASES OT HOGS.— Swine plague or hog cholera. 
Pneumonia or inflammation of the lungs. Apoplexy, 
Sliii^gers 0)- congestion of the brain, Measles, Paraly- 
sis of hogs. Rheumatism, Thumps, Eczema, Kidney 
worms 440-444 



BOOK XIII. 
SHEEP AND GOATS. 

WHAT IT TAKES TO SUCCEED WaTH SHEEP. ... 447 
BREEDS OF SHEEP.— The Hampshire-Downs, The 

South-Downs, Shropshire 447-448 

HOW TO RAISE SHEEP 448 

THE BREEDING AGE OF SHEEP 449 

WATER FOR SHEEP 449 

SHELTER FOR SHEEP 449 

DISEASES O'F SHEEP.— Grubs in the head, or Gadfly, 

etc 445 

GOAT INDUSTRY 449 

THE ANGORA GOAT 450 

BOOK XIV. 
THE COW. 

DISEASES OF CATTLE.— Contagious diseases. Conta- 
gious Pleuro-pneumonia, Variola vaccinae or cow po::. 



Anthrax or charbon. Tick fever or splenetic fever, 
Tuh'iculosis, Lumpy jaw or Actinomycosis, Nou 
Contagious diseases, Plethora, Anaemia, RJieuma- 
tism, Haematuria <ir red water, Malignant catarrh, 
Disease of the respiratory organs. Simple catarrh 
or cold or hollow horn, Bronchitis, Pneumonia or 
pleurisy. Diseases of the digestive organs, inflam- 
mation or paralysis of the tongue. Bloat, Hoven or 
tymphanitis, Impaction of the third stomach, 
Dyspepsia or indigestion. Constipation, Diarrhoea or 
scours. Dysentery, Hernia or rupture. Diseases of 
the nervous system, Inflammation of the brain. Lock- 
jaw or tetanus. Parasitic diseases. Lice, Wolves, or 
grubi-i. Ringworm, Eczema, Milk fever. Miscellaneous 
receipts and diseases. Inflammation of the udder or 
mammitis. Sore teats. Hard il Mker, Garget, Bloody 
and stringy, milk. Dehorning, To hreak a cow from 
sucking herself, to prevent a cow from kicking. 454-476 

THE BULL 476 

THE MILK COW. . . . , 477 

THE BABY O'R CALF 478 

THE FARMERS COW.— Feed for the home cow. Impor- 
tance of cleanliness, Churn often, Place to keep milk 

47S-4S0 

DAIRYING. — Introductory, iSome money and a great 
deal of determination required. The barn. Feed for 
dairy cattle. Silos and ensilage. Soiling, Grains, Dai- 
ry Utensils, The dairy breeds, Taking care of the 
milk on the farm. How to start a dairy. Things not 
to do in the dairy business. Little things on the dai- 
ry farm. By-products, Dairy notes 4S0-495 



BOOK XV. 
POULTRY. 



INTRODUCTORY 498 

LOCATION 500 

HOUSES. — Size, Lcc.^.tlon, Form of Houses, C".:ape of 

roof. Interior arrangements 500-503 

COOPS 504 

WATER FO?w CHIC:CZ:,'C 504 

INCUBATORS AND BROODERS.— Advantages in the 
use of the incubator. Secure the very best, How to 
operate it. Ventilation in incubators. Brooders, 
Brooding by means of hen, Brooding by artificial 
means. Taking off Hatch, The proper hover tem- 
perature, Feedmg, Location of brooders. Diseases 
of brooder chicks. Non-absorption of the contents 
of the yolk sac. Bowel trouble. Inflammation of the 
lungs. Diseases of the digestive organs. Leg weak- 
ness. Gapes 504-514 

CARE OF LITTLE CHICKS 514 

NOTES ON LITTLE CHICKS 515 

STARTING A "BROILER PLANT" ON LIMITED CAPI- 
TAL. — Number of hens necessary. Arrangements of 

yards and brooding accommodations 517-520 

EGG FAPMTNG IN THE SOUTH.— WTiat breed to use. 

The profits in the business. Use pullets 520 

THE VARIOUS STANDARD BREEDS OF FOWLS . . 522 

THE CARE OF BREEDING STOCK 523 

EXERCISE 524 

FEED FOR CHICKENS.— Corn should not be fed to lay- 
ing hens, Importance of green foods. Meat necessary 

• • • • crs-D-fi 

THE MOULTING SEASON 526 



SUMMER CHICKS 

POULTRY LITERATURE 

DISEASES OF POULTRY.— Cholera, Cold or roup, Scaly 
legs, Ciilcken pox or sore head, Limberaeck, Gapes, 
Pneumonia, Lice, Mites, Indigestion, Stiff joints, 

Poulti-y ailments ^._ 528 

DUCK RAISING :. ."/v ^'- 

THE GOOSE ON THE FARM ,''''. ':, .* . . . 534 

RAISING BRONZE TURKEYS 

TURKEYS J . .^ 537 

LINE BREEDING '>, . ,* 541 

THE TRAP NEST ' . ':j^'„^\, • ' " 

HOW SOON AND HOW LONG EGG? ARS '"*""■ 
KEEPING POULTRY IN HEALTH. ...'.'-. 
STICK TO ONE BREED j-' 



527 '•'what BREED TO S3LECT 45'S 

527 ■ JUDGING. - .^.' 552 

• ^"j'tHE AMERICAN STANDARD OF PERFECTION.. . . 553 
"breeds of FOWLS.— White Georgian Games, Game 
Bantams, Cochins, Langshans, Wyamlottes, Brahraas, 
, Plymouth Roclre, Leghorns, Minorcas, Orpingtons. 
533 Mamburgs, Cornish and White Indian Games . 549-552 

537 A, STU'DY OF THE POINTS NECESSARY 554 

537 ■ i^ASONABLE HINTS 554 

541 .'4SUCK RAISING FOR PROFIT 555 

5-13 '^''^THE BEST HATCHING SEASON 5.30 

543-' , ' PREPARATORY TREATMENT OF SHOW BIRDS . . 557 

545,. ROOSTER TALK 558 

546" POULTRY POINTERS 559-5(;a 

547 







,^ 1-i 



SELLING COTTON AT NEWXAN, GA. 



Book I. 
Farm Department, 



. . . EDITED BY . . . 

F. J. MERRIAM, 

EDITOR SOUTHERN RURALIST, 
ATLANTA, GEORGIA. 




ALFALFA AT SUMTER, LA. 



Use Improved Farm Machinery. 



Agriculture as a Science. 



Science is what man knows about God's laws. 
There are no accidents in the physical universe. 
Everything moves according to some law. This 
is true in every department of nature. There are laws 
governing the growth of plants, and these laws are in- 
variable. Some of them most of us are unacquainted 
with, but these laws exist just the same. The earth or 
soil was created .and adapted to germinate seed when 
certain conditions are fulfilled and if these conditions 
are not fulfilled there will be no germination of seed. 
There are a class of farmers who do not believe that ag- 
riculture is a science ; they believe that all that is nec- 
essary to make a successful farmer is manual labor; 
but if tliese people would stop to think for a mo- 
ment they would see the fallacy of. their position. 
There are three principal conditions necessary for the 
germination of seed ; the presence of heat, moisture 
and air. Unless these conditions are present the seed 
will not germinate. Let us look at the matter a little. 
If you plant seeds in cold soil, they will not germinate. 
Every farmer and garderner knows that if he plants 
seeds in the Spring wdien the ground is cold, they will 
be slow to germinate and may not come up at all. Of 
course some seeds require more heat to cause them to 
sprout than others, and some few will sprout in cold 
weather, but these are exceptions. Again, if you will 
take seeds and plant them in a soil that has been 
thoroughly dried out by heating, and do not let it 
become moist, they will not come up. Seed also re- 
quire air. If you place some seed on a wet piece of 
blotting paper, in a bottle, leaving the stopper of the 
bottle out ; and in another bottle place some in the 
same way, but place the stopper in, you will note the 
effect of air upon germination. In the one that is 
stopped up there is some air and the experiment will 
not be entirely complete ; but the comparison is suf- 
ficient to show that air is necessary for seed to ger- 
minate. And so it is in all departments of agricul- 
ture, there are certain laws which govern the growth 
of plants and these laws must be complied with. 

If farmers understood the laws governing the feed- 
ing of plants, they would avoid many mistakes in 
buving their fertilizers. The successful farmer will 
study the needs of his plants. A simple corn plant is 



very much like the human body in many respects- 
Just as there are laws governing the human body, so 
there are laws governing the simplest plant that 
grows. The plant breathes, takes in food and wa- 
ter, and reproduces itself very much like human be- 
ings. There are male plants and female plants just 
as there are male beings and female beings. You must 
know the laws governing these plants in order to be 
successful in the highest sense of the word. 

And may we not suggest just here that the farmer 
who raises the greatest number of bales of cotton or 
the greatest number of bushels of corn is not neces- 
sari!}- the most successful farmer. To be a successful 
farmer, you must be able to enjoy your work, an? 
above all things see the beauty of nature. You must 
also be able to show the largest margin of profit. 

The question has often been asked, How can the 
farm boys be kept on the farm? We believe that 
question will be answered when farmers are able to 
show to their children some of the beauties of the 
farm life, some of the attractions, and some of the 
sweet, pure thoughts that the study of nature inspir- 
es. There is no more fascinating study anywhere 
than tlie laws governing the growth of plants, and 
yet how many children are ignorant of all of these 
laws. They are taught to study everything that will 
lead them awa}' from the farm towards the city and 
factory. The farm need not fear results. If the beau- 
ties of God's laws, as expressed in the laws govern- 
ing the growth of plants, are taught to the child, as 
well PS some of the attractions of machinery and 
electricity, and the counting room, the farm will not 
sulifer. 

Our farmers should also be able to show their boys 
that there is money to be made on the farm and that • 
it offers an opportunity for intelligent efforts equal 
if not superior to any other calling. The aim of this 
department is to show to the people some few of 
these simple laws, and to suggest to them the advis- 
ability of studying these principles: Most of the ed- 
ucation in tl.e rural schools is away from the farm, 
instead of towards it. People have gone mad in their 
pursuit of higher education, while what we really 
need is wider education. We need to know more 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



about the laws governing nature. It is well enough 
to know something concerning the writings of Cae- 
sar, Cicero, Ovid, Xenophpn, and many other ancient 
writers; but it is far more important to know some- 
thing concerning the laws that govern the plants 
which are growing around us every day. 

There are two great divisions of matter; dead mat- 
ter, and living matter. We might define dead mat- 
ter as that which cannot move or change its form. 
For instance, you see a grain of sand. You may look 
at it every day for a year, or two years for that mat- 
ter, and it will be just the same as before. You may 
change it, but it in itself can not change or move. 
Living matter is that which can move or change its 
form. Fig. i shows some yeast plants as they appear 
under a microscope. There are the little plants that 
are in ordinary loaf bread, or light bread, which 
causes it to rise. These plants are so small that you 
can not see them with the ordinary eye. But they 
are in the bread, and if it was not for them, you 
could have no light bread. Each one of these little 
plants is made up of a little closed sac, contain- 
ing a thick liquid jelly, and we call this jelly matter, 
protoplasm. Now if we look at this yeast plant un- 




Fig. 1. — Yeast plants, magnified. 

der the microscope, we find that it changes. Little 
swellings grow upon it, like knots on a potato, and 
these swellings finally fall ofif. The part that falls off 
is another yeast plant. In other words, this little plant 
that you can not see with the unaided eye has grown 
into two plants. But in order for it to do so, certain 
laws and conditions had to be complied with. In 
other words, for this plant to grow into two plants 
it had to have food, air, moisture or water, and heat. 
Unless it had had plenty of each of these, it would 
have never grown into two plants. A horse will not 
live without corn or some other kind of food, and 
neither will a plant live without food. That is, it is 
necessary to use barnyard manure and commercial 



fertilizers under plants. In other words, when you 
put guano, or fertilizers under corn, wheat or cotton, 
you are simply feeding that corn, wheat or cotton, 
just the same as you would be when you feed the 
horse, hay or oats. Many of the plants that are rais- 
ed on the farm are fed to animals in order that the 
animal may live. We, as human beings, are high ani- 
mals; in fact, the highest class of beings, and take a 
great many different things to supply out needs and 
make us comfortable. To make the plant comforta- 
ble so that it will thrive it is just as necessary to 
supply its needs as it is our own. 

Soil is the home of plants in which they live and 
from which they take their food. But what is soil? 
Soil is the top of the earth, or that part which has 
become fine and in which plants will grow. Soil has 
no fixed depth or fertility. In other words, soil is 
the rocks that have rotted or been decomposed by 
the elements and varies very greatly in dift'erent 
places. In one place it is sandy, and in another we 
have a clay soil. The soil and subsoil are very much 
alike. That part of the soil that is somewhat loose 
and dark colored we call top soil ; and that which is 
not so loose and lighter in color, the subsoil; but 
there is no fixed definite line between soil and sub- 
soil. The subsoil begins where the soil leaves off, no 
matter where that may be. 

As is explained in the fertilizer department, plants 
require three principal foods ; nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid, and potash. These three elements are in all 
soils to a greater or less extent. But in order that 
this plant food be of any service it must be in a state 
in which it can be dissolved in water; for unless this 
is the case the plants can not use it, as they take up 
all their food in a liquid form. There are large 
aimounts of potash in some solids that can not be 
dissolved in water, also nitrogen and phosphoric acid 
which are in indissoluble forms. These minerals that 
can not be dissolved in water are of no service what- 
ever to the plants. They will in time come to the 
point where they will be soluble in water, but until 
that time, they are of no service whatever. Thorough 
tillage and the adding of vegetable matter to the soil 
will hasten and help make them available, as will al- 
so the growing of different crops, some of which have 
the faculty of appropriating the crude forms of plant 
food. When such crops die on the land and are turn- 
ed under they return this plant food in a more avail- 



Keep an accurate account with each field, and see what it pays. 



able form which other crops utilize. The soil on hill- 
sides is not so fertile as a rule as the more level por- 
tion of the earth's surface, for the loose parts of the 
earth have been to some extent washed away. In 
low places we find exactly the opposite to be true, 
the loose earth has accumulated here and the soil is 
deeper and more fertile. It is frequently true that the 
soil in bottoms is several feet deep, while the soil on 
a hill is less than six inches. The soil or top soil is 
made from the subsoil, and will be just as deep as 
you plow. For instance, if you plow six inches deep, 
the soil will be six inches. Under this six inches, 
there may be just as good soil, but it is of little use 
to the farmer in growing crops for it is hard and the 
roots of the plants can not penetrate it. When you 
plow only four or six inches deep, year after year, 
the tramping of the horse in the bottom of the fur- 
row finally forms a hard pan or clay land, and the 
land will not drain well. It then becomes necessary 
to use a subsoil plow to break this hard pan and when 
this is done the land will be much more productive. 
As a rule, it is better to deepen the soil gradually by ■ 
plowing an inch or so deeper every year as you are 
able to add the necessary vegetable matter to keep 
it in good mechanical condition. If you plow too 
deeply all at once, the succeeding crop is likely to be 
smaller than the one before it. 

Now there are many different kinds of soil. We 

often hear of sandy soils, but still never ask our- 
selves in what sandy soil consists. A sandy soil is 
one in which sand predominates. It contains about 
70 per cent. sand. Clay soils have about 70 per cent, 
clay. In between these two soils, we have what is 
called loams. There are two kinds of loams; sandy 
loams, and clay loams. A sandy loam is one contain- 
ing 60 per cent, sand, and a clay loam ic one contain- 
ing 60 per cent. clay. But what is the difference be- 
tween sand and clay? Sand is the name that is given 
coarse grains or particles, while clay is the name 
given to fine grains or particles. Soils are composed 
of minerals, such as aluminum, quartz, iron, feldspar, 
potash, lime, phosphoric acid, magnesia, soda and 
many others. Humus is also a prominent element in 
soils. Humus is decayed vegetable or carbonaceous 
matter, and is not a mineral. Many soils are sandy 
on top, and have a stiflf clay below. These soils can 
be easily improved, but if the soil has no clay under- 
neath or if the subsoil is pipe clay, it is very difficult 



to improve it. These facts should be borne in mind 
when buying a piece of land. 

We have already suggested that the soil furnishes 
the plant with food ; but it also serves another pur- 
pose, it supports the plant, holding it up against the 
wind. For this purpose the soil must furnish a good 
root bed, for it is by the roots that the plants are held 
in the correct position, and in many cases the roots 
penetrate deep down in the ground. So you can 
readily see that the soil must be porous in order to 
fully accomplish its mission. This is another very 
strong argument in favor of deep breaking of your 
land. We have had a great deal to say about deep 
plowing, breaking the land 9 to 12 inches deep; but 
you must remember that this applies only to clay 
land and land having a clay subsoil. On the sandy 
poorer soils near the coast the best results will be 
obtained by shallow plowing. 

Another very important function of the soil is to 
hold the water for the plant. The soil not only takes 
m water, but it must dissolve and hold in solution 
the food that is consumed by the plant. When we 
consider that nearly three-fourths of all vegetation 
is water, we at once realize the importance of the 
water question, and the necessity of putting it in 
ideal condition. In this connection it might be well 
to consider what constitutes an ideal condition of the 
soil. In the first place; it should be deep, so it will 
act as a reservoir for holding water. At the same 
time it must be well drained, so that surplus water 
will pass off. The soil receives its w.ater at irregular 
intervals, and it must be able to hold the water in. 
order to supply the need of the crops. We have al- 
readly learned that plants must have air, therefore the 
soil should be porous, for the air can only get to the 
roots of the plants through the pores in the soil. 
The rootlets of plants will not grow in clods, and the- 
plant food contained In clods is useless. Therefore^ 
all clods should be crushed and the soil made fine,, 
so that the plant roots will have access to every por- 
tion. Unless the land is well drained the surplus wa- 
ter will exclude the air and nitrification or the con- 
version of decaying vegetable matter into available 
plant food will stop, and the plant will turn yellow 
and cease to grow. Consequently the land should be 
well drained. Lastly, it should be well filled with de- 
caying vegetable matter, for this not only supplies, 
plant food, but helps to make the soil warm and 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



porous, making a comfortable home for the plant. 
In decomposing, vegetable matter generates a great 
deal of carbonic acid gas and this gas acts on the 
soil setting free phosphoric acid and potash which 
before was locked up and unavailable. A piece of 
new land when freshly cleaned of stumps and roots, 
especially hammock and hard wood lands, is an ideal 
condition and the farmer should try to bring his soil 
into a similar state, and keep it so. 



THE SOIL AND WATER. 

All have seen a kerosene lamp burning, and many 
■of us have asked the question why it is that the oil 
ri.'ses in the wick as fast as it is burned out? We 
are tempted to believe at first, that it is something 
special in the wick that attracts the oil upwards. 
And still we have no answer for that question. If 
we try an ordinary piece of blotting paper we find 
that ink rises in it just as oil does in the lamp wicks. 
But will a liquid rise in other materials, as well as 
lamp wicks, and blotting paper? Have these two 
substances any special property that catises a liquid 
to rise in them? If we take ordinary soil or earth 
and fill a bottle with it, we will find that this earth 
makes an excellent wick, and that oil rises as rapidly 
through "the pores or little holes in the earth as it 
does in the lamp wick. As to why this liquid rises 
through the pores we cannot tell, it is what is knowri 
as capillary attraction. But what has this to do with 
agriculture? Simply this; the water in the soil rises 
through the pores of the soil as the oil in the lamp 
wick rises through the pores of the lamp wick and 
supplies the plant. If this law of capillary attrac- 
tion were not true, there would be no vegetation 
practically, for as soon as the root used up the water 
right around it, it would be unable to secure more 
water, and the plant would die of thirst. During dry 
weather the moisture will rise from the subsoil into 
the surface soil and supply water to the plant if the 
land is in the right condition. If the soil is left rough 
• riud lumpy, especially if these lumps are at the bottom 
of the furrow, or if a great deal of tra.sh is turned 
under in the spring without being worked up, they 
will tend to break the capillary attraction and pre- 
vent the soil water from rising. Then, if the surface 
is kept broken to prevent evaporation the soil will 
remain moist. 



HOW PLANTS FEED. 

We have explained that water in the ground has 
minerals in it, and when the plant takes in this water 
it takes in the mineral matter also, but here are other 
foods that must be taken in as well. We cannot see 
the air, and it would seem strange that a part of thj 
plant conies from the air, but it is true, nevertheless. 
The air contains a gas called carbonic acid, mixed 
with it. This gas is made of two substances, carbon 
and oxygen. We have all seen carbon in the form 
of charcoal and ordinary soot in the chimney, it also 
composes a large part of the woody substance of 
plants. The other element in carbonic acid is not so 
familiar to the ordinary man, and it is oxygen. Where 
we have charcoal the carbon combines with the oxy- 
gen from the air and goes off in smoke as carbonic 
acid gas. When wood or plants decay, this is a slow 
burning and is called oxidation, as the carbon com- 
bines with oxygen and goes off in the air. Plants 
breathe through their leaves and in so doing they 
absorb the carbonic acid once more and it is recon- 
verted into wood fibre. This carbonic acid enters the 
leaves of the plant through small openings, and after 
it goes in the leaves it enters the cells, and comes in 
contact with a substance called chlorophyll. If the 
sun is shining a part of the carbonic acid and w'ater 
which is in the cells is decomposed (by decomposed 
we mean separated into the different parts that riiake 
it up.) Some of this carbon unites with other sub- 
stances and forms an altogether different substance. 
This new substance is called starch. Now most of 
us are familiar with starch. Starch is made in the 
green part of plants. It is mostly in the leaves of 
the plants. This starch, together with the minerals 
that are taken in by the roots, serves as food for the 
protoplasm of the plant, being converted into fibre 
and in some plants, such as sugar cane, into the sweet 
juice which we make into syrup and sugar. 



HOW PLANTS GROW. 

By looking at the illustration Fig. 2 you will see an 
ordinary plant of Indian Corn. You will observe two 
small tiny shoots growing from this plant. One of 
these shoots grows upward and the other downward. 
This is always true. It is according to law that the 
one grows up, while the other grows down. The one 



Try to Improve your Land. 



that grows upward is called the stem, while the one 
whose tendency is downward is the root. As noted, 
you can always depend upon the root tending down- 
ward, no matter in what position you turn the seed. 
If you reverse the seed, and turn the root so that it 
will point upward and the stem downward, the root 
and stem will change, the root still growing down- 



the plant; which means tha*^ the plant must starve. 
To take away the food of the plant by destroying the 
leaves, is just about the same as taking away the food 
of a man. We cannot work without food, and just 
so the plant cannot work without food, for the roots 
cannot grow and absorb as much water and other 
elements from the soil in consequence. 




Fig. 2. — flantlet of Indian corn. 

ward, and the stem upward. This law cannot be 
changed. You will notice on the main roots there are 
smaller roots, and upon these smaller roots there are 
still smaller roots. These smallest roots are called 
root hairs, and they take up the water and plant food 
that the plant uses. All water that is used by plants 
comes through these veiy tiny root hairs. Some of 
these are so small that you cannot see them with the 
naked eye. 

The stem, that part which grows above the ground, 
bears the leaves, flowers, fruit, and seed. In many 
plants it supports the leaves- above the ground, but 
in some plants it is weak, and has to grow upon some 
other support, like the grape vine. It is necessary 
that the leaves be exposed to the light, and this the 
plant does. The leaves do not grow out from the 
stem at haphazard places, but they come at regular 
intervals. The more we study plants, and their habits 
the more we are convinced that there is a definite law 
controlling plants, and that this law is never violated. 
Light can pass through the leaves, as you will see if 
you place a finger behind the leaf. In the leaves is 
the chlorophyll that causes it to appear green. These 
leaves are very necessary, for we have already learn- 
ed that it is in the leaves that the starch is manufac- 
tured. If the insects eat the leaves or if they are 
picked off or broken off they cannot prepare food for 



HOW TO KEEP THE LAND FERTILE. 

Suppose we dissolve a spoonful of salt in a glass of 
water, and then take out a spoonful of this water. 
Of course we take a part of the salt in solution. 
There is not as much salt left in the glass as there 
was before. But suppose we keep on taking out this 
water, spoonful after spoonful. Let us look at the 
water for a minute. Have we removed any salt .' 
Look as hard as you inay, and you cannot see a sin- 
gle grain of salt. But suppose we taste it. We find 
that it has salt in it, so when we take out all the 
water we have also taken out all of the salt. Just so 
it is with farming. The water absorbs, or dissolves 
the mineral matter, such as nitrogen, phosphoric acid, 
and potash, and the plant takes in this water through 
the root hairs and if it keeps on taking up this min- 
eral matter after a while there will be none left un- 
less it is replaced by some other means. But some 
farmers believe that they ought to be able to take 
away from the land every year, and never replace 
anything. After a while the land has nothing to give, 
and as a result we have what is called poor land. A 
man is called poor when he has not enough to prop- 
erly feed his family, and the land is called poor when 
it has not enough plant food in it to properly feed 
the plants growing upon it. We have already shown 
the fact that plants need food, and we have told you 
what the principal foods are that plants require. An- 
other way that soil is worn out or becomes poor in 
the South is by washing. Where land is not proper- 
ly drained or terraced the rains cause water to flow 
over it, and this takes the plant food out of it. Wash- 
ing: has ruined manv farms throughout the South. It 
would not be so bad if it was necessary, but it is not 
necessary. Whenever land is washed away it is on 
account of some one's carelessness, or inattention. 
Man}' farmers have land that does not wash, nor do 
they use terraces. They prevent the washing in their 
method of cultivation. They take for their motto 
"Plow deep and on a level, 
And in peace and plenty revel." 



8 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Plow deep enough to break the hard-pan. By do- 
ing this the water will soak in, and there will not be 
so much to run off. This not only prevents the land 
from washing, but it also stores the water for use in 
a drouthr But the thing under consideration is the 
washing of land. Unless the hard-pan is broken so 
that the water can soak in, it must run off. Each 
square yard of land will huld all the water that falls 
upon it, provided none gets on it from any other 
source. But for the water to remain where it falls 
and not run here and there, the land must be broken 
deep. And you will note tnai tne little rhyme says 
something concerning level plowing. Many farmers 
make the mistake of not plowing level. You cannot 
do this by guess work. It will be necessary for you 
to take a spirit level and lay off guide rows to plow 
by. Those guide rows should be for every three feet 
of perpendicular fall. They should be run on an ex- 
act level, so that there will be as near no fall as pos- 
sible. The thing you want to do is to keep the wa- 
ter just where it falls. If your furrows run down hill, 
the water will follow, and your land will wash. If 
the farmer will break the hard-pan and plow his land 
on a level, he will not have to use great high banks 
called levels. 

After you keep your land from washing, and losing 
valuable plant food, the next thing to be done is to 
replace the plant food that is removed by the plants. 
This can be done with barnyard manure, wood ashes 
and commercial fertilizers. Land, alter a time, unless 
the soil is exceedingly deep, will become unproduc- 
tive unless you fertilize it. The best way to fertilize 
land, is by the use of stable or barnyard manure. 
And as is suggested in the Fertilizer Department, 
this is a point where a great many farmers lose out. 
They fail to take care of the manure, and must buy 
commercial fertilizers to take their place. In using 
commercial fertilizers you fail to secure one element 
that is needed, which is supplied in manure, and that 
is humus, or decayed vegetable matter. Land will 
not produce without this vegetable matter. The wise 
farmer will not permit the land to be burned off, as 
is so often practiced. You may lay it down as a safe 
rule never to allow anything to be burned on the 
farm that will rot, and if anything will burn it will 
rot, therefore do not burn anything. Cornstalks are 
a little trouble to plow under, but they are worth a 
great deal more plowed under than they are burned. 
The vegetable matter cannot be classed as a plant 



food, but it is none the less important. The grass 
may be rank and hard to plow under, but it is better 
to go to extra hard labor and plow it under than it 
is to burn it off. The land needs all the humus that 
it can get. If the wagons and stock have nothing else 
they can do, it will pay to haul leaves and pine straw 
on the land to help supply vegetable matter, for when- 
ever the vegetable matter in the soil becomes ex- 
hausted the land becomes dead and unproductive. 
Such a soil may contain a large amount of plant food, 
but in the absence of vegetable matter this plant 
food reverts into insoluble forms which the plants 
cannot take up, so that very often a soil will appear 
to be worn out when in reality it is not, anrl all that 
is necessary is a new supply of vegetable matter to 
make it again productive. Wood ashes, if they have 
not become wet, contain potash, and some phosphoric 
acid, but no nitrogen ; and are quite valuable as soil 
improvers. By taking advantage of these small mat- 
ters, we can do much to improve our land. 

ROTATION OF CROPS. 

With most crops and on most soils the rotation of 
crops is desirable. Rotation refers to the order in 
which crops are made to follow each other in differ- 
ent years, so that in order to rotate crops you must 
have more than one crop. Where rotation is not 
practiced the same crop is planted year after year on 
the same land, certain elements in the soil are uied 
up and the land becomes unproductive unless large 
amounts of fertilizers are used. It also encourages 
insect enemies. If potatoes are made to follow pota- 
toes year after year the ground soon becomes infest- 
ed with a disease so that only scabby potatoes will be 
reproduced, the potato bugs will also become more 
and more abundant each year. If clover is made to 
follow clover year after year the land soon becomes 
"clover sick" and fails to produce good crops, and the 
same is sometimes true of cowpeas. Land that con- 
tinually grows grain soon becomes foul with weeds. 
You must also remember that some plants are shal- 
low feeders, and where these are continually planted 
on land thev leave a great deal of unused food below, 
which cannot be used until you introduce a deeper 
feeding crop. 

Deep rooted crops such as alfalfa and cow peas will 
pump up potash and phosphoric acid from the sub- 
soil for the benefit of other surface rooted crops to 



Break your Land Deeply in the Fall if Possible. 



follow. The change of crops also adds more vegetable 
matter and helps to keep the land from -washing and 
blowing away, as is the case where continuous clean 
culture is practiced with a crop like cotton. With a 
proper rotation in connection with improved methods 
of tillage the soil will steadily improve year after 
year. We cannot lay down a system of rotation 
which will apply throughout the South, for so many 
crops can be planted, that you could not secure a 
system that would suit every one. The Louisiana 
Station recommends the following system of Rota- 
tion. Corn, the first year; oats followed by cow peas 
the second year, and cotton the third year. Some one 
has recommended the following principles which 
should guide you in your system of rotation : 

"i. Have at least one leguminous crop in the rota- 
tion. 2. Have at least one cultivated crop. 3. Ro- 
tate shallow rooting crops with deep rooting crops. 
4. In the South and on leachy soils plan to have a 
growing crop on the land all the time. 5. Avoid 
bare summer following. 6. Do not rotate small ce- 
reals with small cereals. 7. Plan the rotation so as 
to have the same amount of forage each year. 8. 
Keep stock on the farm. 9. Unless it be thoroughly 
rotted, apply the barnyard manure thus made, to the 
rank growing crop in the rotation like corn." 

Try rotating your crops for a few years, and see 
how your land will improve, and how much money 
you will make by so doing. 

THE PREPARATION OF LAND. 

Some one has said that thorough preparation is half 
the cultivation. This is certainly true. You may put 
it down that the man who expects to break his land, 
and get it in shape after the crop is planted, will not 
raise much of a crop. If your land is prepared as it 
should be it will make a pretty fair crop regardless 
of seasons. If possible in preparing your land, break 
it up with a two-horse plow. Now, we realize that 
there are many farmers who have but one horse or 
mule, but it should be an easy matter to exchange 
work with your neighbor who is in the same condi- 
tion you are, and prepare your land. If you have 
more than two horses or mules, so much the better. 
The more you use the better will be your prepara- 
tion. Many farmers in the South find it to their ad- 
vantage to use four and five horses to a plow in 
breaking their land. This plowing is the most im- 



portant part of preparation and it should be done 
thoroughly so that every inch of the ground is brok- 
en, and not run over leaving ridges unbroken to be 
covered up. Try to use a plow which will pulverize 
the soil as much as possible while breaking it. Af- 
ter plowing harrow well with straight tooth harrow, 
and drag with planks or log drag. Where an extra 
fine seed bed is desired follow with disc or cutaway 
and drag again. This will put land in fine condition 
for almost any crop. Remember that the better the 
land is prepared the better will be the production 
from that land. Last, but not least, never plow land 
too wet. It should be dry enough to crumble and not 
be sticky when cracked in the hand, before your plow 
is started. 

LARGE OR SMALL SEEDS. 

Every perfect seed contains a plantlet. This plant- 
let is very small. The rest of the seed is filled with 
food for the plant until the root and stem become 
sufficiently developed to furnish food for it. It nat- 
urally follows that the larger the seed, the more food 
for the plantlet it contains; and as a general rule it 
is much better to plant the larger seed. In this con- 
nection, the size of the seed determines to a large ex- 
tent how deep they should be covered. It has been 
stated that seed should be planted to a depth corre- 
sponding to twice the diameter of the seed, and while 
this will hold good with some seed, it can not be ob- 
served in all cases. The smaller the seed the more 
shallow it should be planted, and seed which force 
themselves up, — the seed forming the first leaves 
such as beans, — should be planted more shallow than 
those which send up a shoot, such as corn. Small 
seed like clover cannot push up through as much dirt, 
and overcome as much resistance as larger seed, and 
should always be planted very shallow. As a rule it 
is advisable to plant seed more shallow early in the 
spring than it is later in the season, when the weather 
is warmer and the land contains less moisture. Gar- 
deners who grow radishes and lettuce find by sifting 
the seed and planting only the larges ones, that their 
crops mature much more evenly, than when they 
plant the seed without sifting them; also that the 
crops mature a great deal earlier. It is sometimes 
pjisible to grow an extra crop in the winter in this 
vv-ay. The success of any crop depends so largely up- 
I'.e seed that it is important that- they are the 



lO 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



very best procurable. Many farmers pass their grain 
through a fanning mill, to take out the smaller and 
shrunken grains. It is also best to reject the small 
grains of corn on the end of the cob. More atten- 
tion should be given generally to the selection and 
saving of seed on the farm, as the labor and thought 
so directed will pay better than in almost any other 
way. 

FIRMING THE SOIL ABOUT SEED 
NECESSARY. 



to go down in the earth and secure this water. It 
will, therefore, be observed how necessary it is that 
proper conditions be secured in order to obtain the 
best results. 

PARTS OF THE FLOWER. 

We enjoy looking at flowers, for they are beautiful. 
But forgetting their beauty, let us look at them a mo- 
ment frqm the standpoint of usefulness. If we had no 
flowers we would have no fruit, neither would we 



If you will take some ordinary moist soil (not wet) 
and place it in a jar, and plant some bean seed in it 
loosely, and in another jar plant some more beans, 
packing the soil well over the seed, and then set both 
jars away in a warm room, you will find that the 
seeds from the one in which the dirt is packed will 
come up quicker than in the other jar. You can try 
this for yourself, but what causes the difference? In 
the first place, the seed absorb water faster from the 
soil when it is pressed closely about them, and seed 
cannot germinate until it takes up all the water it 
can hold, and therefore it will germinate quicker 
when the soil is packed close about it. A very suc- 
cessful gardener once wrote: "As an experiment, I 
sowed twelve rows of sweet corn and twelve rows 
of beets, treading in (that is, walked over the rows, 
placing the heel of one foot at the toe of the other, 
so that all parts of the row would become packed) 
after sowing, every alternate row of each. In both 
cases those trodden in came up in four days, while 
those unfirmed remained twelve days before starting, 
and would not then have germinated had not rain 
followed." It is quite important, especially in dry 
weather, to use a roller over the land just after grain 
is planted, and the practice of tramping in garden 
seed in dry weather is an excellent one. Grain sow- 
ing machines and corn planters often have a little 
iron roller attached to them to press the soil over 
the seed, which helps greatly in obtaining a start. 
In planting \-erv small seed it is frefpiently the prac- 
tice not to co\-cr them at all, but to place a board 
over them, and to walk on this board in order to 
bring the seed in. very close contact with the soil. 
The pressing of tbc soil also brings the moisture to 
the surface and ia a measure prevents evar>oration. 
,Vhen a seed first starts to germinate it must secure 
's water from right around it. for it has no -long roots 




Fig. 3. — Sections of Clierr.y Blos.som showing parts of a 
Flower. 



have many varieties of grain and vegetables ; for the 
flowers are necessary to their production. The flow- 
er is made up of the sepals, petals, stamens and pis- 
tils. The sepals taken together constitute the calyx, 
the petals taken together constitute the corolla. Fig. 
5. By reference to this illustration you will see the 
different parts of the flowers. This is a section of a 
cherry blossom. At the base we find a green part 
marked C in the figure which we call the calyx. As 
noted above the calyx is made up of sepals. The 
calyx is not always green, but is in most cases. The 
part cor. in the illustration shows the corolla, and as 
stated the corolla is made up of the petals. The 
petals, as a ru-le are the part that gives the beauty to 
the flower. Inside of the ci rolla will be found some 
long slender organs, whicl' ar^ irked S., and these 
are called stamens. Now the stamen is one of the 
most important parts of the flower. \'ery often is it 
the case that they are unnoticed but that only shows 
how often we fail to observe the important things of 
life. The stamen produces pollen, which is the male 
[art of the flower. Inside of the stamens is the pis- 
til, which is the female part of the flower. These 
small pollen grains which are on the stamens must 
be cp.rrif^i to the bottom of the pistil. This pro« 
of carrying pollen from the stamen to the ovule 

's called pollination. Insects and bees aid 



le^' 



Don't wait until the First of January to begin preparing your Land. 



II 



in the carrying of this pollen grain from the stamen stamen,) and also an imperfect flower. You will 
to the ovule. If these pollen are not carried from notice that the Fig. A. contains both stamens (Sj 
the stamen to the pistil there will be no seed pro- and pistils (P). This is what is called a perfect 
duced. This is as true in corn as it is with the flow- flower. By noticing flower B you will note that it is 
ers of the yard. If the pollen which is in the tassel imperfect, or it only has pistils. Now the flower A 
of corn is not blown to the ear below, there will be will produce fruit of itself, but tb*^ flower B. cannot 
no corn produced. The pollen does not have to come produce fruit unless the pollen come from some other 

perfect flower of a similar kind. It is quite important 
to know if a flower is perfect, for there are varieties 
of strawberries with imperfect flowers. It is also 
true with ordinary Indian corn, melons, squashes, 
cucumbers, and pumpkins. 

If the pollen of one flower is carried to the ovules 
of another flower we have what is called cross-fcrtd- 
ization, and if the resulting seed be planted a new 
variety is the result. This is the reason pop corn 
and Indian corn mix when planted anywhere near 
each other. By crossing certain plants with others 




B~~ A 

Fig. 4. — Strawberry Blos.soms, A is perfect flower, B imper- 
fect flower. 

from the same flower, but a flower of the same kind. 



But all flowers are not perfect, that is, that have not of like kind, and carefully collectino- the seed that 

all these parts. By reference to the illustration, Fig. are produced, new and improved varieties are obtain- 

4, }'ou will see an example of a perfect flower, (by ed. And yet some people claim that there are no 

perfect flower we mean one that has both pistils and laws governing agriculture. 



Field Crops. 



ALFALFA OR LUCERNE. 

5- 

Alfalfa is one of the best forage crops for the South. 
It is only recently that it has conie to be grown to 
any great extent, but people are realizing more and 
more its. value. It is a plant similar to clover, has a 
single tap root which runs down from 8 to 12 feet, 
and sometimes as far as 40 feet. It is a leguminous 
plant and is well adapted to the South. 

As much as four cuttings of a ton each can be made 
in a season, wdiich ,..-ikes .it quite a valuable forage 
plant. It has a distmctive advantage over clover, es- 
pecially to dairymen; as it can be cut at least one 
month earlier in the spring, and this is an important 
feature. ^-T-vtlier advantage of alfalfa is that as soon 
as cut it ..rings into grc^ h immediately, while it 
takes clo - some time to C- nmence growing again. 
After the 1 cutting, anothi crop will be produced 
in six to .'it weeks. Clovci as a rule will die out 
after twc ur three years, whr alfalfa will last from 
eight to ten years, and somei nes longer. It is now 
being gr >wn more or less in ivery Southern State. 



Some soils that were not considered fertile have been 
made to produce alfalfa very bountifully. In the 
States of Kentucky, Tennessee, JNIississippi, Arkansas, 
Alabama and Georgia there is a wide stretch of soils 
derived from the Mississippi or subcarboniferous for- 
mations, that are not considered fertile. The charac- 
teristics of these soils is the presence of angular cher- 
ty gravel, and at some places an underclay which is 
stiff and chocolate in color. At other places this un- 
derclay is whitish or yellowish in color and so porous 
that it will not retain well the fertilizer placed upon 
it. Both of these soils produce alfalfa abundantly, 
and are quite valuable to use in that way. These 
soils were once considered worthless because they 
would not produce the cereals as did the rich lime- 
stone lands around them. 

Alfalfa will do best planted in a rich sandy loam 
with a good subsoil. Like most leguminous crops it 
needs lime and thrives best where lime is abundant 
in the soil. It is quite important that the land have 
a good subsoil, and that :t be well drained. Alfalfa 



112 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 




■,?(»'js: S^JV 







Fig. 5. — Alfalfa or Lucerne, showing the roots of the plant 



will not live more than a year in cold heavy clays and 
wet lands. One reason why more farmers have not 
succeeded with alfalfa is because that they did not 
thoroughly prepare their land for it. It should be 
sown on land where a hoed crop was grown the year 
before, which was well manured. It can either be 
planted in the fall or spring. If yoti plant in the fall, 
it should be sown in September, and if you plant in 
the spring, March or April perhaps is the best time 
to sow. See to it that your land is free from weeds, 
and then break your land very deep, fertilize well and 
work down fine before planting. Sow from 20 to 25 
pounds seed per acre. If you use drill from 15 to 20 
pounds of seeds to the acre is stifficient. If you are 
sowing for a hay meadow, and most farmers will, 
sow the larger amount of seed. If you desire to raise 
it from the seed, the smaller amount it better. 

Some lands do not produce alfalfa because there is 
no bacteria in the soil. As stated above, alfalfa is a 
leguminous crop, and it is necessary to have the bac- 
teria in the soil in order to make a success with it. 
These bacteria have the power of gathering the nitro- 
gen from the air, and making it available so the roots 
can take it up. Every farmer who is a close observer 
has noticed the little nodules or tubercles on the 
roots of alfalfa or pea vines. These tubercles are 
nests of bacteria. The Government has taken this 
matter in hand, and farmers can, by applying to the 
Agricultural Department at Washington, D. C, ob- 
tain packages of these bacteria germs. There are 
three packages that go together. No. 2 contains dry 
cotton with bacteria, and Nos. i. and 3 contain food 
for the bacteria. The following directions for the use 
of these different packages are given: 

"Put one gallon of water, preferably rain water, in 
a clean tub or bucket and add No. i of the enclosed 
package of salts. Stir occasionally until all is dis- 
solved. Carefully open package No. 2 am" rop the 
enclosed cotton into tl solution. Cover le tub 
with a paper to protect from dust. Set aide in a 
warm place for 24 hours. Do not heat the lolution 
or you will kill the bacteria — it should never bo warm- 
er than blood heat. After 24 hours add the con- 
tents of package No. 3. Within 20 hours more the 
solution will have a cloudy appearance and is ready 
to use. 

"To inoculate seeds, take just enough of the solu- 
tion to thoroughly moisten them. Stir thoroughly so 
that all the seeds are touched by the solution. Spread 



Don t Let your Land Wash Away. 



13 



out the seeds in a shady place until they are perfect- 
ly dry and plant just as you would untreated seed. 
If bad weather should prevent planting at once, the 
inoculated seed, if thoroughly dried, may be kept with- 
out deterioration for several weeks. The dry cultures 
as sent from the laboratory will keep for several 
months. Do not prepare the liquid culture more than 
two or three days previous to the time when the seed 
are to be treated, as the solution once made up' must 
usually be used at the end of 48 hours. 

"To inoculate soil, take enough dry earth so that 
the solution will merely moisten it. Mix thoroughly 
so that all the particles of soil are moistened. Thor- 
oughly mi.x this earth with four or five times as much, 
say half a wagon-load. Spread this inoculated soil 
thinly and evenly over the prepared ground, exactly 
as if spreading fertilizer. The inoculated soil should 
be harrowed in immediately. Either of the above 
methods may be used, as may be most convenient." 

This bacteria is now put up in a commercial form 
and sold by most seedsmen. 

The effect of inoculation is very great. The ex- 
periments made by the Department at Washington, 
D. C, shows an increase from three to twenty fold. 
Many old worn-out fields are worn-out simply be- 
cause their supply of nitrogen and organic matter 
has been exhausted. The principle of inoculation 
which will enable them to grow leguminous plants 
and restore the nitrogen, will work wonders in the 
South. Perhaps better results can be had in the 
South to sow in drills from sixteen inches to two 
feet apart, and keep it worked out the first year, as 
the crab grass will interfere considerably before it 
gets started. 

Alfalfa as a soil improver is very valuable. The 
following will give you some idea of its value as a 
fertilizer: 

"The value of alfalfa harvested from one-half acre 
of land for five years was about $50.00 more than the 
cost of producing it. 

"The value of potatoes and grain from an adjoin- 
ing half acre for five years was about $44.00 more 
than the cost of producing at local prices. 

"When the alfalfa land was plowed and planted to 
wheat it produced $8.00 to $12.00 more value in 
wheat per acre than the land which had grown po- 
tatoes and grain before. 



"When alfalfa land was plowed and planted to 
oats it produced $16.00 worth of grain more than 
land which had grown potatoes and grain before. 

"When alfalfa land was plowed and planted to po- 
tatoes it gave $16.00 worth more of potatoes per acre 
than was obtained from land which had grown pota- 
toes and grain before. 

"By growing alfalfa the above increase of yields 
and values were produced with absolutely no cost 
for fertilizing the ground." 

Alfalfa is cut for hay just as the first flowers are 
coming into bloom. At this time it is more tender 
and contains the most digestible protein. It should 
be cut in the forenoon and allowed to cure until the 
leaves are well wilted. Then raked into windrows, 
and allowed to cure. It can be then removed to the 
stack or barn. Alfalfa should be handled just as lit- 
tle as possible, as the leaves, which are the most val- 
uable part of the plant, crumble off. It can be cut 
from three to four times. However, it should not be 
cut too late in the season^ as it hurts it more than 
cutting early. If you do not make a good crop the 
first year do not be discouraged, it frequently takes 
from one to two and frequently three years to get it 
started, but when you once get it started you should 
have no more trouble with it. You will find it ad- 
vantageous to cut the first crop a little early, when 
there are just a few blooms to be seen. 

Alfalfa will not stand heavy pasturing, and cattle 
and sheep are liable to bloat if pastured on young 
alfalfa, or when allowed to eat it while the dew is 
on it ; but horses and hogs never have any trouble 
with it. 

BARLEY. 

Barley is grown in the United States for two pur- 
poses: feeding and malting. It will grow all right 
in the Southern States, but for some cause has never 
received a great deal of attention here. 

It will grow on rather light dry soil, containing a 
good deal of lime and in a soil resting on a naturally 
drained subsoil. Heavier yields of grain and straw 
are produced on fertile clays, and clay loams. The 
malting barley used by the brewers brings the better 
price. 

The land for barley should be plowed fairly deep 
and well pulverized. Land that produced some hoed 



14 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



crop which was well manured will be a good place 
to grow it. In the South where it is grown mostly 
for pasturing and feeding, it should be sown in Sep- 
tember and on fertile soils as late as the last of Oc- 
tober. If barley is grown for feeding purposes it is 
best to fertilize it with stable manure or a fertilizer 
that contains plenty of nitrogen and phosphoric acid. 
A top dressing of nitrate of soda in the spring will 
be very beneficial. If it is grown for the purpose of 
malting potash should be used quite largely as a fer- 
tilizer. 

It should be harvested when the grain is ripe, but 
do not wait until it is too ripe. The value of barley 
used for malting purposes is dependent upon the col- 
or of the grain. 

Barley as a stock food is excellent. It has about 
the same food value as corn or wheat, and has a 
greater food value than oats or bran. It is not so 
good for fattening purposes as some other grains, but 
for growing animals it stands at the head of all grains. 
Barley hay does not have such a high feeding value, 
but it is excellent for cutting and feeding green to 
cattle. 




Fig. 6. — Beggar Weed. 

BEGGAR WEED. 

The Beggar Weed is a leguminous plant, and 
grows fr jm three to eight feet high. It is used for 



a forage plant, and soil renovator. The United States 
Department of Agriculture says, in comparing it with 
alfalfa, velvet beans, soy beans and cow peas: "It is 
perhaps the best of these for the lighter, sandy soils, 
including the hammock and pine lands of Florida, and 
the sandy pine lands along the Gulf Coast."' From 
five to six pounds of clean seed are sown per acre, 
but if sown for hay it will perhaps be better to sow 
say, from eight to ten pounds of clean seed. It 
should be sown when the ground is warm and moist. 
If it is sown early, two cuttings may be had. It 
should be cut for hay, when the first flowers appear. 
Its yield is from three to five tons of hay per acre 
and the hay is said to be nearly as good as red clover. 
It can be sown in the corn at the last plowing and 
furnish a good pasture the rest of the season. 

BROOM CORN. 

Broom corn is a variety of sorghum. It is grown 
for the fine stems composing its head, which are used 
in manufacturing brooms and such articles. Broom 
corn can be grown on any soil which will produce 
corn or sorghum. It resists drouth much better than 
corn, although frequent rains in the early stages o'f 
its growth induce a vigorous plant. Weeds greatly 
interfere with the cultivation of young broom corn, 
and care should be observed to plant where the land 
has been kept clean the year previous. Sandy or 
gravelly soils produce good broom corn, but they 
must be thoroughly drained. 

It should be planted about the same time as other 
corn. Some plant it in drills, and others prefer to 
plant it in hills. It will require about three quarts, 
of seed per acre, provided the seed are of good qual- 
ity. In planting do not be in too great a hurry, for 
it will do all right if planted about the same time 
that cotton is planted. In no case should planting- 
occur until the soil is warm. Success with broom 
corn like most other plants, is dependent largely up- 
on the thorough preparation of the land. If the 
ground is well plowed two or three times before the 
corn is planted, say at intervals of ten to fifteen days, 
it will prove quite valuable to the growth of the crop. 
It should be planted in rows about three or four feet 
wide. The more fertile the land the thicker it may 
be planted. About four plants to the foot is tlie right 
distance, or thickness. If you intend to hoe it out. 
you can plant it in hills about twelve or fifteen inches 



Good Farmers Make Money. 



15 



apart, and leave from five to six stalks in the hill. 
The seed should be covered about one inch deep. 
You should use about the same fertilizer that you 
would use for ordinary corn. Harvesting is done in 
August, September, and October, at the season when 
there is little rain, as rain is very detrimental to the 
selling qualities of the crop. Rain causes the bush 
to turn red, and it loses its bright green color af- 
ter being cut. When the seed is in the dough stage 




Fig. 7. — Dwarf Broom Corn. 

is the proper time for harvesting. It is best to cure 
it under a shed, but care must be observed that it be 
not placed in too thick layers, as it will spoil. It is 
a good plan to cut in the morning and allow it to 
cure all day, and put under shed in the afternoon. 
The seed are then thrashed from the bush, and after 
the bush is cured so that it breaks easily, it is baled 
for the market. A good yield of broom corn is from 
600 to 700 pounds per acre, and it brings from $70.00 
to $80.00 per ton when baled. 

CASTOR BEAN. 

The castor bean is grown to some extent m the 
Southern States as a field ciop, and froT, it castor 
oil is made. A fertile, well drained loam soil is best 
suited to the crop. However, any soil that will pro- 



duce corn or wheat will produce castor beans. The 
ground should be thoroughly broken, and harrowed. 
Rows laid off from four to five feet wide each way 
is about the proper distance. It is a good idea to 
leave a wide place every sixth row to allow a wagon 
to be driven along when gathering the beans. Six 
or eight beans should be placed in a hill, and when 
danger from the cut worm has past, they should be 
thinned out, leaving one plant in a hill. The proper 
time for planting is from the first to the middle of 
April. To aid the seeds in germinating, hot water, a 
little below the boiling point, should be poured over 
them, and allow them to soak in this for twenty-four 
hours. Cultivate level, just about as you would corn. 
The beans are produced in pods of various lengths. 
If they are allowed to become too ripe, they burst 
open, and the beans are wasted. As soon as the pods 
begin to turn brown, they should be cut off, and 
placed on a floor or sheet with boards placed around 
them to prevent their wasting off the sheet or pop- 
ping open. They begin ripening in July and contin- 
ue until frost. After they begin ripening it will be 
necessary to go over the field at least twice a week. 
If this is not done your beans will be wasted on the 
ground. The beans should not be allowed to get wet, 
as this causes them to lose some of their value. 

CHUFAS. 

Chufas are raised in the South for the purpose of 
fattening hogs. A crop of one-third of an acre at the 
Arkansas Station supported three hogs averaging 122 
pounds in weight for 46 days. They gained 66 pounds 




Fig. S. — Cliufa. 



each, or a total of 198 pounds. The nuts are more 
effective for fattening purposes than corn. Chufas 
grow on light sandy soils, and produces starchy roots 



i6 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



or bulbs about the size of peanut kernels. A great 
ntimber of these roots or bulbs are attached to the 
plant, and are near the top of the soil. The crop is 
excellent for hogs, as they do their own harvesting. 
Chufas will grow on thin land where many other 
plants will not. They should be planted in April in 
rows, and cultivated about as peanuts are. giving 
them light, shallow cultivation. The crop re-seeds 
itself, as the nut can stand the winter without harm 
to itself. However, it is not such a pest as some of 
the other nut crops. 

CRIMSON CLOVER. 

Crimson clover is an annual leguminous plant and 
grows from one to two feet high. It makes a very 
iine orchard crop, as it does not draw on the land as 
much as many other crops. It is also used as a soil 
renovator, and hay crop. It is said to be as good as 
red clover. It is an annual and consequently not 
good for permanent meadows and pastures. It should 
be planted in August or September. Some recom- 
mend planting when you lay by your cotton, but it 
will not do as well then, for the hot sun of July and 
August is liable to kill it. It can be sown in cotton 
or corn, and will make good hay the next spring. 
About 12 to 15 pounds per acre should be planted. 
It should be covered very lightly with harrow, say 
one-half an inch. It is hard to cover it too shallow, 
but it is a very easy matter to get too much dirt on 
it, unless your land is very rich. The inoculated seed 
should be planted, as this will insure you a crop. As 
soon as it comes into bloom is the proper time to 
harvest it, as after the seed begin to ripen the long 
tough hairs on the head are dangerous to stock. As 
a hay plant it is good, and as a soiling plant, it stands 
at the head of the list. It is very helpful in improv- 
ing land. 

CORN. 

There is more corn grown in the United States 
than any other grain. However, this crop in the 
South has been neglected. Too many farmers be- 
lieve in raising cotton and buying corn. Corn is 
used throughout the South as a feed more than any 
other grain. Corn will grow on more different va- 
rieties of soils and different conditions than any oth- 
er crop, and the Southern farmer will never reach 
the greatest success until he devotes more time to 



this crop. A great many farmers select the very best 
land that they have for their cotton, and the land that 
will not produce cotton they plant in corn. They buy 
most of their fertilizers for the cotton, and if they 
happen to have any more than they think they will 
need, they place that on the corn. If the corn and 
cotton both need plowing, the cotton gets the work, 
while the corn is allowed to suffer. When fall comes 
and the cotton is placed on the market, the merchant 
informs the farmer that he has not made enough to 
pay off the debts he has made in buying corn and 
meat. If you do not raise enough corn and meat to 
do you, you have no right to complain at hard times, 
for you alone are responsible. 

Corn needs a deep, rich, well drained soil, whether 
it be heavy clay or light loam, to do its best. And 
this point should always be borne in mind when pre- 
paring your land. If the land is well filled with veg- 
etable matter, it will stand drouths better, and this 
is one reason why stable manure gives such good re- 
sults. Bottom lands are excellently well suited for 
corn, as they contain more moisture, and, therefore, 
produce better crops. A good supply of moisture is 
very necessary and deep, thorough preparation helps 
greatly along this line. As stated above, corn needs 
land well filled with decayed vegetable matter. This 
vegetable matter can be supplied by applying ma- 
nure, or by sowing cow peas, velvet beans, and sow- 
mg other crops of like nature, and turning the vines 
under. In the North the best crops of corn are 
grown on a clover sod. The roots of the clover fur- 
nish the humus and other plant food needed by corn. 
In the South we must substitute other crops for the 
"clover. The time the land should be broken, is an 
cpen ciuestion. If the land has a great deal of tough 
sod on it, it is better to plow it under in the fall ; but 
if not, it is perhaps as well to wait until it becomes 
dry enough in the spring. It is not a good practice 
to leave the bare soil exposed to the washing and 
leaching of the winter rains ; and if plowed in the fall 
it should be thrown into ridges running the furrow 
on a level to prevent washing. As a rule the heavier 
the land the deeper it should be plowed. As to 
whether the land should be plowed flat or in beds is 
an open question. If the land is sufficiently rolling to 
allow the surface water to run off without washing, 
it may be plowed flat in the fall ; but as a rule most 
land will dry out quicker in the spring and leach less 
when thrown into ridges. Formerlv all corn land 



No Heme is as Happy as the True Farmer's Htifne. 



17 




!'''£■ !'. — Corn field situated in Nacoochee Valky. White 

County, Georgia. Tliis farm is owned by Dr. L. G. 

Hardman. CommErce, Georgia. 

was plowed in 4 or 5 foot beds, by throwing- four to 
six furrows together; but this practice is being aban- 
doned. Even on river and boUom lands, where the 
lands have to be surface drained the beds are made 
eight feet in width, allowing two rows to each bed. 
It requires more work to bed than it does to plow 
fiat, and it has no advantage over flat plowing except 
to drain land liable to overflow. 

Where land is broken in the fall it can usuallv be 
fitted for corn in the spring by giving several good 
harrowings with a disc or cutaway harrow, working 
the land to a depth of six inches and then drag level 
before laying off the rows. Where this is impossi- 
ble the land should be re-plowed with small plows. 
This should be done as early in the spring as possi- 
ble, and several harrowings given with smoothing or 
drag harrow before planting. 

No question is of more importance in raising corn 
than that of selecting the seed corn. iMany farmers 
insist on having pure bred stock on their farm, but 
are careless about the breed of corn they use. The 
laws which govern the breeding of animals apply with 
equal force to the breeding of plants. Pure bred or 
improved varieties of corn means the same, as pure 
bred animals, that is, strains and var'eties have been 



kept pure and selected for a number of years, and 
are noted for large production and high quality along 
certain lines. To show you the importance of using 
good seed corn, one farmer stated that he made an 
increase in yield of 25 bushels per acre by using pure 
bred corn over that made by using ordinary seed 
corn. If you feel enough interest in this subject, go 
to some reliable seedsman and get the very best from 
him and then take care of it yourself by selecting your 
seed every year in the field. 

It is quite important that you buy your seed from 
men who are known to be perfectly reliable, as there 
are fakers among seedsmen as well as other lines of 
business.. If you do not feel enough interest in it to 
buy seed, then breed up your own corn. Go through 
your field before the crop is harvested and select the 
best ears from the best stalks. As a rule the largest 
yield of grain is from corn producing two ears to 
the stalk. Prof. M. F. Miller in a circular issued by 
the ^Missouri Experiment .Station gives the following 
methods of breeding up corn : 

"It will be well in any system of corn improve- 
ment or corn-breeding to begin with a good varietv. 
preferably one that is well bred. It may be that a 
p,articular variety which has been grown in the com- 
munity has given good results and has been kept fair- 
ly pure, or it may be necessary to buy improved seed 
from some man living at a greater or, less distance: 
but whatever the source, the seed .should be good. 
There is nothing to be gained in beginning with very 
poor corn, as several years may be saved by begin- 
ning with a strain that has received some care in the 
matter of selection, providing it is fairly well adapted 
to the community. If there are any marked peculiari- 
ties of soil or climate, however, such as hardpan or 
drouth, the best yielding variety of the community 
hhould be used." 

The simplest method of corn-breeding is to set 
aside each year a plot of ground of two or three acres 
on which to grow seed corn for the next year. The 
idea in this is to allow only good individuals to cross 
with good individuals : consequently, only the very 
choicest ears should be used for this purpose. The 
plot should be located preferably in a soot removed 
from the other corn, or it may be located in one cor- 
ner or along one side of the main field. Corn pollen 
will often blow a long d'stance, so that the plot 
should be located as far from corn o' another va-iety 



i8 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



as possible. It should never be nearer than 200 yds. 
If the plot is placed in a part of the field with the 
same variety, the east side should be selected, as pre- 
vailing winds are generally from the west or south- 
west, and there will be less danger of outside cross- 
ing. The only disadvantage in crossing with corn of 
the same variety is that pollen from an undesirable 
sialk in the general field may blow into the plot and 
fertilize some of the silks of the seed ears. The soil 
on which this seed plot should be the average of that 
used for corn on the farm. 




Fig. 10.— Flint corn. 



Dent corn. 



Select 30 ears that are nearest ideal in character, 
and which represent perfectly the type which it is 
proposed to breed. It is never advisable to select 
less than 25 ears, as there is danger of inbreeding if 
the number is few. It is best to test the vitality of 
each ear used in the plot before planting, in order 
that only those of strong germinating qualities may 
be used. Remove butts and tips and shell the ears 



together. From this mixture take enough to plant a 
plot of the desired size. The corn may be planted 
in the same manner as the rest of the field, but it 
should receive good cultivation and care. When 
coming into tassel it may be well to go through every 
day for a week and cut out with a knife all barren 
stalks, in order that their pollen may not fertilize the 
ears on other stalks. This is not absolutely neces- 
sary, but is desirable. It has been found that barren 
stalks vary in number with the season rather than 
with the variety, and it is nature's tendency to breed 
them out, since they produce no ears. Nevertheless, 
better results would undoubtedly be secured if they 
were removed. 

Allow the corn to become thoroughly ripe on the 
stalk and then go through and select from desirable 
stalks suflicieiit perfect ears for planting the next sea- 
son's crop. See that the ears are thoroughly dried 
before frost, following directions already given for 
preserving seed corn. 

Each succeeding year's planting will be exactly sim- 
ilar to the first, always keeping the corn pure and 
tending by this careful selection and the crossing of 
good with good to build up a variety of high yield 
and high quality. Some such method as this should 
be practiced by every corn-grower. 

Stable manure is without doubt the best fertilizer 
for corn. Its value, however, depends very much up- 
on how it is taken care of, and if left out in an open 
lot for the rain to leach away it will not be worth 
half as much as if kept packed down under a shed or 
left in a stable until you are ready to haul to the 
field. Where you have an abundance of manure it 
is doubtless best to broadcast it, but where there is 
only a limited quantity apply it in the drill. If barn- 
yard manure is not available, cotton seed, cotton seed 
meal, potash, and phosphate, may be used. Under 
the head of fertilizers we give formulas for commer- 
cial fertilizers for corn. But just a word about cot- 
ton seed and cotton seed meal. Next to stable ma- 
nure it is one of the best fertilizers we have for corn. 
Two hundred pounds of cotton seed meal, applied on 
each side of the row at the second plowing will fre- 
quently add ten bushels per acre to the yield. As a 
general proposition it is better to sell the seed and 
buy meal, or exchange them for meal to use in this 
way. This in addition to two hundred or four hun- 
dred pounds of commercial fertilizer used at planting 



Make the Farm as Attractive as Possible. 



19 



time. For commercial fertilizers see Chapter on Fer- 
tilizers. 

As to varieties, use that variety which will produce 
the greatest number of bushels of shelled corn per 
acre in your locality, regardless of the time of ripen- 
ing or the size either of the ears or stalks. In the 
South the seasons are long enough for any corn to 




Fig. 11. — Cockes frolific Corn. 

mature, and you do not have to select quick grow- 
ing varieties. Of course where corn is planted after 
some. crop, such as oats, wheat, clover, or some early 
crop has been cut, some of the earlier maturing sorts 
may have to be used. The United States Department 
of Agriculture recommends the use of white varie- 
ties as they claim that in one hundred tests made 
with white varieties and colored varieties the best re- 
sults were secured from the white. However, the col- 
ored variety is richer in food value, and perhaps its 
richness in that line makes up for its lack of produc- 
tiveness. Altogether we would prefer a smaller cob, 
to a larger one. When the cob is small 50 pounds or 
a bushel of ears will produce 62 or 63 pounds of shell- 
ed corn, while 50 pounds of corn in the ear of a large 
cob variety will only give from 52 to 55 pounds of 
grain. It has been found where land has to produce 



large ears of corn, it will not produce as many of 
them. When corn is grown for ordinary purposes, it 
should have the following characteristics: 

(1) It should be a dent rather than a flint variety. 

(2) It should have a growing period of from 150 
to 170 days. 

(3) The stalks should have well-developed roots 
and should average nearly two ears each. 

(4) The ears should be of good size, of uniform 
diameter throughout, well filled at both ends and 
should point downward when ripe. 

(5) The cobs should be small in proportion to the 
size of the ear. 

(6) The individual grains should be long and so 
broad at the upper end as to leave only a slight de- 
pression between the rows. 

(7) The variety should be of local origin. 

As to planting, if the land is well drained it is much 
better to plant flat, than to plant on beds, and many 
of the most successful growers plant in furrows be- 
low the level, claiming that the corn stands drouth 
better. The land can then be worked to the corn, 
which will keep it from blowing down. As a rule 
never plant on a bed unless your land is very poorly 
drained. Corn should be planted from March ist, 
to May 1st, according to locality; but don't be in too 
big a hurry. Better be a little late and get your land 
in good condition than to rush the seed into poorly 
prepared ground. As to the distance it should be 
planted, depends upon the productivity of the ground : 
if the land is fertile and will produce from 25 to 40 
bii. of corn to the acre, the rows should be from three 
and a half to four feet apart, and planted about thirty 
inches in the drill. If the land is not so fertile, it 
should be given more space, say four and a half to 
five feet, and a little further in the drills. The more 
fertile the land, the thicker should be the corn. 

Thorough cultivation of corn is necessary, but this 
does not mean deep cultivation. Deep plowing should 
be done before the corn is planted and never after 
the first working. Corn has not a large tap root like 
cotton, but is a surface feeder, and has a large num- 
ber of long roots that run along near the top of the 
soil. To plow deep, say four or five inches, cuts 
these roots and the corn is checked in growth and 
never recovers from it. Corn should never be plow- 
ed over two inches deep after it is six inches high. 
It is a good plan to begin the cultivation of corn be- 



20 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



fore it comes up, by using a light smoothing harrow 
or weeder with the teeth pointing backwards. A hay 
rake will do good work, with the teeth running into 
the ground very slightly. This breaks the crust, 
stops evaporation, and kills the weeds and grass in 
the seed leaf, leaving the land smooth for future cul- 
tivation. The weeder and hay rake can be used only 
when the sod is fine and mellow. Cultivation should 
follow each rain to prevent a crust from forming, and 
to kill the new crop of weeds germinating. The 
weeder and harrow can be used until the corn is six 
inches high. Some ten or fifteen acres per day can. 
be gone over with a harrow or weeder. When the 
corn is from four to six inches high it should be thin- 
ned to the proper distance, leaving one stalk in a 
place, on poor land three feet, and on rich land eigh- 
teen inches to 'two feet. In the South it is better to 



tests of shallow cultivation gave an average yield of 
74.7 bushels per acre, a difference of more than 15 
per cent, in favor of shallow cultivation. In only 5 
cases out of the entire number reported did the deep 
culture gi\'e the better results."" 

In times of drouth cultivation should be as frequent 
as possible, but deep cultivation at the time of a 
drouth is ruinous. If the soil is stirred an inch or 
perhaps two inches deep evaporation is checked. 
While the soil at the top frequently has the appear- 
ance of being very dry, underneath this dust mulch 
will be found a moist soil, which Vvill remain moist 
much longer than it would were the whole surface , 
to become compact. 

There are several plans of harvesting corn. The 
plan that has been in general practice in the South is 




Ki'i 



IL'. — L'.iru eiup on AnJersLius F.inii, Alarirtla. 



leave the corn thicker in the drill than to leave more 
than one stalk to the hill. It is, as a rule advisable 
to give one good deep working to start with, but af- 
ter that, all the cultivation should be very shallow. 
The plan of ridging up corn by throwing the soil to- 
wards the rows at the time of the last cultivation, in 
order to assist the brace-roots of the corn to take bet- 
ter hold, and thus prevent the corn from being blown 
down so easily by storms, has some advantage but it 
has its disadvantages. This "ridging up"' cuts the 
roots of the corn at the time they are needed most. 
The seed have already been formed, and what is 
needed is an uninterrupted supply of nourishment to 
enable these seed to develop to their fullest size. 
Many experiments have been made to determine 
which is the better, deep or shallow cultivation. The 
following is the result of such tests: 

"Tlie records of 116 such tests made at 13 different 
stations show that 61 tests of deep cultivation gave 
an average yield of 64.9 bushels per acre, while 55 



to pull the blades from the corn when ripe and allow 
them to cure for fodder. Then gather the ears when 
they are dr}-. This plan of harvesting is a poor and 
e.xpensive one and lessens the production of corn; 
that is, shelled corn. An experiment made at the 
Georgia Experiment Station produced results- show- 
ing that corn weighed heavier when fodder was not 
pulled. 

This experiment shows a gain of a small amoimt 
by pulling the fodder when considering the sale of the 
fodder, but it shows conclusively that corn produces 
less when fodder was pulled. The farmer is after 
practical results, and when he considers the trouble 
and expe'nse of gathering fodder there is certainly 
nothing in it for him. For fodder to be any good it 
must be cured at the proper time, and not allowed to 
get wet. As it ripens usually during the rainy season 
there is very little money in it and a great deal of 
trouble. It is estimated by conservative farmers that 
fodder is worth, when properly cured, just about 



You Should Love Your Work. 



21 



what it costs to gather it. And then when you con- 
sider the risk that he runs, and the loss in the weight 
of the shelled corn, it is certainly not a paying busi- 
ness. 

Corn should not be harvested too soon, as it is not 
so rich in food value as it would be if allowed to 
stand longer. Most farmers make the mistake of pul- 
ing the fodder or cutting the corn too soon. The best 
plan is to let it stand until the blades begin to burn 
up, then cut and shock in large shocks, putting not 
less than 150 stalks in a shock, and when dry shuck 
off the ears and shred the stalks and shucks. It is 
claimed that corn stover hay is an excellent and pala- 
table food for horses, mules, and cattle, and the yield 
of grain is not diminished when the corn is pulled at 
the right time. 

In some of the corn growing States the corn and 
fodder remain on the stalk until the corn is matured, 
when it is pulled and housed. In practicing this 
method you lose the stalk and fodder. But this plan 
is better than to pull the fodder from the stalk, as 
the stalk dies immediately when the fodder is strip- 
ped from it. As soon as the corn is stored in the bin 
or barn, one pound of bisulphide of carbon for every 
100 bushels of corn should be poured over it, as it 
will keep the weevils and moths away for several 
months. It is a good plan to keep a close watch on 
the corn and if the weevils and moths begin to bother 
it, make another application of bisulphide of carbon. 
The U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 81, 
sums up the corn-growing question as follows: 

"(i) The best soil for corn is a rich sandy loam 
which contains a good supply of humus. Land which 
has been used for growing red clover, melilotus, cow- 
peas, or other leguminous crops is much better than 
that which has been used recently for hoed crops. 

"(2) In using manures and fertilizers it is better 
to use the coarse stable manure and the whole cot- 
ton seed on the heavier soils, and the well-rotted ma- 
nure and the cotton-seed meal on the lighter soils. 

"(3) Air well-drained lands should be plowed flat, 
and high beds are advisable only on lands which are 
subject to overflows. When beds are used they 
should be wide enough for two rows each. 

"(4) The best variety of corn for ordinary purposes 
is the one which will produce the greatest amount of 
shelled grain per acre, regardless of the number or 
size of the ears. 

"(5) White varieties will usually make a heavier 



yield than colored varieties, though many colored va- 
rieties are more vigorous and hardy than are some 
of the more prolific white varieties. 

"(6) The best yields are secured from dent varie- 
ties, which require about 160 days for maturing and 
average nearly two ears per stalk. The ears should 
be of good size, have small cobs well filled at each 
end, and should hang downward when ripe. 

"(7) Nothing is gaine'd by planting before the 
ground is sufficiently warm and dry to promote 
immediate growth. Early plantings should not be 
covered so deep as late plantings. 

"(8) Cultivation should be shallow and frequent, 
and the surface of the ground should be kept as near- 
ly level and smooth as possible. 

"(9) When other hay can be saved readily and the 
cornfields can be pastured immediately after the 
crop is gathered, it is not usually profitable to cut 
the stalks for fodder. 

"(10) Corn which is to be stored for some time 
should be treated with bisulphid of carbon to destroy 
insects. 

"(11) Seed should always be selected in the field 
by taking the best ears from the best stalks." 

COTTON. 

Cotton is a fiber plant, and is grown in the South- 
ern States of the United States. It is grown as far 
North as southern Virginia, and northern Oklahoma, 
and as far west as Texas. There are two species of 
cotton grown in the United States, the upland, or 
short staple cotton, and the long staple, or sea island 
cotton. The short staple is raised much more exten- 
sively than the sea island, but the sea island brings 
the higher price. The sea island is grown mostly 
on the islands off the coast of Florida, South Caroli- 
na, and in the lowlands of South Georgia, and South 
Carolina. The Short Staple is raised practically in 
all the remainder of the cotton belt. The flowers of 
the short staple, or upland cotton, are white or cream 
colored on the first day, become reddish on the sec- 
ond, and fall off on the third day, leaving a small boll 
enveloped in the calyx. This boll continues to grow 
until it is about the size and shape of a hen's egg. 

The cotton plant has a long tap root, which ena- 
bles it to stand drouth well and to thrive better on 
poor land than most other crops. It is almost unnec- 



22 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



fssary to say anything about the soil that is best compaied with 272 pounds planted in the usual way. 
adapted to 
and sandy 
ommended 



cotton-growing. Clay loams well drained 

loams resting on clay are both highly rec- 

for growing cotton. Thorough prepara- 



Cotton cultivated with a cultivator gave as good re- 
sults as that cultivated with a sweep. 



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A good cotton to be grown 
(From H, G. Hastings & Co.). 



tion of the land is essential to successful cotton- 
growing. The great trouble with Southern cotton- 
raisers is that they try to cultivate too much, and do 
not give it sufficient attention. If the farmers would 
plant half the acreage in cotton that they do now, and 
give it the same work and fertilizers they use at pres- 
ent, they would have better returns in the end. 

Along the line of deep breaking of land the Alaba- 
ma Station made an experiment about as follows : 
Land plowed six and one-half inches deep yielded 
seventy-six pounds of seed cotton and sixteen pounds 
of lint more than land plowed three and a half inches 
deep. So the experiment shows that it pays to break 
your land deep. There may be cases in which sub- 
soiling will pay, but it is the exception and not the 
rule. Cotton planted on ridges at the Alabama Sta- 
tion yielded 344 pounds of lint cotton per acre, as 



A week before planing at least, all the land should 
be in readiness for the seed. It is well to place the 
fertilizer in the ground two or three weeks before 
planting, and bed on top of that. The rows should 
be from three and a half to five feet apart, according 
to the fertility of the land. The richer the land the 
wider the rows. The same rule applies to the dis- 
tance in the row. If the land is fertile it should have 
a good space, but if the land is poor it should be 
close together. The average farmer leaves it about 
twelve inches apart in rows four feet wide, ^^'e are 
convinced, however, that the majority of farmers 
leave their cotton too close. 




Fig. 14. — Picking Cotton. 



Raise Your Feed at Home. 



23 



Perhaps barnyard manure stands at the head of the 
list as a fertihzer for cotton, and many farmers do 
not realize how much it costs them each year to allow 
their manure to go to waste. It is good to have cot- 
ton follow a crop of small grain or leguminous crop. 
For commercial ferilizers for cotton see chapter on 
Fertilizers. 

The planting should be done with a good planter. 
The old practice of dropping the seed by hand is long 
out of date. These planters are cheap, and every 




Fig. 15. — Ruralist Cotton. 

farmer who knows what is business, will have one. 
Cotton should be planted in April or the first of May. 
The earlier it is planted, provided there is no danger 
from frost, the better. The seed should be covered 
from one and a half to two inches deep. It may be 



gone over after the first rain with a weeder or har- 
row as suggested for corn, which will do much to fa- 
cilitate the early cultivation of the crop. It will also 
keep the crust broken and help the seed to come up. 
It will kill the young grass before it has a chance to 
start. This is a great benefit to the crop, for cotton 
and grass are bitter enemies. It is, therefore, urged 
that the farmer plant a crop small enough to handle 
easily during rainy years, as these years come quite 
frequently. If he plants a large crop, he may manage 
to scratch over it once in a while, and keep the grass 
from taking it during dry years, but what will he do 
at other times? Cotton should be worked after every 
rain, if possible. At first, you can give it a deep 
plowing, but never after that. It does not pay to 
plow deep, for th'is cuts the roots and stops the 
growth of the plant. Do your deep plowing before 
you plant the crop, then it will not be so hard upon 
the mule or the cotton either. 

As to topping cotton, there is no definite rule. It 
is practiced by some farmers, and others would not 
under any circumstances, permit their cotton to be 
topped. At the Georgia Experiment Station at times 
it increases the yield, while at other times it dimin- 
ished it. 

Farmers should keep their land well drained and 
practice rotation of the crops. Cof'on should not be 
planted after cotton where it is possible to avoid it. 
In this way, the danger from rust and other diseases 
of cotton are avoided to a large extent. 

COW PEAS. 

The cowpea is a leguminous plant that is grown 
for both forage and human consumption. A great 
deal of land is void of nearly all vegetable matter and 
sadly in need of same. Cowpeas furnish this vege- 
table matter, and the crop can be grown success- 
fully on almost every variety of soil. The 
cowpea is a tropical plant and quite sensitive to frost, 
but delights in the long hot summers. In addition 
it is one of the best soil renovators grown in the 
Southern States. It is to the South what red clover 
is to the North and alfalfa to the West, and it has 
been cultivated in the South for more than 150 years. 
TJie peas are all colors, white, brown, black. A few 
early varieties ripen seed in sixty days after they are 
planted, while it takes some of them eight or nine 
months to ripen seed. In between these two limits, 



24 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



we have all grades. As a forage crop the cowpea has 
few superiors and from two to three tons of ha}- per 
acre can be made under proper conditions. There 
are many advantages in growing cowpeas, its great- 
est advantage being that it will grow on poor land 
and make a profitable crop, while at the same time, it 
improves the soil, making it more productive for other 
crops. As before mentioned, the cow])ea is a legu- 
minous plant, and has the power to appropriate the 
free nitrogen from the air, and as the air is four- 
fifths nitrogen, this is very important, especially sincft 
so much of our Southern land \< in sad need of this 
element. Another advantage is that it shades the 
soil in the summer, keeping it in a condition most 
suitable for the formation of nitrogen and leaves it 
in fine mechanical condition for the next crop. It 
has a large root development, and pumps up from 
the subsoil much of the mineral matter needed by 
land in. the Southern States. It grows rapidly, enab- 
ling the farmer to grow two crops of the earlier va- 
rieties in one year. 

The cowpea being a legume, it is best that it follow 
a crop that has drawn heavily upon the nitrogen in 
the soil, such as oats, rye, or wheat. 

The manner of cultivation depends upon the pur- 
pose for which they are grown. If vines are wanted, 
it would be better to plant early, as soon as danger 
from frost is past and the ground is warm ; but if the 
peas are wanted it will be better to plant later. The 
later thev are planted the less vine they make, and 
the qui.'ker they set peas. They may be planted at 
any time from April to August. They are sometimes 
planted in the drill, and sometimes broadcast. If you 
desire to make hay, perhaps it will be better to sow 
them broadcast. If you want to raise the shelled pea, 
plant in drills two to three feet apart, using from one 
to two pecks of seed per acre. If you plant for a 
forage crop, broadcast, sowing from one to two bush- 
els. As a rule, we think they make better hay when 
not sown too thickly and one bushel per acre of good 
seed is a very good quanhty. It will pay to use a 
little nitrogen in the fertilizer for cowpeas, to give 
the plants a quick start; but if the soil is inoculated 
with the necessary baceria, they will obtain this ele- 
ment from the air. The mineral elements, phosphoric 
acid and potash, however, should be liberally applied. 
For fertilizer for cowpeas see Fertilizer Department. 

It will pay you to prepare the land thoroughly for 



cowpeas, b}' breaking deeply, harrowing down the 
land and appljnng the fertilizer. It is better to wait 
until it rains before planting, as you will usually get 
a better stand. Cowpeas love the sun, and \vill not 
do well if sown before the soil is warm. Soon after 
planting, they may be harrowed, say just before they 
come above the ground. It will perhaps be better to 
use some weeder, or hay rake, as the harrow will go 
too deep and disturb the peas. This cultivation 
should be sufficient where they are sown broadcast. 
If ])lanted in drills they should be cultivated at least 
twice. 

- To cure cowpeas they should be cut when the pods 
are about two-thirds ripe, as at this time the \-ines 
contain the greatest feeding value. The following 
method has been tried, and found to be a success in 
curing cowpea hay. First, construct what might be 



^ 




\/ 



V 



Fig. 16. — Showing fine .and post for curing pea Tine hay. 

called a ventilator tube, as shown in illustration. (Fig. 
l6.) This should be made of two ix6 or ix8 planks 
five feet long with slats one by three by eight nailed 
to the edges, forming a square of eight inches, similar 
to those used frequently around trees. Then a stack 
pole is made, say five inches in diameter and ten to 
twelve feet high, sharpening the lower end a little. 



It Does not Take Much Land to Raise a Good Forage Crop. 



25 



Then a frame is made similar to tlie one shown in the 
illustration, using pieces four or five, and sometimes 
six feet long. The outfit is set up, putting pole in- 
side of the ventilator, and setting the frame shown in 
Figure 17 about eight inches from the ground. This 
platform Should be eight inches from the ground. 
Around the ventilator, hay may be placed, as green 
as you please. However, the hay should not be pack- 
ed with the feet, as it will be too close together. 
When you have piled your hay nearly to the top of 
the ventilator, then by getting on a ladder you may 
raise the tube nearly its entire length, and the hole 
will still remain. You can keep it in place by run- 
ning a small stick through the slats near the bottom 
of the ventilator, and allowing the stick to rest on 
the hay. As you proceed toward the top, bring the 
stack to a point. When you have reached a point 



I e 




Fig. 17.- — Showing frame and flue ready to place hay on same. 

take the ventilator out and use it for the next stack, 
and cap the stack just made, by placing a forkful of 
crab grass on the sharpened end of the stack pole, 
Then with a string, or twine, tie the cap tightly to 
the pole a foot from the top of the pole. In a few 
hours the hay will wilt and settle down, leaving the 
cap there like an umbrella over the ventilating flue. 
A cool stream of air rushes up through this flue, and 
cures the hay as well on the inside as the outside. 



After it has remained there for a week or ten days, 
you can then go over the field pulling the cap nearly 
to the top of the hay stack. 

By this method hay can be placed iii the stack as 
soon as it is cut. There is no need of spoiling on ac- 
count of rain. As soon as it is cured, it can be hauled 
to the barn. In doing this work, care should be ob- 
served that the hay be not packed with the feet, or 
any one allowed to get on the stack with their feet. 
This is undoubtedly the best method for curing pea- 
vine hay known, especially when there is danger of 
the hay getting wet. Of course the hay should not 
be cut when wet_, and the mower should not be start- 
ed until after the dew is off; but there is no need to 
fear the rain after you have stacked it. 

Another method.— Nail a piece of plank one by 
four inches across the stack pole, and at right angles 
to this piece, nail another just above it. These pieces 
should be as long as the stack is wide. On top of 
these two poles place a layer of hay two feet thick, 
and place another set of cross bars across the pole 
similar to the others. Continue to place these cross 
pieces until you get to the top of the stack. The 
hay should not be stacked on the ground, but on a 
platform as suggested in the former method. This 
method is not quite as good as the other. 

GRASSES. 

Bermuda Grass. — There is not a more valuable 
pasturage in the South than Bermuda grass. It is 
very resistant to heat and cold, but will not grow in 
the shade. It is also used for hay, but is especially 
recommended for pastures, and will flourish where 
other grasses perish. It is propagated by sowing seed 
or planting chopped sections of the roots. The grass 
spreads very rapidly on good land and will soon cov- 
er the whole ground. It will pay every farmer to 
have a good Bermuda pasture for his stock. They 
need something green to eat at all times, and Ber- 
muda will come nearer answering this demand than 
anything that we know of. Every farmer has some 
land that could be planted ir Bermuda, which would 
bring in much better returns than it does at present. 
The man who owns a good Bermuda pasture can 
keep his stock a great deal cheaper and in much bet- 
ter condition than the one who does not. The seed 
are very fine and should be sown in the Spring after 



26 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE 



the soil is warm, on thoroughly prepared ground, 
and covered by dragging a light brush over the 
ground. If roots are used plant in April, dropping 
the pieces in rows two feet apart, and cover with the 
foot. 

Carpet Grass. — This grass is very common in Mis- 
sissippi and Alabama. It is a low creeping perennial' 
grass, and is too short for hay, but is very valuable 
for pastures. It spreads quite rapidly, and will drive 
other grasses and weeds out. It withstands frosts 
well, and in sections of the extreme southern part of 
Louisiana and Alabama, stays green all the winter. 



growing perennial, growing from three to six feet 
high. It thrives best on rich alluvial soils, but will 
grow on the poorest soils, withstanding all drouths. 
It is valuable for hay, yielding for 3 to 5 tons per 
acre, and giving two or three cuttings. If cut at the 
right time it is equal to timothy hay in feeding value, 
and stock eat it readily. For a pasture, Johnson 
grass has no value, as pasturing will soon kill it out. 
The grass should be cut as soon as the head appears. 
It takes about one bushel of seed to plant an acre. 
Root cuttings may be planted a foot apart each way, 
and excellent results will be obtained. After it has 
been cut for hay for three or four years 




Kig. IS. — Crab Grass and Pursley Hay — Two tons per acre. 



Grown by C. E. Pleas, Chipley, Georgia. 



It is usually propagated by sowing the seed. It is 
easily killed by cultivation, and is not a dangerous 
grass to have around. 

Crab Grass. — Every Southerner knows what crab- 
grass is without any explanation. It is never sown 
but comes up spontaneously and frequently grows so 
rapidly that you can get two cuttings of hay from it 
in one season. The hay is much relished by stock. 
It is easily leached of its nutritive qualities by the 
rain. If it is stacked in the field it should be capped 
with some other kind of grass. 

Johnson Grass. — Johnson grass was introduced in- 
to this country from the old world in 1830 and is now 
scattered throughout the whole South. It is a rank 



the roots become so matted that the yield is 
decreased. The field should then be plowed up 
and thoroughly harrowed, after which the grass 
will grow very luxuriantly. It is the most pro- 
lific perennial grass grown in the South. It is diffi- 
cult to eradicate when once firmly established, but it 
can be done by persistent effort. Perhaps the best 
way is to plow the land four inches deep in the Fall 
and rake out all the roots possible with a new tool 
called a grass hoe which has a number of sharp teeth 
rv-inting forward. Then pile the roots and burn 
them. The grass will not come up from the roots 
left below four inches plowed. In the spring if there 
are any pieces of roots left in the surface soil they will 
sprout and come up. It will then be neces^^ary to go 



Some Farmers Make a Living on Less Than Ten Acres. 



27 



over the field and pull all of these up by hand. When 
they are about a foot high this can be easily done and 
the root will come with the plant. Haul these off 
and burn them and you are rid of the grass. 

Kentucky Blue Grass. — This grass is a native from 
South Carolina, west to the Pacific Coast, and north 
to Labrador and Alaska; but it attains its highest 
development in the limestone regions of Tennessee 
and Kentucky. This is the best pasture grass grown, 
and the regions where it abounds most plentifully 
have become world famed for their stock. As a hay 
crop it is not so good, for it does not grow high 
enough, and makes a light yield. It spreads rapidly 




Fig. 19. — Tall Meadow Fescue. 

by means of seed, and various runners or suckers 
forming a close compact sod which withstands tramp- 
ling and grazing well. Blue Grass does not do well 
on sandy land, or land deficient in lime, and for that 
reason will not thrive in a great deal of the southern 
territory. From one-half to two and a half bushels 
of seed are required per acre. 

Meadow Fescue. — This grass was introduced from 
Europe and has become naturalized all over the 
United States. It is of special value as a pasture 
grass and as a hay. Soutfi of Virginia and Kentucky 



it remains green nearly all the year around, and for 
that reason is very valuable for pasture purposes. 
It is grown from seed sown from two to three bush- 
els per acre. It takes about three years for this 
grass to become fully established. In good soils it 
will yield from one to one and a half tons of hay the 
first year and double this amount the next year. 
Overflows do not injure this plant, but some claim 
that it actually does it good. In Virginia it is known 
as Randall Grass; in South Carolina, Evergreen 
Grass, and sometimes 'it is called tall fescue. 

LESPEDEZA. 

This is an annual leguminous forage crop. It is 
grown a good deal in the South, but is too tender to 
be grown in the North. It is used, quite extensively 
in the South on poor clay soils. It is seeded at the 
rate of twelve pounds per acre and reseeds itself from 
year to year unless it is too closely pastured. It 
grows from a foot and a half to two feet high and 
makes a fine crop of hay. It is sometimes called Ja- 
pan clover. It can be sown with nielilotus, also 
among oats in the early spring, and will come on af- 
ter the oats are cut. 

MILLET. 

There are a large number of grasses grown princi- 
pally for forage that ■ are called millet. There are 
three varieties of millet grown in this country: The 
foxtail millet, which is characterized by a compact 
bristly foxtail head, including several varieties, such 
as, Common, German, Htmgarian, and Golden Won- 
der Millet. The barnyard millet includes several va- 
rieties which are characterized by dense paniculate 
heads, and are the true barnyard millet. Shama mil- 
let, Sanawa millet. The broom corn millet, character- 
ized by brushy heads and consists of the broom corn 
or Hog millet, Manitoba, etc. Millet is a very valua- 
ble catch crop, and can be grown from six to eight 
weeks in the summer. It will grow best on good soil," 
but will make a fairly good crop on poor soil. 

Many feeders have a strong prejudice against .mil- 
hay, especially for horses; but this objection is be- 
cause the millet is not cut at the proper time. If the 
crop is allowed to become mature, or nearly so, the 
hay will be of poor quality, the stems being hard and 
unpalatable, while the excess of seed frequentlv caus- 
es founder. Millet should be cut for hav while the 



28 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



head is still in the boot, or just beginning to show. If 
it be allowed to stand until the seed begins to harden, 
it will make a very poor feed. If millet be cut at the 
proper time the hay will compare favorably with that 
produced from any other grass. The plant grows 
very rapidly, and when ready to cut for hay, will not 
do to wait until next week. As a seed crop millet is 
quite valuable. It yields from twenty to forty bush- 
els of seed per acre, and these seed sell from one to 
two dollars per bushel at wholesale. So you can 
readily see that millet is quite a paying crop to grow 
for seed. 




Pearl or Cat-Tail Millet (■■Pencillaria). 

Millet is a summer plant, and requires warm 
weather. It will do best on a rich, well drained sandy 
loam, but will not thrive on heavy clays or wet lands. 
It may be planted from May to August. The ground 
should be well plowed and harrowed to free it from 
clods, grass and weeds. When planted for hay about 
one-half bushel per acre of Hungarian, German, 
or Common millet seed is required, but about 



three-fourths of a bushel of seed, per acre, of broom 
corn millet. It may be sown broadcast. Millet is 
. cut in a more immature state than other crops, and 
therefore should be allowed to cure thoroughly. 

OATS. 

Oats are grown in every State in the Union. The 
uat crop ranks second in number of bushels pro- 
duced, and third in number of acres sown, to any oth- 
grown in the United States. Oats are successfully 
grown on a wide range of soils, such as poor clays, 
sandy loams, peaty soils, even marshy and undrained 
lands. The lands should be prepared by plowing and 
harrowing and the seed put in with seed drill or cut- 
away harrow. They should be planted in the early 
fall, in most sections of the South, as has been shown 
by experiments. Plant about two inches deep, and 
from one to two bushels of seed per acre should be 
sown. Seeding oats with some other grain has been 
practiced in the North, but if you want the greatest 
amount of grain and straw, it is best not to plant 
anything with them. Oats, when planted early in 
the fall, require less seed than when planted late, or 
when planted in the spring. 

The winter turf sod oat will withstand a great dea^ 
of cold and make e.xcellent grazing in the winter. It 
also makes a large growth of straw and is therefore 
excellent for forage. The Rust Proof variety is usu- 
ally planted for grain, as it makes very heavy heads, 
althought it is more sensitive to cold. As for fertili- 
zers for oats, see small grain in the Fertilizer Depart- 
ment. It is well to let oats follow corn or some le- 
guminous crop. They should be harvested when the 
lower part of the stalk or straw has turned yellow. 
This is better than to wait until the grain is fully ma- 
tured, as a considerable amount is lost in shattering 
out. 

Enemies to Oats. — The smuts are the most dan- 
gerous enemy to oats. One of the best treatments 
for any of the smuts is to soak the seed in formalin 
solution, using one pound to fifty or sixty gallons of 
water. Soak for two hours. 

PEANUT. 

Peanuts are trailing leguminnus plants, sometimes 
called Ground-pea, Goober, Pinders, Earth-nuts, etc. 
This crop is one of the best, if not the best, for fat- 



Don't Try to Cultivate too Many Acres of Land. 



29 



lening hogs that is grown in the Sonth. It is strictly 
a Southern crop and one of great value. It would be 
still more valuabk, however, if the farmers would 
cultivate it more extensively. The peanut will grow 
almost anywhere corn will, requires about five months 
to mature, and is easil}- killed by frost. A 
sandy loam is best suited for peanuts, as in 




F:.?. 20. — Portion of Peanut Plant. 

the 'hea\'y soils the pods cannot push their 
way into fche ground or mature. You do not 
need a soil rich in vegetable matter, for 
such soil produces vines instead of peanuts ; but you 
do need land containing considerable lime; as with- 
out lime the peanuts will make pops instead of full 
nuts. When lime is lacking it can be supplied by 
broadcasting from 20 to 50 bushels per acre as more 
or less seems to be needed. There are several advan- 




Fig. 21. — Spanish Peanuts. 

tages in growng peanuts. In the first place, it grows 
on soils that will not produce other crops, and it 
has no insect enemies. Nearly all crops have ene- 
mies in the insect world, but the peanut seems to be 
an exception. The vines of the peanut make excel- 



lent hay. Pull up the vines in the afternoon, and al- 
low them to sun until the ne.xt afternoon, and you 
liave a hay that you will be proud of. 

Peanuts should be planted about the same time 
cotton is. They are frequently planted with corn, 
planting tlie corn in seven foot, rows with a row of 
peanuts in between. When planting peanuts by them- 
selves have the rows from two to three feet apart, 
with the hills from one to two feet apart in the row. 
They should be cultivated shallow, and not ridged. 
Recent experiments prove it is not necessary to shell 
the nuts before planting, as breaking the pods only, 
produces as satisfactory results, as where the former 
plan was practiced. 

If the crop is grown for hogs, they can do their own 
harvesting, l)y turning into field just after the first 
frost. If grown for hay and the market thev should be 
harvested just before the first frost. A plow is run un- 
der them, cutting the tap root, and loosening up the 
ground. The vines can be thrown in wind-rows, and 
after a day can be stacked in piles seven to eight 
feet high. The nuts are then picked off, and 
allowed to dry, when they should be sacked. 

\Vhen some of the nuts are cured and fed with the 
hay the feeding value is greatly increased. 

POTATOES. 

When one speaks of potatoes, in the South, he is 
usually supposed to be speaking of what is known as 
sweet potatoes ; but the most generallv accepted mean- 
ing, taking the United States as a whole, is the Irish 
potato. So our first subject will be the Irish Potato. 

Next to the cereals, potatoes are probably the most 
important food crop grown for man. The annual po- 
tato crop in the United States, is 200,000,000 bushels, 
and there are some counties in Europe whose crops 
exceed even that amount; so you can readily see that 
the growing of potatoes is no small business. The 
average yield for the whole country is a little under 
100 bushels per acre, and 200 bushels per acre is con- 
sidered a fair yield, while a great deal of land will 
produce 300 bushels per acre. An ideal soil for pota- 
toes is one which is so light it offers no great resi.s- 
tance to the enlargement of tubers, so supplied with" 
organic matter as to be rather moist without being 



30 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



wet, and so rich as to furnish an unfailing supply of 
the necessary plant food. A rich sandy loam well 
supplied with vegetable matter and one naturally well 
drained is preferred. Very heavy clays should not be 
used if the farm contains a lighter soil. If sufficient 
vegetable matter be applied to sandy soils, good po- 
tatoes can be produced, and of better quality than 
where grown on a heavy soil. Potatoes should not 
be planted in the same field more than one year, or at 
the most, two years in succession. Potatoes thrive best 
on land which has been made rich by a liberal appli- 
cation of stable manure on some previous crop, or by 
turning under a clover sod or heavy peavine stubble. 
It is not advisable to apply stable manure directly to 
the potato crop, as it has a tendency to produce scab. 
For this reason a complete high-grade commercial fer- 



The pieces should be covered lightly about two 
inches deep, using a cultivator or double foot stock, 
after which apply the fertilizer in a broad band ten 
or twelve inches wide, and cover the whole with two 
good furrows,' which leaves a ridge over the row. As 
a general rule, growers distribute the fertilizer in the 
row and mix it well with the soil before dropping the 
potatoes, but better results have been obtained from 
the method outlined above, as the fertilizer is placed 
right where the new potatoes form above the seed 
piece. 

It will require about four barrels of potatoes to 
plant an acre, the amount varying according to varie- 
ty, size of potato, and distance. 

From a recent bulletin we take the following gen- 
eral cosiderations on amount and size of seed pieces : 




Fig. 22. — Loading potatoes on cars, Atlanta, Texas. 



tilizer should be used directly on the crop, and the fer- 
tilizer should contain a relatively large per cent, of 
potash, h'or fertilizer for potatoes see Fertilizer De- 
partment. 

The land should be thoroughly prepared, and laid 
off in rows about three feet apart, running them out 
deeply so the potatoes when dropped will be four to 
six inches below the general surface of the field when 
level. The potatoes should be cut to two good 
eyes and the pieces dropped from 8 to 15 inches apart 
according to variety, early sorts being planted closer 
than later varieties. 



A number of investi.gators have noted that large 
seed pieces (either large cuttings or entire potatoes) 
afford an earlier crop than very small cuttings, a mat- 
ter of much interest to growers of early potatoes. 
However, some growers have reported that uncut 
potatoes germinate more slowly than lar.ge cuttings. 
Most of those who raise potatoes for the early mar- 
ket use large cuttings rather than whole potatoes. 

In this connection it may be said that the seed end 
half gives an earlier crop than the other half. This 
suggests the expediency of cutting a potato length- 
wise when halves or charters are to be nlanted, thin 
se"ur'ng on each piece oi:: or mor'^ of the eyes vh',;'.! 



A Legume Crop is one that Takes the Nitrogen from the Air. 



31 



germinate first. Another advantage of cutting length- 
wise is that it insures a more even distribution of the 
eyes on the several pieces. Of course this system is 
not practicable when very small cuttings are to be 
made from long, slender potatoes, since the large 
amount of exposed surface would render the long 
pieces susceptible to injury both from moisture and 
dryness. 

If it is desired to cut the potato into small pieces 
the operator should begin at the stem end, and the 
pieces should be cut in compact shape, and of as 
nearly equal size as is practicable without leaving 
any piece entirely devoid of eyes. There are special 
implements for cutting potatoes, and their use is re- 
ported as enabling a man to cut four or five times as 
many bushels of seed per day as by hand. The char- 
acter of the work is said to be satisfactory. 

No definite rule can be given as to the best size 
of seed piece, for this depends somewhat on the dis- 
tance between the hills and on the character of the 
soil and season. Another important factor in deter- 
mining the proper amount of seed is variety. Some 
varieties are able to produce a crop almost as large 
from small cuttings as from large pieces. Thus, in 
several experiments, the variety Clark No. 1 has 
given indications of this capacity to produce well ev- 
en with light seeding. 

Soon after planting the field should be harrowed 
with a smoothing harrow, and just before the pota- 
toes 'begin to come up ; then just as the young 
plants begin to appear above the ground, harrow 
again or cultivate with horse weeder. The harrow 
destroys young weeds, and prevents the formation of 
a crust. After that they should be cultivated shallow 
with cultivator and weeder._ Mulching with straw, 
leaves, hay, etc., often increases the yield, but is only 
practical in small gardens, and not in planting for 
commercial purposes. The crop should.be dug when 
the vines die. Of course for early market it is not 
necessary to wait tmtil the vines die, but as long as 
any portion of the vino is green the potatoes will con- 
tinue to grow. In gardens early po.atoes are some- 
times secured by removing carefully some of the 
larger tubers, then replacing the dirt, allowing the 
small potatoes to continue growing 

In harvesting potatoes if one has a large area in 
cultivation a potato digger is almost a necessity. In 
storing potatoes they should be exposed to the light 



as little as possible, and they should also be kept cool. 
If they are allowed to become warm, they are liable 
to sprout or decay, which will injure their sale, as 
well as their reproducing value. 

The early crop of Irish potatoes cannot be kept 
easily, owing to the fact that they ripen and are dug 
in hot weather. Usually the sooner they can be sold 
the better. There is no difficulty in keeping late po- 
tatoes. The following summary of a bulletin issued by 
the U. S. Department of Agriculture on this subject 
puts the matter in a terse form : 

"(i) A rich, sandy loam, well drained and well 
supplied with vegetable matter is the best soil for the 
potato. Stiffer land may be improved as a potato 
soil by green manuring and drainage, and lighter 
soil can often be made sufficiently rich by the addi- 
tion of green manures and fertilizers. 

(2) Potatoes should not, as a rule be grown con- 
tinuously on the same land, but should be alternated 
with other crops. Barnyard manure may be freely 
used, but should, as a rule, be applied to previous 
crops in the rotation. 

(3) If commercial fertilizers are used, a mixture 
containing nitrogen in form of nitrate of soda, phos- 
phoric acid as superphosphate, and potash as sul- 
phate, and in which potash predominates, is recom- 
mended. 

(4) Preparation of the land should be deep and 
thorough. 

(5) Planting without ridges generally affords the 
larger yields, but a stiff soil and the desire for an ex- 
tra crop sometimes necessitates planting on ridges. 

(6) The best time for planting depends on the 
climate of each locality. The planting should be so 
timed as to bring the period when the tubers are rap- 
idly forming at the date when the average rainfall is 
ample. 

(7) On mellow, well-drained soil deep planting 
(3 to 5 inches) is best, especially when the season 
happens to be dry. For the early crop, or on stiff 
soil with a tendency to bake, the depth of plantiu'^- 
may be decreased. 

(8) The use of the harrow before the plants are 
• all up and frequent' shallow cultivation afterwards, 

until the vines shade the land, is advisable. 

(9) Seed potatoes grown in New England in sev- 
eral tests proved superior to Maryland seed both in 
New England and in Maryland. However, the data 
seems insufficient to determine the relative value of 
seed potatoes from different climates. 



3^ 



ilLLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



\icj Cutting the seed pieces a few days before 
Ijiar.ting appears to exercise no injurious influence, 
provided, of course, that the cuttings ar.e carefully 
stored in the internn. 

(ii) The yield from planting the seed or bud end 
is generally greater than from the stem or butt end 
of the tuber. The eyes on the seed end are the first 
to germinate, hnd hence are ' especially important 
when an early crop is desired. 

(i2 Exposing unsprouted tubers in a warm place 
before planting hasteils growth, but if continued until 
sprouts form (which are rublicd off) the yield may 
be considerably reduced. 

(13) Experiments indicate that it is more impor- 
tant to cut the tuber into compact pieces of nearly 
uniform size than to so shape the pieces as to have 
a definite number of eyes on each set. No piece 
should be entirely devoid of eyes, and the majority 
of the seed pieces are large enough to support at least 
two eyes, and better three or more. 

(14) At distances of i by 3 feet, and with seed tu- 
bers averaging 4 ounces, an acre requires of quarters, 
about 15 bushels. 

(15) The total yield increr.scs with every increase 
in the size of seed piece from the single eye to the 
whole potatoes. This increase occurs both in the 
large and in the small potatoes, but chiefly in the lat- 
ter. 

(16) The gross yield of salable potatoes (large 
and medium) also increases with the size of the seed 
piece from one eye to the whole potato. 

(17) The net yield of salable potatoes (found by 
subtracting the amount of seed potatoes and the yield 
of small potatoes from the total yield) increases with 
every increase in the size of seed piece from one eye 
to the whole potato. The lialf potato affords a larger 
net salable crop than the whole potato, on acount 
of the excessive amount of seed required in planting 
■entire *tubers. Taking ihe average of many ex- 
periments, it was found that for every 100 bushels of 
net salable crop grown from single eye pieces there 
were 114 bushels from two-eye pieces, 131 bushels 
from quarters, and 139 bushels from halves, but only 
129 bushels from planting whole potatoes. 

(18) These results favor the use of halves instead 
of wholes as seed pieces if seed potatoes, and crop are 
assumed to be of equal value per bushel, but when 
seed potatoes command a very high price quarters 
may be used to advantage. 



SWEET POTATOES. 

Perhaps the Sweet Potato is of greater importance 
in tlie South than Irish potato. The climate here 
is better suited lor sweet potatoes than in the North 
and sweet potatoes thrive better here than Irish po- 
tatoes. A temperature below 45 degrees is injurious 
to sweet potatoes, and frost is immediately fatal to 
tliem. For profitalile culture, sweet potatoes require 
four months of warm weather, without frost, and 
without cold winds. The sweet potato will thrive 
on any well drained land, but heavy peaty soils do 
not make as good potatoes, so far as quality is con- 
cerned as lighter soils. The best soil is a light, but 
not leachy sandy loam. The fertilizer, (See Fertili- 
zer Department) should be thoroughly mixed with 
the soil, otherwise it will injure the crop. The land 
should be plowed early in the spring, and replowed 
several times, so as to have it in the best possible con- 
dition when you are ready to set your slips or vines. 
It is not necessary to break the land as deeply as for 
Irish potatoes, but it is important to keep the land 
you intend to plant in sweet potatoes cultivated so as 
to retain the moisture, and keep down the grass 
until you are ready to plant, otherwise you will 
have trouble in getting your vine to live, unless the 
weather is very favorable. The rows should be from 
three to four feet apart, depending, of course, upon 
the fertility of the soil. If the soil is very fertile, 
three feet, but if rather thin, three and a half or four 
feet. 

Most every one knows how to bed potatoes for 
plants. There has been a tendency in some sections 
to bed small potatoes, but we are satisfied that better 
results will be obtained in the long run, by selecting 
a medium Avell-shaped potato for this purpose. When 
there is a good season in the ground set the plants, 
allowing them to stand from eighteen inches to two 
feet apart in the drill. The plant should be planted 
a little deeper than it was in the seedbed. 

Potatoes and grass are bitter enemies. It is neces- 
sary to cultivate potatoes often and to keep the grass 
down until the vines take possession of the fields. If 
they have been well cultivated up to this time, there 
will be no more trouble. Every one knows when the 
sweet potato vines come in contact with the ground 
they form roots. It has been a question as to wheth- 
er this rooting injured or helped in the formation of 



Peas Are a Legume Crop. 



33 



potatoes. It was for a long time thought to be inju- 
rious to the formation of potatoes, but this has been 
proven untrue. It has been found by e.xperiment that 
such rooting in no way affects the formation of pota- 
toes. The most critical period in the life of the sweet 
potato begins when it is transplanted, and ends when 
it begins to send out a vigorous growth of vines. It 
is only during this period that dama:;e from insects 
amounts to much, except in the case of the sweet po- 
tato weevil or beetle, which is proving quite destruct- 
ive in some parts of Louisiana and Texas. Potatoes 
should be dug in dry weather as^soon as they are ma- 
ture. When a potato is broken, and the milk oozes 
out and turns green, it may be considered as a safe 
sign that the potato is not mature. When it remains 
white, and very little appears, the potato is ripe. 

When digging, great care should be e.xercised to 
handle the potatoes carefully, and avoid bruising 
them. To do this, it is better to throw the potatoes 
into heap-rows, instead of throwing them into piles, 
as generally practiced. Then go along this row with 
baskets or boxes, select the perfect potatoes, hauling 
them to the bank or house in these baskets. This 
saves one handling and prevents bruising. The cut 
and bruised potatoes should be fed to stock, and the 
small ones banked by themselves. If they are to be 
shipped they should be shipped in barrels, as they 
are easily bruised. One of the most important ques- 
tions connected with sweet potato growing, is that 
of storing" and keeping them throught the winter, as 
potatoes will bring twice as much in April as they 
will if sold before Christmas. 

The old plan of banking potatoes is about as good 
as the average grower can do. Cellars are as a rule 
damp, and for that reason unsatisfactory. The banks 
should have a foundation of sand, over which should 
be placed a good thick layer of pine straw. Then 
thirty or forty bushels of potatoes can be put in, and 
a good thick layer of pine straw placed over them. A 
flue made of six inch boards, should be perforated 
with auger holes, and placed in the center of the bank 
so that the potatoes can be well ventilated. This flue 
should be stopped up during cold weather. On top of 
fhe pine straw should be placed a layer of corn-stalks 
which will keep the weight of the dirt off. And a 
thin layer of dirt should be put on the stalks, and just 
before a freeze, this dirt should be made much thick- 
er. However, if you are going into the business for 



the money, it wiil be better to make preparations for 
taking care of your crop by building a potato house. 
It is of tliC utmost importance that your potaiioes be 
stored in such a way as to keep them. The following 
plan has been used for a long time, which we take 
from bulletin No. 25, Georgia E.xperiment Station : 

A close shed with an alley running through ; dou- 
ble doors at both ends of llie ailcyway, so vehicles 
may pass through. On either side of the alleyway a 
bin eight feet interior width and as long as the alley- 
way or shed; the bin four feet high and constructed 
of double walls of inch and a quarter plank, the walls 
fifteen inches wide between the boards, the intersti- 
tial space filled with dry sand. This is the perma- 
nent structure. The potatoes are banked in bulk, 
cross divisions, however, being run for the purpose of 
preventing the possibility of rot in one portion of the 
bin extending to the entire mass. Dry pinestraw is 
placed on the bottom of the bin, which is on a level 
with the natural surface of the ground — no excava- 
tion. The potatoes are piled carefully by hand in the 
bin, straw keeping them from touching the plank 
sides. They are piled nearlv as high as the side 
walls of the bin and are heaped in the center say two 
feet above the sides. A horizontal cleat is tacked on 
the sides of the bin just below the too of the side walls 
on the inside to afford a resting place for a series of 
roof-boards wdiich are made of 1x12 plank cut with a 
bevel at each end and about four feet, eight inches 
long. One beveled end of each board rests on the 
horizontal cleat of the side walls, the other bevels 
make a mitred joint in the renter of the bin, touching 
each other and forming solid and substantial, though 
removable, rafters — or rather rafters and roof in one. 
After the potatoes are piled up in the bins, straw is 
placed several inches thick on top, and the rafters put 
in place as stated. The bin is then left until cold 
weather sets in — the potatoes meanwdiile going 
through their "sweat." On permanently cold weath- 
er -setting in, several inches of drv sand are placed 
on top of the roof, thus making the bin air tight, 
though access can be easily had at any time to the 
interior by scraping away a portion of the sand and 
removing a couple of the boards. The sand once 
hauled and the roof-boards once cut, only the straw 
remains to be annually renewed, thus reducing the 
yearly cost almost to the interest, only, on the plant. 
■ A large quantity of potatoes can thus be safely and 
economically stored with reasonable assurance of im- 
munity from rot. 



34 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



The by-products of the potato are quite important. 
The vines and culls are worth a great deal to the far- 
mer as stock food, and it is by saving these by-prod- 
ucts that the farmer saves monev. 

RICE. 

Rice constitutes the chief food of over half the peo- 
ple, of the world. It is grown more in China, Japan, 
and India than any other country. The United 
'; States produces only about one-half of what she con- 
'sumes, the rest being imported. There is no reason 
why the United States should not produce all she 
uses, and have some to spare. If she does this, then 
■the South must do the raising. There are sections 
'of the South that do not yieUl enough to pay taxes 
on the land, which could be made to pay good money 
b}' growing rice. From fifteen hundred to three 
thousand five hundred pounds of rice can be raised 
per acre, and this will sell, anywhere from $25.00 to 
$150.00. Mr. J. C. Fletcher, of Katy, Texas, writing 
of his experience in growing rice, has this to say: 

"One man can prepare enough land during the 
winter season to raise his corn, oats and vegetables 
for his own use and have them laid by before pump- 
ing season begins. Some use wells, others use tanks 
or small canals. I use a well. 

"My well is one hundred and sixty feet deep. I 
pump from the second strata of water. I use a pit 
thirty-five feet deep to put my pumps in. That (35 
ft.) being my lift. I use a five-inch pump with an 
eight-inch discharge. My boiler and engine are thir- 
ty-five horse power. It throws one thousand gallons 
of pure sparkling water per minute. This water runs 
through a flume and empties into the first levee. The 
ground is surveyed into levees so as to water the 
high and low places. These levees are thrown up as 
high as can be conveniently done all around the field 
so as to hold all the water. Cross levees are thrown 
up so as to hold permanently 4 inches of water all 
over the rice field. Small pipes are run through the 
cross levees at the spot set, just so the water will 
run into the next levee. When the water gets above 
the four inches in the first levee it will run through 
the pipe into the next levee and so on until the whole 
field is flooded. When I begin to pump I need two 
men. One to run the engine during the day, the oth- 
er at night. I look after the levees and haul oil. 

"I use 'Beaumont' oil. I use about six barrels every 
twenty-four hours at a cost of fifty-two cents per bar- 



rel. I hire two men for two months at twenty-five 
dollars per month each and board. Average fifteen 
sacks per acre, three dollars and twenty-five cents 
per sack makes forty-eight dollars and seventy-five 
cents per acre or four thousand eight hundred and 
seventy-five dollars from one hundred acres. Ex- 
penses, one thousand dollars. Net for use of land 
and machinery and four mules, three thousand eight 
hundred and seventy-five dollars. Can vou do sO' 
well with cotton and corn?" 

Rice as a rule grows on land which is low and lev- 
el and easily irrigated ; but there are varieties which 
grow on fertile uplands without irrigation. The crop 
grown upon upland, however, is not nearly so cer- 
tain, and the quality of the rice greatly inferior to 
that grown on lowlands. The best soil for rice is a 
medium loam, containing about 50 per cent. clay. The 
rich soils of Texas, Louisiana and .\rkansas are re- 
markably well suited to rice culture. Rice has gen- 
erally failed on peaty soils. Among the best rice 
lands of Southeastern Louisiana, are the so-called 
buckshot-clay lands, which are so stiff that they can 
hardly be plowed up unless first flooded to soften 
them. Gravelly or sandy soils are not adapted, to rice 
growing, for they are not able to retain water. In 
selecting land to be planted in rice, one must keep in 
\iew the fact that rice needs water. We do not mean 
to say that a man cannot grow rice without artificial 
irrigation, nor do we dispute the fact that a man can 
make a crop without hoeing. To make a crop with- 
out artificial irrigation is about like making a crop 
without hoeing. In Louisiana. Arkansas and Texas, 
there are vast prairie lands that produce excellent 
rice. There is no expensive ditching or leveling to 
be done to prepare the land for rice. 

Some planters recommend shallow plowing for 
rice, because it appears to thrive best in compact 
earth. But this is not sufficient evidence against the 
deep plowing of your land. We believe that much 
better results can be had by deep preparation. Deep 
plowing just before planting frequently brings too 
much alkali to the surface on alkali lands in the 
West. The remedy for this is to plow just a little 
deeper than the previous plowing just before the har- 
vest. The alkali will then be washed out before the 
si)ring plowing. After plowing the land thoroughly, 
it should be gone over with the harrow, after which 
it should be rolled with a heavy roller. 

In planting rice, care should be observed in select- 



A Legume Crop Stores the Nitrogen in the Ground. 



35 



ing seed, for you should be sure that your rice does 
not contain any red rice, or any grass or weed seeds. 
Rice can be sown between the middle of March, and 
the middle of May, but it is a safe rule to have your 
rice in the ground by the 20th of April. The amount 
sown varies with the method to be used in sowing. 
Anywhere from one to three bushels per acre is the 
proper amount. Rice should be planted with a drill, 
for this distributes the seed more evenly, and the 
quantity used will be exact. The seed will be planted 
at a uniform depth, and the dirt packed over them 
with the drill roller. The land should be rolled be- 
fore planting, for if it is not, the feet of the animals 
drawing the drill will push some of the rice down four 
or five inches lower than the other. Rice sown 
broadcast does not germinate and grow with any 
uniformity. In some cases the variation of the ger- 
mination in the same field has been as much as eight 
days. 

There are three different methods of treating rice 
just after planting. Some let in just enou.gh water 
to thoroughly saturate the ground immediately after 
sowing and harrowing, and then draw off all the sur- 
face water. Uthers sow and trust to the amount of 
moisture in the land to germinate the seed. This is 
rather uncertain, and rarely produces good results. 
Then some sprout the rice before planting, by plac- 
ing bags of rice in water. This plan is sure to be a 
failure if the land is drv when the rice is sown. If 
you plant in dry soil without saturation, rolling the 
land after seeding, and harrowing have been found 
lieneficial. But of these methods it is believed the 
first gives best results. As has been stated above, 
rice should not be .gone over with stock of any kind 
after it is planted. 

If that be true, then we would insist that no roller 
or harrow go over the land. As for trusting to there 
being sufficient moisture in the .ground to germinate 
the rice, that plan is too uncertain. So we recom- 
mend the use of the first svstem. 

Flooding is one of the most important features of 
rice culture. Rice can be grown without any irriga- 
tion, and it can be grown with continuous irrigation, 
so you can readily see the wide scope between the 
two. We cannot lay down invariable rules for gov- 
erning the flooding of rice. Usually flooding is not 
practiced until the rice is six or eight inches high, ex- 
cept where water is used to sprout the seed. The 



depth of water that should be maintained from the 
first flooding until it is drawn off, depends upon the 
following conditions: If the growing crop thorough- 
ly shades the land, just enough water should be used 
to thoroughly saturate the land. It is better to keep 
from three to six inches of water on the land all the 
time, and then you will be on the safe side of the 
question. To prevent stagnation it should be as near 
continuously flowing in and out all the time, as pos- 
sible. It has been found that when the stand of rice 
is thin, the water should be deeper. In South Caro- 
lina the practice is as follows: 

"Under the usual method the water is let on as 
soon as the seed is covered^ and remains on four to 
six daj'S, till the grain is well sprouted. It is then 
withdrawn. .Vs soon as the blade is up a few inches, 
the water is sometimes put on for a few days and 
again withdrawn. The first water is locally called 
the "sprout water.'' After the rice has two leaves the 
r.o-callcd 'stretch water,' or 'long-point flow,' is put 
on. At first it is allowed to be deep enough to coved 
the rice completely — generally from 10 to 12 inches — 
then it is gradually drawn down to about 6 inches, 
■where it is held twenty to thirty days. It is then 
withdrawn and the field allowed to dry. When the 
field is sufficiently dry the rice is hoed thoroughly, all 
grass and 'volunteer' rice being carefully removed. 
.\fter hoeing it remains without irrigation until joint- 
ing commences, when it is slightly hoed, cdre being 
used to prevent injury to the plants, and the water is 
then turned on a.gain. During the time water is held 
on the rice it is changed at least every week to avoid 
its becoming stagnant. When this occurs rice is lia- 
ible to be troubled with the water weevil. This 'lay- 
by flow,' or final irrigation, continues until about 
eight days before the harvest, when the water is drawn 
off for the field to dry." 

In Arkansas where the rice fields have recentlv 
been developed, the field is never dry from the time 
it is flooded, when the rice is six or eight inches high 
until is is ready to harvest, when it is drained, and 
cut. This practice produces as .good rice as that of 
South Carolina, and is done with perhaps less ex- 
pense. 

To flood land it is necessary to have levees, and 
they should be constructed as follows : 

"In coast-marsh and river-bottom culture a canal 
is excavated on the outer rim of the tract selected. 



36 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



completely inclosing it. The excavated dirt is thrown 
upon the outer bank to form a levee. The canal must 
be of sufficient capacity for irrigation and drainage. 
The levee must be sufficient not only to inclose the 
flooding waters, but to protect the fields from the en- 
croachment of the river at all seasons. When prac- 
ticable the rice lands are flooded from the river, and 
find drainage by a canal or subsidary stream that en- 
ters the. river at a lower level. The embankment must 
be sufficient to protect the rice against either freshets 
or salt water. Freshets are injurious to growing rice, 
not only because of the volume of water, but by 
reason of the temperature. A great body of water 
descending rapidly from the mountains to the sea is 
several degrees colder than water under the ordinary 
flow. Any large amount of this cold water admitted 
to the field not only retards the growth but is a posi- 
tive injury to the crop. In periods of continued 
drought the salt water of the sea frequently ascends 
the river a considerable distance. Slightly brackish 
water is not injurious to rice, but salt water is de- 
structive. 

"The tract of land selected and inclosed is then cut 
up by smaller canals into fields or subfields of suita- 
ble size, a small levee being thrown up on the borders 
of each. The entire tract is usually level, but if there 
should be any inequality care must be taken that the 
surface of each subfield be level. The main canal is 
ID to 30 feet wide, about 4 feet deep, and connects 
with the river by flood gates. Through these canal 
boats of considerable tonnage have ready access to the 
entire circuit of the tract, while smaller boats can 
pass along the subcanals to the several fields. The 
subcanals are usually from 6 to 10 feet in width and 
should be nearly as deep as the main canal. 

During the flooding period the ditches and canals 
become more or less filled by the mud which flows 
into them with the water. As soon after harvest as 
possible the ditch banks should be cleared of all 
grasses, weeds or brush, and the ditches cleaned. The 
levees should 'be examined to see if they are in re- 
pair." 

The irrigating plant is a very important question to 
some people. If you. have a stream you can use for 
irrigating you are fortunate, and of course this stream 
solves the problem. You can use artesian wells for 
the purpose of irrigating, using of course a tank or 
large receptacle to hold the water. Very frequently 
by digging a canal, a stream of water can be so turned 



as to be used for flooding purposes. Wells are also 
used, and the water pumped into a reservoir. Of 
course circumstances will govern in this matter. A 
good engine; boiler and pumping outfit can be placed 
in service at a very reasonable price, depending 
upon the size of the body of land to be irrigat- 
ed. A plant recently visited, capable of irrigating 
two hundred acres, cost about three thousand dollars 
in all, but the first crop of rice turned in from $75.00 
to $100.00 per acre. 

Red rice, which is a wild variety of rice containing 
red grains, causes rice growers no little annoyance. 

The presence of a few red grains in milled rice low- 
ers its grade and reduces its price. If it once gets a 
foothold in a field it increases rapidly from year to 
j-ear until finally the product becomes unsalable. 

The red rice and the common white rice are . two 
separate and distinct strains. The seed of one will 
not produce the other. Being stronger, hardier, and 
more persistent than the cultivated white rice, the 
former becomes a dangerous weed in the rice field. 
Its first start comes from the sowing of seed con- 
taining red grains. The fields are reseeded from year 
to year mainly in this way: After the crop is harvest- 
ed the stalks which have been cut off frequently send 
out suckers from the lower joints which mature seed. 
As these seeds possess remarkable resistance to pre- 
mature germination, spring finds the ground well 
sown with red rice. 

Remedies. — Two things must be accomplished to 
keep the fields clear of red rice: First, seed planted 
must be free of red rice, and the utmost caution must 
be exercised to secure this ; second, red seed must be 
prevented from maturing in the field if accidentally 
planted. 

To this end it is exceedingly important to prevent 
a second crop of red seed from maturing after the 
general harvest, which is almost certain to occur if the 
field is left fallow till the following winter. The land 
should be well drained at the time of the harvest, and 
within a few weeks thereafter the stubble should be 
plowed under. In October the land should be thor- 
oughly cultivated with a disk harrow and sown to 
oats for winter pasture. If the harvest be early, the 
stubble may be plowed under immediately and the 
field planted to vetches or crimson clover for pasture. 
In pasturage care should be exercised not to allow 
any stock on these fields in wet weather. It is quite 
customary to burn the stubble. This may destroy 



Take Advantage of the Nitrogen that is in the Air. 



37 



a few seeds and prevent sprouts from maturing seed, 
but it destroys fertilizers and leaves the land bare. 
Fall plowing and planting to forage crops is far more 
advantageous. Plowing in the early spring and thor- 
ough cultivation just before planting is helpful in re- 
ducing the red rice, but not sufficient for complete 
eradication. 

While some of the methods mentioned for eradi- 
_cating weeds and red rice are helpful, none of them 
liave proved completely successful except summer 
fallowing with cowpeas or planting in corn. This 
plan increases the fertility of the soil, so that more 
rice is produced in a series of years than by uninter- 
rupted cropping with rice. 

On new land seed absolutely free from red rice 
should be used ; then, with care, the land may be kept 
free from it. In case land is already filled with it, if 
sufficiently well drained, cultivate to corn or cotton 
a few years ; if not sufficiently well drained, summer 
fallow ; if this can not be done, pasture to sheep or 
hogs. Every rice planter should use great care, in 
selecting a new piece of ground upon which to raise 
seed, to choose a plot without possible taint of red. 
The seed should be examined so closely as to prevent 
the sowing of any red seed. 

When the rice is in the dough stage, it is allowed 
to drain, as there is sufficient water in the ground to 
finish the maturity. In eight or ten days it should be 
sufficiently dry for you to begin harvesting. It is 
ready to cut when the straw begins to turn yellow. 
Harvesting machinery is used to harvest it with where 
any amount is planted, but where a small amount is 
planted it is harvested with a sickle. After being eut it 
is handled very muc'h like wheat or oats. It is allowed 
to cure, and then it is thrashed from the straw. Af- 
ter the rice comes from the thrasher, it is known as 
paddy rice, or dough rice. Paddy rice consists of the 
grain proper, and around it a close fitting cuticle, 
which is enclosed in a somewhat hard stiff husk. The 
rice is carried through a mill, and this husk is re- 
moved. This milling, process is as follows, as given 
in a recent Bulletin issued by one of the Stations : 

"The improved processes of milling rice are quite 
complicated. The paddy is first screened to remove 
trash and foreign particles. The hulls, or chaff, are 
removed by rapidly revolving 'milling stones' set 
about two-thirds of the length of a rice grain apart. 

The product goes over horizontal screens and blow- 



ers, which separate the light chaff and the whole and 
broken kernels. The grain is now of a mixed yellow 
and white color. To remove the outer skin the grain 
is put in huge mortars holding from 4 to 6 bushels 
each and pounded with pestles weighing 350 to 400 
pounds. Strange to say, the heavy weight of the pes- 
tles breaks very little grain. 

"When sufficiently decorticated, the contents of 
the mortars, consisting now of flour, fine chaff, and 
clean rice of a dull, filni)', creamy color, are re- 
moved to the flour screens, where the flour is sifted 
out; and thence to the fine-chaff fan, where the fine 
chaff is blown out. On account of the heat generat- 
ed by the heavy frictional process through which it 
has just passed, the rice next goes to the cooling bins. 
It remains here for eight or nine hours, and then 
passes to the brush screens, whence the smallest rice 
and what little flour is left pass down on one side and 
the larger rice down the other. 

"Polishing. — The grain is now clean and ready for 
the last process — polishing. This is necessary to give 
the rice its pearly luster, and it makes all the differ- 
ence imaginable in its appearance. The polishing is 
effected by friction against the rice of pieces of moose 
hide or sheepskin, tanned and worked to a wonderful 
degree of softness, loosely tacked around a rev^'vinf 
double cylinder of wood and wire gauze. From the 
polishers the rice goes to the separating screens, com- 
posed of different sizes of gauze,- where it is di\ ided 
into its appropriate grades. It is then barreled and 
is ready for market. 

"Hulling machines. — In mills more recently erected 
the foregoing process has been modified by substi- 
tuting the 'huller' for the mortar and pounder. The 
huller is a short, cast-iron, horizontal tube with inte- 
rior ribs and a funnel at one end to admit the rice. 
Within this tube revolves a shaft with ribs. These 
ribs are so adjusted that the revolution of the shaft 
creates the friction necessary to remove the cuticle. 
The rice passes out of the huller at the end opposite 
the funnel. It resembles externally a larare sausage 
machine. It requires six hullers for each set of burs. 
7'he automatic sacker and weigher is used instead of 
barreling, sacks being preferred for shipping the 
cleaned rice. 

"With the above modification of the milling pro- 
cesses considerable reduction has been made in the 
cost of the mill. Mills of a daily capacity of 60,000 



38 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



pounds of cleaned rice can now be constructed at a 
total cost of $10,000 to $15,000. 

"A portable mill. — A portable mill has also been de- 
vised for plantation use, costing $250, aside from the 
power to run it, and capable of cleaning 8,100 pounds 
of paddy rice per day. Such small machines do not 
give the finish required by the general market, but 
turn out excellent rice for local use." 

BY-PRODUCTS OF RICE. 

From a recent Bulletin issued by one of the Ex- 
periment Stations, we take the following oti the by- 
products of rice: 

"Rice bran contains 12. i per cent, protein, 8.8 per 
cent, fat, and 59.4 per cent, fiber and carbohydrates; 
rice hulls, 3.6 per cent, protein, 0.7 per cent, fat, 35.7 
per cent, fiber, and 38.6 per cent, other carbohydrates; 
and rice polish, 11.7 per cent, protein, 7.3 per cent, 
fat, and 64.3 per cent, fiber and carbohydrates. Ac- 
cording to an estimate made by Dr. Stubbs, director 
of the Louisiana Experiment Station, rice polish is 
worth $21.55 per ton; rice bran, $20.80; rice straw, 
$9.13, and rice hulls, $8.34. These values are based 
on the assumption that the nutritive elements in rice 
are digestible in the same degree .as those contained 
in the by-products of wheat and other .cereals. 

"Straw. — Rice straw is worth preserving. As a 
fodder for stock its value is about equal to good 
Southern prairie hay. Rice straw contains 4.72 per 
cent, crude protein, 32.21 per cent, carbohydrates, and 
1.87 per cent. fats. The sweetness and excellent fla- 
vor of well-preserved rice straw adds very materially 
to its practical feeding value, because stock will con- 
sume large quantities of it. Digestion Experiments 
have not been made with the straw or any of the by- 
products of rice milling. 

"Rice hulls. — The hulls removed from the rice in 
the first process of milling possess a low degree of 
feeding value, and being also deficient in flavor and 
digestibility they are of little value as food for stock; 
they are more valuable as a fertilizer. They not only 
restore to the land part of the elements of fertility re- 
moved by the crop, but increase the porosity of the 
soil. They also make an excellent mulch for garden 
and orchard. 

"Hull ashes. — In passing through rice-milling dis- 



tricts large quantities of hull ashes will be noticed. 
These are very little used by farmers and gardeners, 
under the general impression that they are of no value. 
One hundred pounds of hull ashes contain 0.82 pound 
of phosphoric acid and 0.93 pound of potash. There 
are many other better sources of potash and phos- 
phoric acid. The amount contained in the hull ashes 
would not pay the cost of scattering them over the 
fields. 

"The planter who burns his straw and sells his rice 
in the paddy loses 63.92 per cent, of the total mineral 
matter of the crop. If the rice straw and the hulls be 
returned to the soil as manure, 86.36 per cent, of the 
mineral matter of the crop will be restored, and the 
loss would be only 13.64 per cent. The present meth- 
od of burning rice hulls cannot be too severely con- 
demned, but doubtless will be continued as long as 
rice is sold in the paddy. Hulling is a process re- 
quiring very simple and inexpensive machinery. It 
can be done profitably upon the farm, and is done in 
most of the great rice-producing countries. In addi- 
tion to their fertilizing value, the removal of the hull 
on the farm saves the expense for sacks and freight 
charge for extra bulk and weight, the hulls forming 
about 20 per cent, of the weight of the paddy. It al- 
so enables the farmer as well as the miller to deter 
mine with greater exactness the quality of the grain, 
thereby removing that element of uncertainty which 
always operates to the detriment of the farmer. It 
should be mentioned, however, that the hard husk of 
the rice tends to prevent attacks of weevil on the 
grain, and that rice with all or a portion of the husks 
on keeps better in storage or long shipment. '' 

"Rice polish. — This is the fine flour resulting from 
the polishing process. It is a valuable stock food, be- 
ing rich in albuminoids as well as carbohydrates." 

RYE. 

Rye is grown in this country for green forage and 
mining purposes. The grain is also used for malting. 
and the straw in the manufacture of paper. The yield 
of grain for the United States is about fifteen bush- 
els per acre. It will grow on poorer soils than any 
other cereal, and as a soiling crop in the South is excel- 
lent, giving several cuttings during the winter and 
spring. For bread, a rather dry, sandy soil of medium 
fertility is best, but a fair crop can be produced on 
soil too poor to produce wheat or corn, and with less 



Pay Cash If Possible. 



39 



care. It will not do well On wet soil. The ground 
should be prepared in the same way as for wheat, and 
if it is intended to be cut green, should be well manur- 
ed with stable manure a little earlier in the fall. As 
it is likely to be affected with the fly, the best time 
to sow is in September and October. If the soil is 
not fertile, you should plant your rye early, so as to 
give it plenty of time to get a good foothold before 
freezing weather. 

The seed should be put in about two inches deep, 
sowing about one bushel per acre. If you are growing 
the rye for forage and have good land, you will want 
to use more seed than otherwise, and in this case two 
bushels would not be too much. Be sure to secure 
Southern grown seed, as Northern seed will not suc- 
ceed well in the South. Rye is ready to cut when the 
straw changes color and the kernels pass into the 
hard dough stage. The grain is harvested in the same 
manner as wheat. Special machines are in use for 
threshing out the grain, which will not injure the 
straw. Tliese machines are valuable where the straw 
is used for packing or for making into paper; but of 
course such machines cannot be used unless one goes 
into the business very extensively. 

SORGHUM. 

Sorghum resembles Indian corn in habit of growth, 
but it produces its grain upon the head instead of 
forming ears. 

It is used both as a forage plant and for the pro- 
duction of syrup. It will grow wherever Indian 
corn will grow, but will withstand drought better 
and yield more forage on poor land. The cultivation 
of sorghum has assumed quite large proportions in 
the South. It should not be planted until after the 
ground gets thoroughy warm, as it is very sensitive 
to cold. 

As suggested, sorghum is worth more as a forage 
plant, than it is for the syrup. For forage it should be 
sown broadcast, at the rate of about one and a half or 
two bushels per acre. Many farmers sow sorghum 
and cow peas together, but the crop is more difficult 
to cure and we do not recommend it. If you use cow 
peas with the sorghum you should use from one-half 
bushel to three pecks of each. One great difficulty 
in growing sorghum broadcast is weeds. Conse- 
quently the ground should be thoroughly prepared 
before the seed are sown. Sorghum should be cut 



when the heads are about ripe. It is important that 
it be well cured, for it will not keep unless it is. It 
yields anywhere from one to three tons of dry forage 
per acre. In many places, and where you have fav- 
orable seasons several cuttings may be had. As a 
syrup plant it is planted in rows four feet apart, the 
seed, as a rule, being drilled in. 




Fig. 23. — Seeded Ribbon Cane. A species of Sorghum grown 
in Texas. 

Cultivate shallow the same as corn. When grown 
for sprout, it should be well manured with stable ma- 
nure, tankage or cottonseed meal. 

"Press Bulletin 14, of the Nebraska Experiment Sta- 
tion, is on "The Danger Limit in the Use of Sor- 
ghum.' The publicity given to the injurious effects 
of sorghum through the investigations carried on by 
this station to ascertain the cause has moved people 
not heretofore acquainted with this occasionally ex- 
hibited peculiarity of the plant, to become suspicious 
of it. While no further positive information has been 
obtained on the subject, there yet remains a word or 
two that may be profitably spoken. 

"The records of this station do not show any cases 
of sudden death from sorghum occurring in the east- 
ern portion of Nebraska, with the exception of a few 
which occurred on second growth sorghum. There is 
also reason to believe that plants producing this dis- 
astrous effect have not made a healthy growth, and 
are yellow and wilted, a condition easily detected by 



40 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



the farmer. It would, therefore, seem reasonable to 
conclude that no danger is to be encountered in pas- 
turing sorghum of healthy growth in Eastern Ne- 
braska. 

"Again it would appear that no danger is incurred 
if the sorghum is fed after cutting and allowing to lie 
for some time. A sample of sorghum was recently 
received by the station with a letter accompanying it, 
stating the plants were parts of a very few partially 
eaten by a cow whic'h was killed by them in two min- 
utes. The sample was fed to a cow on the station 
farm without injuring her in the leait. This, togeth- 
er with the fact that no poison has been detected in 
samples sent to the station for analysis, would indi- 
cate that any toxic substances which the plants might 
have contained have become dissipated after cutting. 
The length of time required for this is not known, 
but it is certainly accomplished in a few days. 

"As sorghum is undoubtedly the best annual mid- 
summer forage crop for this region, it is important 
that its limitations should be well defined. The use 
of healthy sorghum for pasturage with the ordinary 
precautions in Eastern Nebraska, and of sorghum 
hay, may be considered safe." 

SUGAR CANE. 

Sugar cane is a tropical plant, and grows more or 
less in all of the Gulf States. It is planted more ex- 
tensively in Louisiana. In this country it is propa- 
gated altogether by cuttings, as it does not produce 
seed in the United States, and it was only recently 
discovered that the seed would reproduce sugar-cane 
at all. 

Sugar-cane flourishes on rich alluvial bottom lands, 
but it may be grown on any fertile soil in a warm 
climate where water is abundant and the land well 
drained, and worked. The sugar soils of Louisiana 
range from loamy soils to almost pure clays. It is im- 
portant to have the land well drained, and some ex- 
periment stations recommended using drains one hun- 
dred feet apart deep enough to hold the ground wa- 
ter at least three feet below the surface. 

The growing of sugar-cane is deserving of more at- 
tention from the farmers of the South. While the in- 
dustry is large in Louisiana, it is not grown so exten- 
sively in other portions of the South as it should be. 
Dr. W. C. Stubbs of the Louisiana Experiment Sta- 
tion while on a visit to Georgia, had the following to 



say about the possibilities of Georgia in the produc- 
tion of sugar-cane: 

"A previous visit to this State during the season of 
syrup-making, and a critical examination of your 
fields of cane and your methods of manufacture, and 
a subsequent examination of many sampler of cane 
in our laboratory, convinced me of the fitness of your 
soil and climate to this industry. The superior sacch- 
arine richness of your canes and your abundant and 
cheap labor, your large supply of cheap fuel, the low 
prices of your land, and the ease with which it can 
be cultivated and drained, all suggested to me the 
possibility of lh!s section making sugar and syrup in 
competition with the world. The large sugar content 
of your canes should attract readily the attention of 
n:anufacturers of sugar and central factories would 
surely come as soon as the farmers would guarantee 
the necessary cane. A central factory would not only 
increase the present value of a ton of cane by saving 
■ therefrom nearly double the juice wdiich is now ob- 
tained by your small mills, but would furnish a market 
for many of your other products which are today un- 
salable. The community would find a central factory a 
veritable increment to the volume of business trans- 
acted. Railroads would not only profit by the trans- 
portation of cane to the factory and the sugar market, 
but by the increased transportation of all kinds of 
wares needed by the factory and its clientelle, and the 
increased travel which a constantly growing pop- 
ulation would indulge in. Every environment de- 
clares for central factories, and if the local 
farmers guarantee an ample supply of cane, few 
business commvmities can afford to be with- 
out them. In the absence of central factories, con- 
tinue to make syrup. Remember three cardinal prin- 
ciples in the growing of cane and the manufacture of 
sugar or syrup. 

"i. The sugar is made only in the field; therefore 
aim to make each acre as productive as your soil, cli- 
mate and your own intelligence can effect it. 

"2. After making the sugar in the field, it is al- 
most a criminal waste to leave it in the bagasse or in 
the scums. Therefore mills should be adjusted to get 
the largest percentage of extraction possible, and ar- 
rangements should be made by which the scum 
should be greatly reduced in quantity. 

"3. After getting all th.e juice poss'ble and decreas- 
ing the losses from scums, the operations of concen- 
tration and the preparation for market should be ef- 
fected in the most approved styles, remembering that 



Den t Depend on the Other Man Keeping Your Books. 



41 



attractiveness to-day is demanded in every article, 
which meet with a ready sale. 

"A good acre of cane in Georgia should yield at 
least 20 tons of cane. A ton of Georgia cane should 
give 1,400 to 1,500 pounds of juice containing at least 
15 per cent, of total solids, and shoiild yield an evap- 
oration of 25 to 30 gallons of syrup. Thus an acre of 
Georgia cane should yield at least 500 to 600 gallons 
of syrup of standard density and weight, if properly 
handled. With a larger density of the juice which 
experience has shown actually exists, and an increase 
in tonnage, 800 or even 1,000 gallons per acre might 
easily be obtained." 

What is true of Georgia is true of other Southern 
States. They are depending entirely too much on 
one crop. Diversified farming is the salvation of the 
South, and much of the diversification can commence 
in planting sugar-cane. More than twice as much 
sugar is now produced in the United States from su- 
gar beets than from sugar-cane. 

For sugar-cane, as for most other crops, the land 
should be thoroughly prepared by deep plowing and 
harrowing. When farmers realize the real value of 
deep plowing, they will stop scratching the surface of 
the land. After the land has been deeply broken and 
harrowed it should be thrown in beds from five to sev- 
en feet wide. Sometimes only one line of continuous 
cane is laid. This will not always insure a stand, and it 
is far better to use two layers than one. When two 
canes are laid side by side it will require four tons to 
plant an acre, using seven foot rows. In Louisiana 
it is planted in the winter, which results in an earlier 
growth ; but in Georgia and Florida it is thought best 
to bank the seed and plant in the early spring. The 
cane should be covered with the good furrows. In 
many sections, the tops or mature joints are used for 
planting. In Louisiana and many other sections in 
the extreme southern part of the South, cane is al- 
lowed to grow from the stubble, and makes quite ex- 
cellent cane. That is, when they cut the cane to 
make into syrup or sugar, by using a turning plow the 
roots from which the cane has just been cut are cov- 
ered with dirt and the next year produces as good cane 
as before. 

"The yield per acre on good land not fertilized was 
twelve tons cane and the maximum yield on the same 
land with 2,000 pounds of guano per acre, was 
thirty-nine tons, thus giving a gain of twenty-seven 
tons cane per acre as the result of 2,000 pounds of gu- 



ano ; the twenty-seven tons cane at $3.50 per ton is 
worth $94.50, and the 2,000 pounds guano cost $21, 
this shows a net gain of $73.50 per acre as the result 
of this fertilizer. 

"On my crop last year I used 1,200 pounds of gu- 
ano per acre at two applications of the following for- 
mula. Twelve hundred pounds 16 per cent, acid 
phosphate, 400 pounds, 8 per cent., cottonseed meal, 
200 pounds nitrate of soda, 200 pounds muriate of pot- 
ash." 

Nitrogen and phosphoric acid are used as fertili- 
zers in most cane growing sections. The nitrogen is 
supplied by cotton seed meal, and turning in a heavy 
crop of cow peas every third year. Phosphoric acid 
is supplied by using dissolved bone, Thomas slag, or 
acid phosphate. Many successful cane growers also 
use large green titus of tankage which supplies both 
nitrogen and phosphoric acid. The cane should 
have shallow cultivation. 

As to the manufacture of syrup, perhaps we cannot 
do better than give a concrete case. Explaining how 
he manufactures his syrup, Mr W. E. Roddenberry, 
of Cairo, Ga., has the following to say: 

"My manufacturing plant consists of one 45 horse- 
power steam boiler, two 15 horse-power engines, two 
2,600 No. 3 roller mills, large rolls 18 inches in diam- 
eter, two galvanized iron cooking vats, with copper 
coils for steam heat, and the necessary pumps, pip- 
ing and tanks, also wagon scales, cane derrick, cane 
car, bagasse carrier, etc. The total cost of this outfit 
approximates $2,500, including the building. 

The two mills are not geared together so as to get 
the best extraction by running same cane through 
both mills, as is done in modern mills, but are set up 
on the ground side by side, both mills being run at the 
same time and fed lightly in order to be able to key 
them tighter than if fed full. I have frequent break- 
down in the mills, as they are too frail to do the 
work I try to make therri do. 

"I secured an extraction of juice estimated at about 
64 per cent, of the weight of the cane with these mills. 
One fifteen horse-power engine is sufficient to drive 
both mills, and I have the second engine simply as a 
reserve in case of accident to engine in use. 

"The cane is tied in bundles with ropes laid across 
the wagon beds in the field, about 1,000 pounds in 
each bundle, two bundles to the load; after weighing 
each load on wagon scale, the cane is lifted from the 
wagon by a hand derrick and placed on small car 
which is shoved to an inclined platform in front of the 



42 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



mills and dumped from the car. which works on piv- 
ot, on to the inclined platform, the bundles of cane 
sliding- down the incline to the mills so that one hand 
can easily feed each mill. The r.a,a:asse is carried by 
elevators from each mill to a platform from which it is 
carted in dump carts direct to the field and scattered 
on the land as fast as ground to be plowed under la- 
ter. 

"The juice is filtered through a small box of black 
moss as it comes from the mills to remove the coarse 
fibre, and is then elevated by a steam jet to a larger 



used for defecating or skimming and after the juice 
is thoroughly skimmed in same it is allowed to flow 
into second vat where it is evaporated into syrup, and 
another charge of juice let into first vat, and this pro- 
cess goes on in this way continually. At the outlet 
from the first vat into the second vat, I use a ba-? fil- 
ter, made of thin sea island sheeting, this bag is about 
six feet long and two feet wide, it must be this Hrgc 
to allow the juice to run through rapidly ; this filter 
or strainer removes a considerable portion of sediment 
that cannot be skimmed off, because it will not rise to 




Fig. 24. — Sugar-pan? field of W. E. Roddenberry, Cairo. G-a. 



moss filter, this filter being a so-gallon barrel packed 
full of black, cleaned moss, this filter barrel is placed 
in the top of the building so that the juice will flow 
from the same into the juice tank which is made of 
galvanized iron and is large enough to hold two 
charges of juice. 

The two cooking vats are placed side by side and 
at such elevation as will permit juice to flow by grav- 
ity from juice tank into first cooking vat and from 
this vat into the second cooking vat. The first vat is 



the top. The solid matter thus removed is largely 
the same class of matter that is removed by use of set- 
tling tanks in up-to-date cane mills. The skimming 
process is kept up constantly in the second or finish- 
ing vat, until the juice is reduced to syrup of a densi- 
ty registering 34 degrees Beaurne; then the syrup is 
drawn out into syrup tank from which the syrup is 
canned or barreled. If canned, it is done while the 
syrup is verv hot and hermetically sealed at once. 
The syrup is strained through heavy flannel bag, as it 
flows from finishing vat into syrup tank, and it is sur- 



Look cut for your Own Interests. The Other Fellow will do the Same. 



43 



prising to see how much of the black solid matter we 
get from the syrup with this flannel strainer, when it 
is considered that the juice has been filtered through 
three feet of moss, then skimmed thoroughly in the 
first vat, and strained as it goes into second vat and 
then skimmed continuously while evaporating. Just 
here I will mention that I have found it advisable 
to allow the heavy scum commonly called the blanket, 
to rise slowly and thoroughly in the skimming vat be- 
fore breaking or removing the same, being very care- 
ful not to let any of it boil in, and to wait a minute 
or two after shutting off the steam before removing 
it in order to allow the scum to harden somewhat, and 
it is decidedly better to remove the blanket by raking 
it off with a paddle thar. to skim it off with the or- 
dinary skimmer, commonly used by our farmers. In 
order to facilitate the removing of the blanket, I have 
my skimming vat constructed with a flange on one 
side twelve inches wide, and inclined at an angle of 
about 45 degress and under the lip of this flange, I 
have a gutter into which the scum is raked and from 
which it flows into the skimming barrels. 

"I have 4 barrels for skimming, the bottom of each 
being tapped with iron pipe, which is connected with 
same steam jet with which I elevate the juice from the 
mill. I fill the skimming- barrels in rotation, and bv 
the time I begin filling the last barrel, the skimmings 
in the first barrel have become clarified by slight fer- 
mentation, so that practically all the scum has risen 
to the top and left the clear juice in the bottom of the 
barrel. I then pump this clarified juice by means of 
the steam jet from the first barrel into the moss filter, 
from whence it flows to the juice tank. I then keep 
up this regular rotation of filling and emptying these 
skimming barrels, and by this method I am able to use 
about two-thirds of the skimmings. This clarified 
juice from the skimmings is slightly acid when it 
goes into the juice vat and this aids somewhat the 
clarification of the juice in the skimming vat. 

"I use no lime or sulphur in clarification and have 
succeeded in making as bright a syrup by the above 
method as some of my neighbors make by the use of 
sulphur and lime. I will state, however, that these 
parties do not use settling tanks, which may account 
for the fact that they do not make any better grade 
of syrup with sulphur and lime than I make without 
it. This is one of the problems among many others 
that we are looking to the department of agriculture 
to settle for us. 

"As to the quality of the syrup thus made, I will 



say that I have here samples of the product for your 
inspection. I do not claim that this syrup is better 
than that made by some others in my sect'on who are 
equally careful and painstaking and who employ 
practically the same methods, and in justice to the 
smaller cane growers of my section who are still using 
the old-fashioned mill and iron open kettle, I desire 
to say that in some instances they succeed in making 
an excellent grade of syrup, but the great disadvan- 
tage in this method is the lack of uniformity in the 
grade of the syrup. 

"My cooking vats are elevated sufficiently to allow 
the condensed steam from copper coils in the vats 
to flow into a tank, which is elevated slightly above 
my steam boiler, and from this tank it is pumped while 
hot into the steam boiler. Th's is an important factor 
in cutting down expenses for fuel. 

"My plant described above is a fair representation of 
a dozen or more such plants located around Cairo 
and represent our largest and best outfits with the 
exception of one at Ingleside plantation, operated by 
Messrs. Wight, where they have a three-roller mill 
weighing 8,ooo pounds, and where they use sulphur 
and lime for clarifying; also except one now being lo- 
cated about i8 miles from Cairo, in Decatur county, 
with a capacity of 200 tons of cane per day. This 
plant is a second-hand outfit from Louisiana, and it is 
proposed to make sugar on same as well as syrup. 

"The capacity of my plant is 35 tons of cane in 24 
hours, and by buying cane from mv neighbors, I am 
able to run day and night. 

"I will now go back to the proposition that with a 
modern and first-class outfit my profit would have 
been increased' about 50 per cent. 

"By a modern outfit I mean a six-roller mill with 
a crusher or a nine-roller mill with a capacity of at 
least 200 tons of cane in 24 hours. Such a mill should 
give an extraction of 78 per cent, by the aid of satu- 
ration between the rolls. This mill should be equipped 
with cliain carrier and feeder, and best cooking out- 
fit, including sulphur and liming process, settling 
tanks and filter process so as to utilize practically all 
the skimming. Such a mill would make possible the 
use of bagasse for fuel, and would save about two- 
thirds the fuel, and would also greatly reduce the ex- 
pense of manufacturing. 

"With a mill of this description of large enough 
capacity, I could have waited to begin grinding until 
my cane was matured. Tm's would have saved a con- 



44 



.TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



siderable waste, as will be seen from the following da- 
ta. 

"I began grinding cane October 20, and finished 
December 18. During the first half of this grinding 
season I secured an average of 19 1-2 gallons of syrup 
from a ton of cane, and during the latter half I se- 
sured 23 1-2 gallons per ton. Thus you see I could 
have gained four gallons of syrup on every ton ground 
during the first half of the season by waiting until the 
cane was matured to begin grinding. This would 
have given me 1,752 gallons increase in the syrup out- 
put. This increase in syrup at 27 cents per gallon 
is $473. As stated above, my niills gave an average 



on a smaller scale than the gentleman just quoted 
from, less expensive machinery must be used. He 
must be contented with a one or two horse mill, or a 
mill run by a smaller engine. The evaporator is more 
successful than the kettle for making syrup, for you 
can make a better grade of syrup, and make it much 
faster than the old style kettle process. 

The Japanese sugar-cane has been grown quite ex- 
tensively in Florida with excellent results. It has one 
advantage over the other cane, and that is, it can 
stand drought better than any other cane, is not sen- 
sitive, and for that reason can be grown in places 




Fi^. -J. — Russian Suullowers. 



extraction of 64 per cent. With a mill that would 
give an extraction of 78 per cent, the increase would 
have been 4,136 gallons of syrup at 27 cents — $1,116.72 

"The approximate cost of manufacturing on my 
outfit is $1 per barrel of 30 gallons, whereas on a first- 
class plant the cost would be reduced to about 50 
cents per barrel. This would have been a saving on 
my crop of $315. These three items aggregate $1,- 
904.72, which is slightly more than 50 per cent, of my 
entire profit on this cane crop. This gain does not 
include the saving by using practically all the skim- 
mings. With an up-to-date cane mill, the net profit 
per acre on my cane crop in 1902 would have been 
approximately $128 instead of $84. 

Of course for the man who goes into the business 



where the regular sugar-cane cannot. When it is 
once planted it will last for six or eight years, while 
the other canes only last for three or four years, al- 
though the stalks become smaller each year. In plant- 
ing the Japanese variety the rows should be placed 
perhaps a foot wider than the other varieties. It is 
said that it produces more syrup than any other cane, 
but will not make good sugar. It is worthy of inves- 
tigation by anyone desiring to raise cane. 

SUNFLOWER. 

The sunflower is a native annual growing from 
three to fifteen feet high. The seed are used for feed- 
ing birds and for poultry, and are quite valuable as a 



Plant the Very Best Seed. 



45 



medicine for horses and cattle. If you desire to 
raise them very extensively, prepare the land about 
the same as you would for Indian corn, and cultivate 
in the same way. Many terraces and other ridges 
that are allowed to grow up in weeds 'COuld be profit- 
ably used to raise sunflowers on. They will be found 
quite valuable for chickens, and can be used all right 
around the house. 

TOBACCO. 

Tobacco is a rank growing plant which reaches 
the height of from two to ten feet. The plant is a 
native of America and was first made known to the 
civilized world by Columbus. It requires a very 



or in leaf, and less sweet. There is another striking 
feature about tobacco, and that is, the readiness with 
which varieties mix. You may take two varieties, 
one a long, narrow leaf, and the other a brocd, short 
leaf, and plant them on the same farm, and you will 
produce a modification of the preceding crop, al- 
though you use your utmost pains to prevent them 
from mixing. Thus you can see how easy it is for 
one to improve tobacco, and how easy it is to allow 
his own variety to rvm down. You can create a new 
variety or improve the old one by crossing with a 
plant that has the qualifications you desire. There 
are a great many new varieties of tobacco brought 
out, but when traced up, they are found to be only 
modifications of old varieties. 












''^i 



Fig. 26. — Seed beds. Plants ready to set. Connecticut Ex- 
periment Station. 



short period for its growth, and is verj' sensitive to 
frost. It is grown extensively in North Carolina, 
Kentucky, and Virginia.- The treatment here of the 
tobacco subject, is not intended to instruct those who 
have already learned to grow tobacco, but is intend- 
ed only to aid those who are not familiar with it. 
Hbwever, the crop is of so much importance that we 
will go into details. 

No plant is so modified by climate, soil, and meth- 
od of cultivation. The inodorous product of the seed- 
leaf districts of our Northern States, when trans- 
planted South in a few generations becomes as sweet 
as native Southern tobacco. North it becomes larg- 



The German Kali Works has issued a phamplet 
on the cultivation of tobacco, and we take the follow- 
ing, upon the classification of tobacco : 

"The location, soil and climate in which the tobac- 
co crop is grown, and the widely differing properties 
of these crops lead to very marked differences in cul- 
tivation. In the trade there are many sub-divisions 
for each class, or type, of tobacco handled, but for 
our purposes here we will treat of four classes as fol- 
lows; (i) Cigar Leaf, (2) Export Tobacco, (3) Briglit 
Leaf and Manufacturing and (4) Perique. 

(i.) Cigar leeif. — Tobacco for cigar manufacture 
includes three different types of leaf, viz. the Con- 



46 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



necticut seed leaf, the Cuban, and the Sumatra varie- 
ties. Moreover, there are different grades, resulting 
either from crossing or from local conditions of soil, 
climate, planting or methods of fertilizer employed. 

Cigar Tobaccos are grown for two distinct purpos- 
es, namely : for flavor or aroma, and for texture of 
the leaf which properties adapt it for use as cigar 
wrappers. For aroma, the Vuelta Abajo may be ac- 
cepted as typical, while for wrapper purposes, Con- 
necticut seed leaf and Sumatra tobaccos ar^^ typical. 

(2.) Export Tobaccos. — These tobaccos include 
several different types, each meeting various de- 
mands of the trade. Usually they are of rank 
growth, heavy, coarse grained and strong flavored. 
They are used for manufacturing smoking products 
required in foreign countries. Their value lies in 
their strength, as they are chiefly used in mixtures, 
either with inferior tobaccos, or with other vegetable 
adulterants. 

( T,.) Bright Leaf and Manufacturing Tobacco. — 
Bright Leaf is produced largely in the Carolinas, 
Virginia, and Eastern Tennessee, and is valuable for 
its flavor and aroma : its bright yellow color adds to 
its popularity. Tt is used almost entirelv for pipe 
and cigarette tobaccos, and for wrapping for plug 
tobacco. White Burley Tobacco is grown in the 
.Southern counties of Ohio and in t1ie north central 
counties of Kentucky, and is used for plug tobacco. 
Tt is very mild, has a good flavor, and is an excellent 
absorbant, and for these reasons, it is popular with 
manufacturers. 

(4.) Perique. — This tobacco belongs to the coarse, 
heavy types of tobaccos. Its distinctive properties 
are the result rather of the method of curing than 
of the quality of leaf. Tt is grown exclusively upon 
the moist alluvial b.ottom lands of St. James River, 
and one or two other Parishes in Louisiana, but its 
commercial importance is comparatively small. Pe- 
culiarities of flavor and form of marketing, however, 
make it necessary to consider this class under a spec- 
ial heading. 

All classes or typfes of tobacco, belong to a single 
species, Nicotiana tabacum, closely related to wild 
and cultivated plants, among which are: the petunia, 
Irish potato, egg-plant, and "Jimson weed." 

Tobacco plants of all varieties 'have much the 
same habits of growth and characteristics. They 
grow from three to nine feet in height, possess wide- 



spread, lanceolate leaves attached spirally and alter- 
nately to the stalk, at distances of about two inches. 
The flowers form large clusters with pink-tipped 
white corollas, which, when grown in masses, pre- 
sent so attractive an appearance, that the plant is fre- 
quently grown for purely ornamental purposes." 

The soil upon which tobacco is grown should be 
selected in accordance with the object of the special 




Fig. 27. — Tobacco unfertilized. Experiment Farm, Southern 
Pines, N. C. 



r- 



■i . 

T 






^ 



i.-^ 



>? 







28. — Tob.TCCo, fertilized with potash, phosphoric acid a.zi-1 
nitrogen (complete fertilizer) — Experiment F.-irm, 
Southern Pines, N. C. 

kind of tobacco grown. The heavy shipping tobacco 
is grown upon soils that contain a large proportion of 
clay, or a soil that retains the moisture. On lighter 
sandier soils, a thinner, more delicate leaf is produc- 
ed. In order to make a selection of the soil, you will 
have to study the effects of soil upon tobacco, aj tliis 



Time Spent in Selecting Seed is Well Spent. 



47 



information cannot be given in a brief work of this 
kind. 

Perhaps the greatest question connected with the 
growing of tobacco is the fertilizer question. Tobac- 
co requires a great amount of plant food, and cannot 
get a sufficient supply from the natural ground. 
While tobacco requires a great deal of plant food, 
still it does not exhaust the soil. The point is this, 
the tobacco returns to the land the plant food it takes 
from it. and leaves it about in the same condition it 
was before. Of course it exhausts the soil to a cer- 
tain extent, but only to a very small degree. There 
was a very prevalent idea a few years ago that tobac- 
co exhausted the soil more than other crops, but this 
is not true. There is one thing true in the cultiva- 
tion of tobacco, as with any plant requiring clean 
cultivation, vast quantities of surface soil is washed 
away by the rains, and in this the soil is exhausted 
more than by the crop itself. The remedy for this 
is rotation of crops. 

The question of fertilizing must be studied, and 
printed matter can be of help, but it cannot supplant 
actual experience, and cannot be substituted for ex- 
perience. The effect of one fertilizer upon one kind of 
land will be different from the effect produced bv the 
same fertilizer upon a different soil; and in fertilizing 
tobacco it is quite important to avoid applying to the 
soil any substance that is liable to injure any desir- 
able quality of the tobacco. While the use of chlo- 
rides will sometimes produce a superior quality of 
tobacco, still growers will do well to avoid the use 
of chlorides, as experience shows that it is liable to 
injure the burning quality of the tobacco. Chlorides 
exist as common salt, chloride of potash, or muriate 
of potash. Low .grade sulphates of potash, such as 
kainit, carnallite, krugit, etc., contain a large quanti- 
tv of common salt, and should not be used as a fer- 
tilizer for tobacco, and use potash in the form of sul- 
phate. 

Manure is one of the best fertilizers for tobacco 
known, as it contains all the elements that the plant 
needs, and this is an advantage no other fertilizer 
has. It, however, is not best to use alone, as it de- 
composes very slowly, and tobacco needs a fertili- 
zer that will act quickly. The best results will be 
obtained by using a commercial fertilizer with stable 
manure. 

Land for tobacco should contain plentj' of humus 



or decaying vegetable matter. This humus absorbs 
moisture and heat, and its decay makes available 
plant food in the soil, and for this, manure should be 
used as part of the fertilizer. 

Tobacco requires a great deal of nitrogen, as has 
been shown by experiments and experience in the 
fields. It is not a leguminous plant and must de- 
pend upon the soil for its nitro.gen, and it is impor- 
tant that the nitro.gen in the soil be in an available 
form, or the plant cannot use it. 

Nitro.gen is obtained from a number of different 
products and chemicals. Cottonseed meal is one of 
the most popular sources of nitrogen. It acts very 
rapidly, and furnishes nitrogen in easily available 
form. For tobacco you use a good dressing of ma- 
nure, a thousand pounds of meal should be applied 
to the acre in addition, putting on at least two weeks 
before setting the plants. 

Linseed or flaxseed meal is often used as a ferti- 
lizer for tobacco. It is not quite so rich in plant food 
as cottonseed meal, but the difference is verv slight. 
Cottonseed- meal, liowever, being a Southern product, 
is cheaper and more generally used at the South. 

Tobacco requires more potash than any other ele- 
ment, and the necessity of supplying potash is obvi- 
ous to anyone. Tobacco is a potash feeder, and it is 
quite important to note that your land contains a 
sufficient amount of this element. Every farmer can 
test his land by planting tobacco on land without 
applying any potash', and planting tobacco on anoth- 
er spot using potash. The difference in the .growth 
of the plant will demonstrate to you wliether or not 
potash is needed. Also by using fertilizers contain- 
ing different amounts of potash, on different plats of 
ground planted in tobacco will soon show how much 
is needed for best results. 



No.T— 
Composed of 

2000 lb.s. cotton-seed meal, 
1000 lbs. cotton hull ash, 

500 lbs. lime, 

500 lbs. plaster, 



1 Containing 

j Nitrogen, 130 lbs. 

Potash, 230 lb.s. 

Phosphoric acid, 

126 lbs. 



"The essential elements are derived from the meal 
and ash : the plaster and lime only being supplied to 
affect the soil mechanically and to assist the burnin.g 
qualities of the tobacco. Linseed meal is used in- 
stead of cottonseed when it can be bou.ght to better 
advantage. This formula has also been modified by 
omitting the lime and plaster, adding more ash or 



48 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



meal, and sometimes by adding small quantities of No. 9. Another favorite formula is 

superphosphate, or tankage, 
following combinations : 



It is also used in the 



Is^o. 2 — 
Composed of 
1000 lb.s. eotton-.seed nienl 
1250 lbs. castor pomace, 
500 lbs. cotton hull ash, 
500 lbs. double sulphate of potash, 
500 lbs. lime, 
500 lbs. plaster,' 

No. 3— 
Composed of 
1000 lbs. cotton-seed meal 
600 lbs. dry fish scrap, 
500 lbs. 96 per cent, sulphate potash, 
500 lbs. lime, 
500 lbs. plaster., 



Containing 

Nitrogen, 12S lbs. 
Phosphoric acid, 

45 lbs. 
Potash, 288 Ihs. 



Containing 

Nitrogen, 116 lbs. 
Phosphoric- acid, 

60 lbs. 
Potash, 207 lbs. 



No. 4— 
Composed of 

1000 lbs. castor pomace, 
500 lbs. dry fish scrap, 
100 lbs. sulphate of ammnnia, 
500 lbs. 96 per cent, sulphate potash 



1 Containini 



I 



Nitrogen, 113 Ihs. 



\- Phosphorir acid, 

j GO lbs. 

! Potash, 267 lbs. 



No. 5. On old tobacco fields that are in 2;ood 
heart, a favorite formula at present is 2000 lbs. cot- 
tonseed meal and 1000 lbs. cottonhull ash. 

No. 6. One well-known tobacco grower says: 
"My formula for a homemade tobacco fertilizer is 
2000 lbs. cottonseed meal. 1000 lbs. double sulphate 
of potash, 1000 lbs. plaster, 1000 lbs. lime, and it is 
the best and cheapest fertilizer for tobacco T have ev- 
er tried." 



Composed of 

1500 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 
1500 lbs. cotton hull asb, 

500 lbs. lime, 

500 lbs. plaster. 



Containing 

Nitrogen, 97 lbs. 
■ Phosphoric acid, 
150 lbs. 
Potash, 400 lbs. 



^■■■■i 




1 




\;*.- 


bj 




^1 





Fig. 19.— T(.1j,-,cC( 



iintertilized. On farm of C. 
De Funiak Springs, Fla. 



K. M'cQuan-ie, 




Fig. 30. — Tobacco fertilized. On fami of C. K. McQuarrie, 
De Funiak Springs, Fla. 



No. 7. Another applies 10 cords of manure per 
acre, from 1000 to 2000 lbs. cottonseed meal, and 
400 to 500 lbs. Peruvian guano. 

No. 8. A formula used by several successful 
growers is for one acre of land that has a good sup- 
ply of manure or vegetable matter in the soil: 



Composed of 

300 Ihs. lime, or about 1 cask, 
400 lbs. sulphate of potash, 
500 lbs. pure lione meal, 
2000 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 



Containing 

Nitrogen, 166 lbs. 
Phosphoric acid, 

140 lbs. 
Potash, 234 lbs. 



No. ID. A homemade tobacco fertilizer that gave 
good satisfaction is 
Composed c~f ] Containing 



2000 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 
1000 lbs. cotton bull ash, 
1000 lbs. lime. 



Nitrogen, 152 lbs. 
Phosphoric acid, 164 lbs. 
Potash, 3C0 lbs. 



No. II. Another, used with excellent results at 
the rate of two tons per acre : 



Composed of 

1000 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 
500 lbs. cotton hull ash, 
50 lbs. lime, 



Containing 

. Nitrogen, 76 lbs. 
Phosphoric acid, 82 lbs. 
Potash, ICO lbs. 



Don't Neglect to Keep Your Farm and House Up. 



49 



No. 12. 

Cotton-seed meal 900 pounds 

Nitrate of soda 100 pounds 

Sulphur of potash, high-grade . . 250 pounds 

Acid phosphate, 14 per cent. . 750 pounds 

2,000 pounds 

This mixture will contain : available phosphoric 
acid, 6.3 per cent. : potash, 6.9 per cent. ; nitrogen, 3.7 
per cent, (equal to ammonia, 4.5 per cent.). 

'■No. 13. 

Dried blood, high grade 500 pounds 

Nitrate of soda 125 pounds 

Sulphate of potash, high grade.. 310 pounds 
Atid phosphate 1,065 pounds 

2,ooD .pounds 

This mixture will contain: available phosphoric 
acid, 7.4 per cent. ; potash, "j."] per cent. ; nitrogen, 4.3 
per cent, (equal to ammonia, .2 per cent.). 

No. 14. 

Fish scrap 725 pounds 

Nitrate of soda 100 pounds 

Sulphate of potash, high grade.. 300 pounds 

Acid phosphate 875 pounds 

2,000 pounds 

This mixture will contain : available phosphoric ac- 
id, 7.2 per cent. ; potash, 7.5 per cent. ; nitrogen, 3.8 
per cent, (equal to ammonia, 4.6 per cent.). 

No. 15. 

Dried blood 500 pounds 

Nitrate of soda 100 pounds 

Sulphate of potash, high grade. . 400 pounds 

Acid phosphate 1000 pounds 

2,000 pounds 

This mixture will contain: available phosphoric 
acid, 7 per cent.; potash, 10 per cent.; nitrogen, 4.1 
per cent, (equal to anunonia, 5 per cent.). 

No. 16. ' 

Cotton-seed meal 700 pounds 

Nitrate of soda 100 pounds 

Sulphate of potash, high grade.. 300 pounds 

Acid phosphate 900 pounds 

2,000 pounds 



This mixture will contain : available phosphoric] 
acid, 7.2 per cent.; potash, j.-j per cent.; nitrogen, 3.1I 
per cent, (equal to ammonia, 3.8 per cent.). 

No. 17. 

Cotton-seed meal 1,140 pounds 

Sulphate of potash, high grade.... 115 pounds 
Acid Phosphate 745 pounds 

2,000 pounds 

This mixture will contain: available phosphoric 
acid, 6.6 per cent.; potash, 3.7 per cent.; nitrogen, 3.8 
per cent, (equal to ammonia 4.6 per cent.). 

Four hundred to one thousand pounds of these 
mixtures should be used to the acre. 







-*j-^< , 



V f 

■5- ^^ _' 




Fig. 31. — Cuban tobacco on new ground. Florida EJxperi- 
ment Station. 

It will of course be necessary to use the proper 
amount of phosphoric acid and nitrogen in the ferti- 
lizer on the different plats. Under the head of pot- 
ash in the Fertilizer Department, we give some atten- 
tion to its source and forms used. Lime has been 
found quite valuable on tobacco lands. As a plant 
food, it has little value in itself, but its mechanical 
effect on the soil is excellent, and it has the power of 
making available plant food m the soil. A great 
many different materials can be used in fertilizing 
tobacco. We give here seventeen formulas, and these 
are based upon the supposition that you have used a 
great supply of stable manure. A mixed nitrogen 
supply gives better results than a single material, for 
if the action of one is hindered, or too rapid, the oth- 
er corrects this defect. 

In raising tobacco, no step is of more importance 



50 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



than proper care and work in the selection and prep- 
aration of the seed bed. If tliis matter is neglected 
failure is almost certain. The spot selected should 
have a southern or south-eastern exposure, so as to 
get the advantage of the sun as much as possible in 
the earl}' spring. The bed should not be nearer than 
thirty or forty feet from any tree, as they sap the 
moisture. If you have a place where there are woods 
to the North or West, so much the better, as thev 



' — v~ : — ■ 


-.^"-^ 


1^ 


■4 ■ ^; ■ 


^^•■■" ■'•'• ■■■''■■ 




B&^^.y f '' ..'''''' 




!^^P**,i,«*'-'-' ' ■'-'-' 






i 


^A.^^': .:..:'^' ,y 


j; 


:x,^*^'"""" ■ -.r' ; 




i ''': " . ■ ...'^'^ ■■■/ 


. 


»-'*■ ' • ■ 1 • ->■' 




-'.^' f •* 




: ■ ■ ,■ ■:*■- ■ 




". ^^"^ ■, 





^^^'ifi 



_=J 



Fig. 32. — Tobacco on new gni^iiiil. Shailing transpl.anted 
Plants. Florida Experiment Station. 

will protect the seed-bed from the cold wind. As a 
rule, soil that is fresh is much better to use for a 
seed-bed, for there are not so many weed seed pres- 
ent. However, if you have not the virgin soil, select 
a good rich spot, black loam, and prepare your bed. 
Wood and brush are then piled on the bed and burned 
for about an hour to destroy all weed seed and insect 
eggs, also to supply potash for the young plants that 
will germinate. One tablespoonful of seed should be 
put on every one hundred square yard of seed bed, 
proper care being observed in the selection of these 
seed. This should produce enough plants to set six 
■or seven acres. It requires from ten days to two 
weeks for the seed to germinate. The seed bed should 
be protected by having a good cloth placed over it on 
a frame, as this protects it against sudden changes in 
the weatb.er, until the seed germinates. Six or seven 
weeks after the plants appear they will be ready for 
transplanting. In the meantime they shoulfi be wa- 
tered each week. After they are up the cover or cloth 
can be removed. 



three feet apart as a rule, though sometimes three ant, 
a half feet are allowed. The fertilizer is placed in ths 
furrow, mixed with the soil, and planted on. Thf 
plants are set about three feet apart in the row. Th(' 
distance varying in some instances; the further apart 
the larger and coarser the leaves. Cuban tobacco irij 
Florida is given fourteen inches apart in the drill, witi 
the rows three feet wide, When removing the plants 
the bed should be thoroughly wet first, and the plant; 
taken up from the bed one at a time. The plants art 
set out in a similar manner to sweet potatoes. A holt 
is made in the ground with a peg or dibble, of thci 
proper size and depth, and the plant placed in posi- 
tion, a little water poured in, and the dirt placed aboui* 
it firmly. Machines have been made that transplant^ 
tobacco very successfully. It is said that the worl- 
done by the machine is superior to that done by thf, 
hand. 

As soon as the tobacco takes root it should l>e hoed 
and see that the cultivation of the crop be shallow. 

Topping tobacco is the breaking off of the bud a1 
the top of the stalk. This should be done when th« 
button is well put out; and causes the leaves to grow 
much larger and ripen up more evenly. Priming con- 
sists in the removal of the four or five bottom leaves 
Not all tobacco growers prime their tobacco, for thej 
claim that tlie leaves should be left on as a protec- 
tion to those above. When it is practiced it is topped 
Soon after topping, sprouts put out, and these shoulc 
be removed every ten days. 

Tobacco is harvested by cutting down the entirt 
stalk, or by gathering the leaves separately. The 
former method is perhaps the better. Tobacco if 
ready to gather when the leaves turn a greenish yel- 
low color, or when they are brittle, and crack when 
bent together. After the plant is cut, if you cut tht 
entire plant, which is advisable, it is left in the field 
to dry for an hour, when it is carried to the barnf 
and placed on a stick. This is done either by split 
ting the stem, or by hanging the stem on a nail driv 
en through the stick. The sticks used are laths about 
four or five feet long, and the plants are placed or 
these about six inches apart. 

If you desire to cure by the leaf method, the leaves 
are brought in in baskets, and four or five tied to- 
gether and hung over a stick. This involves more 
work than the other method. 



The land for tobacco shoul 
just as you would a garden. 



1 be thoroughly prepared Worming tobacco. — Worming tobacco should be- 

The rows are laid off gin immediately after transplanting. The cut worm 



Use All Labor-Saving Machinery Possible. 



5 



makes his appearance at once, and you will have tn 
Jook after him. A hole the size of a pin head now 
will develop to one the size of a dollar by the time 
the tobacco is matured. Mix with one gallon of corn 
meal one tablespoon of Paris green and sprinkle on 
the plants. This mixture is also good for the bud 
worm. 

The horned worm appears in May, the second and 
worst brood appearing in July, by which time Flor- 
ida tobacco should be safely housed. The best pre- 
ventive of the big horned- worm, is to plant James- 
town or "Jimpson" weed around the borders of the 



Cigar tobacco barns should be near the field, 32 
feet wide, 16 feet high, at least, and as long as neces- 
sary. A barn 32x50, and 16 feet high will house five 
acres. Tobacco left long on bottom tier poles will 
mould in Florida. The first cutting may often be 
stripped and boxed to make room for the next — say 
in thirty-five or forty days. Peeled poles, four or 
five inches thick, make good tier poles. Posts should 
be 4x6, set in four rows, making a driveway in the 
middle, with* rows of 12-foot poles on each side. The 
two middle rows of posts should be 20 feet high, to 
give pitch to the roof, and eaves and gables should 
project 12 or 15 inches. The poles should be four 




Fig. ^a— Setting and watering tobacco by machine, 
necticut feperiment Station. 



Con- 



field, and put into the blossoms a few drops of cobah 
dissolved in honey and water or sugar and water. 
The moth which laj-s the eggs is very fond of James- 
town blossom, and the cobalt kills him. Each moth 
killed, prevents 500 worms. If these worms get into 
the field, a good flock of turkeys will search them 
out most industriously. The common wasp, the mud- 
dauber, yellow jacket, hornet, etc., all destroy these 
worms, as do toads, lizards and green crickets, but 
the last also occasionally takes a chew of tobacco. A 
single red wasp is said to be worth 15 cents a. day 
in a tobacco field. 

As to curing tobacco, this can only be learned from 
experience. We give some general details, but this 
is all we can do. 



feet apart and laths 4 feet 2 inches long. Posts 
should be eight feet apart, with window between. 
Windows should be three feet wide and ten feet 
long, hung at top with strap hinges, to push out for 
ventilation at night, closing in day time. 

When leaf stems are cured, cigar tobacco is 
ready to strip and box, even though all green has 
not disappeared from the leaf. The dampness com- 
ing in at the open windows at night, will put the 
leaves "in case" to handle without breaking every 
morning. Separate into four grades, placing each 
in separate boxes: First, wrappers (perfect leaves): 
second.- binders (partially perfect leaves) ; third, fil- 
ler, (ragged and imperfect leaves) ; fourth, trashy 
pieces, which if sold at all, should not be included 



52 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



T 



# ^^ 



W 




9^^ 






Fig. 34.— Preparing tobacco for curing. Ex^pBriment Farm, 

North Carolina State Horticultural Society-, Southern 

Pines, N. C. 

with the crop. If in doubt to which grade to give 
a leaf, put it in the lower one. Bind in "hands" or 
bundles of twenty or thirty leaves of even lengths, 
and .keep under a cover till noon or after, then place 
straight and compact in boxes, lapping the tips and 
leaving space of an inch between Ijutts and end of 
box, to altow escape of heat from the sweating pro- 
cess, which will begin at once. Till box is full, keep 
covered with cheap oilcloth. When full, press top 
down by standing on it, or with small lever. When 
leaves are primed off in tlic field, much of the grad- 
ing can be done as they are strung on a cord, string- 
ing each grade to itself. Do not allow tobacco to hang 
too long on poles or its Y.lt wHl evaporate, and never 
sprinkle or dip it to bring it in case for handling. 
Trust to air dampness to put in cellar. Early strip- 




ping and boxing preserve fineness of texture and of 
flavor, and prevent waste. Boxes should be 2 feet 
wide, 2 feet deep, and 3 feet long, for smaller kinds, 
and 6 inches longer each way for Sumatra and Old 
I'lorida. 

It pavs to sell soon after boxing, even at a smaller 
])rice rather than hold tobacco too long, as a general 
rule. 















^m^ 


m^^' 




■' , '^ 




m \^ 




1 





Fig. 35. — Tobacco ready for curing. Experiment Farm. North 
Carolina State Horticultural Society, Southern Pino!*^ N. C. 



Fig. 30. — Typical Connecticut tobacco barn. 

VELVET BEANS. 

The velvet bean is a leguminous plant, which has 
been grown in Florida for years as an ornamental 
covering for porches, arbors, etc., and its value as a 
manuring anil forage plant has only recently been 
discovered. Experiments in Louisiana. Alabama, and 
Florida, show that for the southern half of these 
States, the velvet bean is as valuable as the cowpeas. 
As cited above, experience in the growth of the vel- 
vet bean is limited, but from the experiments made, 
we learn that it is best to have the rows four or five 
feet apart, and place two beans in a hill, two- feet 
ai)art in the row. Light sandy soils are best for this 
crop, but it can be grown on almost any kind of land. 
Clean cultivation should be practiced until the vines 
interfere. It should be cut between the time the plant 
is in full bloom, and the time the pods are well formed. 
It is quite a difficult matter to harvest the crop for 
hay, but it is used principally as a winter pasture 
for cattle and hogs, as the cattle relish the vines bet- 
ter after they have been killed by frost. A mowing 
machine with the blades in between the wheels has 
been used. Also a hand sickle or grass hook is used. 



Don't Try to Farm Without a Grood Harrow. 



53 



From two to three tons of hay are produced on the 
acre. The hay should be allowed to lie on the ground 
for two days, when it can be carried to the barn, or 
served in a similar manner to that suggested for cow 
peas. 



on account of the high price of the seed they are not 
so popular as they would be otherwise. Hairy 
Vetch produces numerous slender branches from 3 
to 6 feet in length. In character and growth it is 
somewhat similar to the English. The leaves and 



•Mf&li'.^# 




'*^^''^^?o^^. 




Fig. 37. — Field of Velvet Beans, crla. Expt. Sta. liul GO.) 



VETCH. 

There are several varieties of vetches grown in 
this country, one of the most important of which is 
Hairy Vetch. Vetches are all leguminous plants, but 




Fig. 3S. — ^Hairy Vetch grown, on (a) uninoculated and (b) 
inoculated soil. (U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



Dranches are covered with a coat of fine hairs, hence 
the name. The pods burst open when ripe, and re- 
seed the field when not pastured too closely. If 
grown for forage it should be planted with rye or 
oats. It should be planted the latter part of August, 
or the first of September. If you drill the seed, one 
bushel per acre should be used, but if you broadcast 
the seed, a bushel and a half per acre should be 
sown. If you use oats or rye or wheat use one bush- 
el of these seed with the vetch seed. It does best on 
sandy soils, but will grow well on almost any good 
soil after the soil becomes inoculated, and it is said 
to be better than cowpeas or clover as a renovating 
crop. This is one of the best winter renovating 
crops Southern farmers can use. If your land has 
never grown the vetches it may be necessary to in- 
oculate with the proper bacteria. It grows all 
winter in the South, and for that reason is quite val- 
uable to sow on a Bermuda sod for pasture. The 
common or English vetch is preferred by some, who 
claim that it makes the best hay and is relished more 
by stock. 



54 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



WHEAT. 

Wheat stands second in acreage, and third in yield, 
of cereals in the United States. It is used principal- 
ly as a food for human beings, but occasionally it is 
fed to stock. It makes excellent forage when cut in 
the dough. It is quite important that Southern 
farmers devote more time and attention to the grow- 
ing of wheat. Roller mills are established in many 
places throughout the South, and it is no trouble for 
the farmer to produce first-class flour right at home. 
It is much cheaper to raise wheat and make your 
own bread than it is to raise cotton and buy flour. 
One great advantage in raising wheat, corn, pota- 
toes, and such things is, that you can rotate your 
crops. Crop rotation is impossible where only one 
or two crops grow. By planting land in wheat, you 
are able to use a leguminous plant afterwards, which 
builds up the land. It may be of interest to discuss 
the growing of wheat and the fertility of the soil in 
this connection. The l^niversity of Minnesota made 
experiments upon this subject, and they issued a bul- 
letin, in which the following conclusions are given. 
The Bulletin is No. 70: 

After careful experiments extending over a series 
of years, the results of which are given in this bulle- 
tin, the following conclusions were reached: 

First — When wheat has grown continuously upon 
the same soil for eight years, there was a loss of 1,700 
pounds per acre of nitrogen, about 300 pounds being 
utilized as plant food and 1,400 pounds lost by the 
decay of the animal and vegetable matter of the soil 
and the liberation of the nitrogen as gaseous and sol- 
uble compounds. During the eight years of contin- 
uous wheat cultivation there was a loss of over 21 
per cent, of the total nitrogen of the soil, equivalent 
to an annual loss of 175 pounds per acre in addition 
to that used as plant food. 



eight years was less than 100 pounds in excess of 
that removed as plant food. i 

Third — When the oats and barley were grown con- J 

tinuously the losses of nitrogen from the soil were j 

nearly as large as when wheat was grown continu- '^ 

ously. j 

i 
Fourth. — When corn was grown continuously ^ 

the loss of nitrogen from the soil was less than half 

as large as when wheat was grown continuously. 

When corn is introduced into a rotation of crops, the 

losses of nitrogen are less than if wheat were grown. 

Fifth — When wheat was grown continuously there J; 
was an aimual loss of over 2,000 pounds per acre of 
humus due to the fermentation and decay of the ani- 
mal and vegetable matter of the soil. When wheat 
was grown in a rotation with clover and oats, no ma- 
terial loss of humus from the soil occurred. ' 

Sixth — The loss of humus changed the physical ; 
properties of the soil, causing it to be less retentive ' 
of moisture, lighter in color, and heavier in weight = 
per cubic foot. During times of drought the soil 
from the continuous wheat cultivated plot contained 
less water than the soil from the plot which pro- 
duced wheat in rotation with clover. Humus con- 
serves the moisture of the soil, while the rotation of 
crops, the use of farm manures and the growing of 
clover, conserve the humus of the soil. 

Seventh — When bare summer fallowing is prac- 
ticed, a heavier loss of nitrogen occurs than when 
wheat is grown continuously. Summer fallowing fa- 
vors the decay of the humus and the loss of the ni- 
trogen. While larger crops of wheat are produced 
after a year of fallow, this increase is followed by a 
heavy loss of the total nitrogen of the soil. Summer 
fallowing exhausts the soil of its nitrogen. 



Second — When wheat was grown in rotation with 
clover and oats, five crops of wheat being removed 
in eight years, larger yields per acre were secured 
and the total loss of nitrogen from the soil was re- 
duced to 800 pounds or about 450 pounds in excess 
of that utilized as plant food. When corn was grown 
with clover and oats in a rotation and farm manure 
was used, the total loss of nitrogen from the soil for 



Eighth — When the nitrogen and humus of the soil 
were conserved by the rotation of crops, arid the pro- 
duction of clover, an increase of 20 bushels per acre 
of corn and 5.6 bushels of wheat were secured. 

Ninth^Wheat is not an exhaustive crop when it 
is grown in a rotation, but when grown continuous- 
ly the fertility of the soil is impaired. It is not the 



Have a Good Pasture for Your Stock when they are Not at Work. 



55 



crop itself that reduces fertility, but it is the lack of 
systematic methods of farming which cause the de- 
cline of fertility. Old wheat soils readily recuperate 
when some humus form of materials are returned 
I jto the soil. By the rotation of crops, the use of farm 
[manures, and the cultivation of clover, the heavy 
llosses of nitrogen and humus from the soil can be 
[checked and larger yields and a better quality se- 
Icured. 

To get the very best results wheat should be planted 
on fertile soil. Rich clays and heavy loams are the best 
when they are thoroughly drained. Calcarous soils are 
jalso considered good wheat lands. Land for wheat 
(should be well broken and thoroughly worked down 
with harrows and rollers until you have a firm,, fine 
I seed-bed. When we consider the fact that most, if 
inot all the cultivation is done before planting, it be- 
comes more necessary than ever to thoroughly prepare 
jyour land. It may possibly take longer, but time that 
[is spent in preparing land for crops is never lost. The 
i object of every farmer should, be to produce the most 
wheat possible on a given tract of land and thorough 
preparation is absolutely necessary in order to get the 
best results. If you are going to raise wheat, and if 
you are a farmer in the highest sense of the word, you 
will, take pains when preparing your land to make it 
do its best. It has not been found advisable to sub- 
soil land for wheat. It is necessary to have the soil 
firm underneath, and subsoiling makes this more dif- 
ficult. 

For fertilizers for wheat see Chapter on Fertili- 
zers in another part of this book. 



Wheat should be planted in the South from the 
middle of October to the middle of November, or as 
soon as possible after the first white frost. The ob- 
ject in planting at this time, is to give the plants a 
chance to get started before the cold weather sets in. 
Spring wheat should be sown as early in the spring 
as the soil and weather will permit, but this is sel- 
dom, if ever, practiced in the South. Wheat should 
be drilled in rather than broadcasted, as the drill puts 
it in more evenly. It may be, however, sown by 
hand broadcast, and worked in with a disc harrow 
or cultivator. From one to two bushels of seed 
should be sown per acre, according to the size of the 
grain and the time of sowing. A bushel of small 
grains will contain two or three times as many ker- 
nels, as a bushel of grain containing large grains. 
As a rule, about a bushel and a half is the proper 
amount to plant. Harrowing winter wheat in the 
spring does not pay, as experiments on < that question 
prove that the yield is smaller when harrowed than 
otherwise. 

Wheat should be harvested when the grain is ful- 
ly in the dough stage. It can, at this time be com- 
pressed between the finger and the thumb and is still 
not milky. By the time the grain is fully ripe, the 
cutting should be complete. If you defer harvesting, 
much of the grain is lost by shattering, also the feed- 
ing value of the straw is less when you wait too late. 
Reapers, binders, and headers are used to gather 
the grain in most places. The cradle is used little, 
and should be used much less than it is at present. 
It does not pay unless you have a very rough piece 
of land or very little wheat is planted. 



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SIX HEADS CABBAUt. GHoWN BY NEW NiOAKES, NUECESTOWN, 
TEiXAS (Near Corpus Christi). 
(Courtesy of H. G. Hastings & Co.) 



Book II. 
Garden Department 



. . . EDITED BY . . . 

F. J. MERRIAM, 

EDITOR SOUTHERN RURALIST, 
ATLANTA, GEORGIA. 



58 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



MARKET GARDENING. 

There is no question of more interest to the South 
than market gardening. The Southern cities are 
coming to the front, cotton factories are being built, 
and many industries established. All these indus- 
tries require vegetables for the employees. These 
vegetables must be furnished by some one, and the 
Southern farmer is the one to furnish them. Up un- 
til a few years ago, little attention was paid to gar- 
dening in the South, but developments have been 
made, and now around every city, and most of the 
towns will be found many men who make their liv- 
ing by selling vegetables. About $100,000,000 is in- 
vested in truck farming in the United States, the 
products of which will reach a valuation of $75,000- 
000 which is produced upon 534,440 acres of land. For- 
merly each vegetable had its season, and any attempt 
to secure that vegetable out of its regular season^ 
-which only lasted for a few weeks, would prove fu- 
tile. Now, every vegetable can be secured at any 
time 

- That there is money to be made in truck farming 
there is no doubt. The South must, to a large ex- 
tent, supply the early vegetables for all the United 
States. Market gardening' is just in its infancy. It 
is an industry that requires a great deal of study and 
brain work ; but it is a business that will yield good 
returns. It requires more money to grow vegetables 
than it does to grow field crops ; still, the returns am- 
ply jiay for the greater expenditure. 

Alluvial soils with gravel or porous clay subsoil, 
are best for vegetables. But this, like many other 
things connected with agriculture, cannot be placed 
under definite laws, for here, also, circumstances al- 
ter cases. It fre(|ucntly happens that nearly pure 
clays and apparently inert sands have been made to 
yield satisfactorily for the time and attention devoted 
to them. A lighter soil means an early crop, while 
a clay soil means a later crop. As a rule, it is the 
early crop that pays best, though there are many ex- 
•ceptions. 

Success in market gardening depends more on the 
proper location than anything else. No matter how 
good the land may be, how fine the vegetables pro- 
duced, unless the garden be located where produce 
can be easily shipped or sold in a good local market 
it is almost worthless. So you must locate where you 



will be accessible to the market, if you wish to suc- 
ceed. If you have to haul your produce a long way 
over rough country roads before reaching a shipping 
point, the quality of your goods will be materially 
affected. Moreover, the question of the necessary 
supply of labor must be considered by the wise man 
before he embarks in the business of growing veg- 
etables and small fruits. This question is of great 
importance, for it v ill be useless to try and grow 
vegetables without plenty of labor. 

The question of fertilizers is of great importance 
to the truck grower, and it is safe to say that stable 
or barnyard manure is the best for gardening pur- 
poses. However, in some localities it is impossible 
to obtain it in sufficient quantities, and for this reas- 
on it cannot be used. Wood ashes are also quite val- 
uable for fertilizing purposes when they can be pro- 
cured. For commercial fertilizers we give a list of 
formulas under the Fertilizer Department. 

In selecting a place for your garden try and get 
land that is warm and naturally well drained. If it 
is not naturally well drained, 3'ou had best tile 
drain it to begin with, as it is impossible to grow 
large crops of early vegetables on poorly drained 
land; and while tile draining is expensive to start 
with, your increase will soon pav the difference. 
Drainage is very important, as it enables the air to en- 
ter the soil, also keeps the soil warmer. The chem- 
istry of garden plants is discussed under the Fertili- 
zer Department. We also refer you to the Agricul- 
ture Department, proper, for treatment in the devel- 
opment and growth of seeds. 

HOW TO PREPARE A SEED BED. 

The ordinary size of a convenient hotbed may be 
ten feet by six or seven feet wide, or it may be only 
of the dimensions of a common window sash, three 
feet by four, more or less. The shape has nothing 
to do with the definition, which may be to the effect 
that a hotbed is a bo.x covered with glass, the whole 
placed upon a bed of soil resting on a bed of ferment- 
ing stable manure, the heat from which rising in the 
form ot vapor warms and moistens the soil within 
the box, while at the same time, the sun's rays pass- 
ing through the glass are retained to warm and viv- 
ify the surface. 

The location of the hotbed has much to do with 
its success or failure. It should only be placed on 



A Good Garden Pays. 



59 



land always tree from flooding, preferably on a de- 
clivity, with good subsoil drainage, sheltered from 
cold winds, and facing south or southeast. As an 
example of a hotbed frame, we will describe it as a 
box for one, two, or four sashes, each seven feet long 
by three and one-quarter feet wide. This dimension 
of sashes is given because it is easy to handle. The 
width named will allow for four lengths of 8xio 
glass placed lengthwise. Whatever the dimensions 
of the sashes, all should be alike so as to be inter-« 
changeable. The frame may be permanent, of brick 
or stone ; or temporary, of boards ; it may be regular- 
ly built by a carpenter, with strong corner-pieces, or 
a gardener can do all the work himself and attain 




Fig. 1. — The Early Hotbeds. 

just r.s practical results. Doing the work himself, 
he may proceed as follows : The length and breadth 
of the frame having been decided upon, excavate a 
space 2 ft. wider and 2 ft. longer than the indicated 
dimensions and i8 in. deep. After the excavation is 
completed, drive down at four corners post of prop- 
er lengths, four by four inches square, to which nail 
the sideboards; the posts on the back of the frame 
being twelve to fifteen inches above the surface lev- 
el, and those in front of the frame 6 or 8 inches; 
nailing the boards only to those portions of the 
posts which are above the earth level; the boxes, as 
it were, standing on stilts; it being desirable to use 
as little lumber as possible. The excavation is for 
the purpose of keeping the material and contents of 
the bed as much removed as possible from frigid air 
currents, and thus economize manure. 



Into the excavations of eighteen or twenty inches 
of depth, throw one foot in thickness of cornstalks, 
leaves, halfrotten, straw and coarse manure ; these 
principally for preventing dampness and to facili- 
tate drainage. On top of this coarse strata spread 
a layer of three to four inches of good horse-stable 
manure, just beginning to ferment. Avoid pig or 
cow manure, as they do not heat. The manure for 
hotbeds must be well manipulated, that the fermen- 
tation may be prolonged, and this is best done by 
shaking out the manure loosely with forks, and. if 
exceedingly rich, mixing it with some poorer mater- 
ial. Otherwise the fermentation will be too fierce 
and of too short duration. Indeed, to secure thor- 
ough mixing, it is well to turn the manure intended 
for hotbeds at least three times at intervals of two 
days, and when transferring the manure from the 
pile to the bed it should be done quickly that the 
manure be as little exposed to the chilling influence 
of the air as possible. 

Tramp the manure down and spread it from end 
to end and side to side; when done, repeat with a 
layer of three or four inches, and when this is spread 
and well tramped down add a third layer of the 
shortest and best unfermented manure, as this will 
subsequently be a feeding ground for plants. The 
various layers of manure make twelve to fourteen 
inches in total depth. If the tramping, spread'n"'. and 
cpiality of material be not evenly distributed in the 
bed it will be irregular, and the subsequent growth 
of the plants the same. For early beds use the ma- 
nure liberally. Very late hotbeds can be made with- 
out any, as the sun in the late spring will give suf- 
ficient heat. 

Manure for Hotbed. — As fresh horse-stable ma- 
nure when used alone is very heating and soon cools; 
it is best to mix with it leaves or half-rotten straw, 
as seed will be burned over manure of too high tem- 
perature. Of course, it is impossible to indicate fixed 
dates for sowing over a country so broad as this, and 
with such a variety of climatic conditions. 

COLD FRAMES. 

Many farmers and gardeners do not know how to 
make a cold frame. This is a very simple matter 
in the South. Select a protected spot and stake off 
where you wish your bed to be, a strip six feet wide 



6o 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



and as long- as necessary. Plow this up and fertilize 
heavily with rich old compost. The soil should con- 
tain a large proportion of sand, and if it is naturally 
stiff it will be best to add some sand 'to it and work 
it with the manure. After the bed is ready, put up 
a twelve inch board in front, having the two lines of 
boards about sLx feet apart or just far enough for a 
six foot sash to lay across nicely. Put in a cross 
piece of 1x4 every ten feet to hold the two lines of 
plank at an equal distance, and steady at the top. 
Then bank up earth around the outside against the 
boards, and your bed is ready for the sash. In the 
latitude of Atlanta it is best to use the regular 3x6 
foot glass sash, but farther South frames covered with 
cloth can be substituted. 

See that plenty of ventilation is given the plants 
in the beds during bright days and that they are not 
kept too warm, especially cabbage plants. Where 
the beds are allowed to get very warm the plants be- 
come very tender and are much more likely to get 
killed if there comes a big freeze. 

SOWING SEEDS. 

Every one familiar with farming knows it is quite 
important that land should be well prepared before 
any seed are placed in it. He who hopes to be suc- 
cessful raising vegetables without thorough prepara- 
tion of the land, is a fit subject for the insane asy- 
lum. But many people do practice the plan of try- 
ing to garden without preparing the land. They 
think the tiny seed should be able to adapt itself to 
the same conditions under which the larger field seed 
germinate and grow. Many men, on the other hand, 
know that the land should be prepared, but they do 
not know how this preparation should be done. The 
only way they can learn is by reading, observation, 
and experience. And let us digress long enough to 
say that if any one fails to learn by experience, he 
stands in his own light. You cannot be truly suc- 
cessful unless you are a close enough observer to 
learn by experience. If you continue to make the 
same mistakes year after year, you cannot hope for 
success. 

No definite law can be laid down for the prepara- 
tion of land. The main thing is to try to have the 
conditions right for the germination of the seed, and 
this is to have vour seed-bed fine and firm to the bot- 



tom of the furrow. Much disappointment results in 
planting seed at the wrong time, covering too deep- 
ly, or not covering deeply enough ; or from planting 
a variety or a vegetable that is unsuited to your con- 
ditions, climate, soil, etc. It is, of course, necessary 
that you plant the proper amount of seed per acre, 
but many farmers and gardeners make the mistake 
of planting too few seed. You must get a good start, 
for it is much easier to thin out than to replace. The 
real difference in planting a great many seed and in 
planting a few is in the cost of the seed, and you can 
readily see this is such a small matter that a farmer 
cannot afford not to have enough seed to insure a 
stand at the start. 

In a country so large as the South, it is hard to lay 
■down a definite rule for the cultivation of the garden. 
It is a good idea to watch the successful truck farm- 
er in your neighborhood, and follow largely in his 
steps, until you have acquired experience. Above 
all things, the land should be well prepared, and 
made fine and mellow. Small seeds will not come 
up and grow well in tough, cloddy ground. There- 
fore, see that the land is in the very best condition 
to receive the seeds. As to when each different kind 
of seed should be planted : this depends largely on 
locality, and the kind of plant you wish to .grow. It 
may be laid down as a general rule — though there 
are exceptions to it — that it does not pay to put the 
seed in the ground too early, that is, before the soil 
gets warm. Many of the seed will rot in cold, damp 
soil and those that do not rot will not germinate until 
the soil becomes warm. 

THE GERMINATION OF SEED. 

The process of germination covers that period of 
time from the moment the dry seed are placed in the 
ground until the appearance of the plant. Very few 
garden seed will commence germinating at a temper- 
ature lower than 50 degrees, many requiring the soil 
to be much warmer than that. On the other liand, 
too much heat dries up the grains, and prevents ger- 
mination. Experiments indicate t'hat most varieties 
of seed will germinate rapidly in a temperature of 
from 70 to 90 degrees. Spinach, on the contrary, will 
germinate best in cool weather, and will hardly 
come up at all in hot weather. It is quite important 
that the seed have a sufficient amount of moisture. 
Some seeds require more moisture than others. Some 
will only germinate in water, wihile others require 



You Cannot Have a Good Garden Without Work. 



6i 



very little. Garden seed germinate best when the 
soil is moist but not wet. Too much moisture causes 
the seed to decay. The time required for seed to 
germinate varies very widely. Some seed, such as 
peas, beans, corn, and a few others, will germinate in 
three days; while cabbage, turnips, and radishes us- 
ually require a little longer. It is not always true 
that seeds which germinate will produce vegitation, 
for it is frequently the case that the sprout cannot 
push its way through the soil on account of being 
covered too deeply, or because of the ground baking 
on top of it. In growing vegetables you want to pro- 
duce as rapid a growth as possible, for by so d'oing 
you can overcome the dangers arising from floods, 
grubs, insects, etc., which so often injure your plants. 
And the quickly grown vegetable is always the 
most salable. 

Seed frequently lose their vitality. This is partic- 
ularly true in the Southern States where the air is 
moist and the weather warm. Many seed, after or.c 
year, lose their vitality. This is especially true of 
onions and salsify. There are methods of testing 
seed. Placing seed between two layers of damp or 
wet blotting paper will determine whether thej^ are 
sound or not, in a very few days. While we are 
speaking upon this subject, it will not be out of place 
to stress the importance of using pure seed. Many 
sore disappointments are brought about on account 
of the seed not being pure. See to it that you pur- 
chase your seed from a reliable seed house, and that 
they are fresh. Such a firm cannot afford to put out 
old or impure stock. 

Many seed are first planted in beds and afterwards 
the plants are transplanted to their permanent place. 
I'his is done for several reasons: In the first place, 
the space where the crop will ultimatelj' stand may 
be occupied by some immature crop. Then too, 
Ismail plants, such as celery, would be overcome by 
fweeds, or eaten down by insects. It is much easier 
jto I'ook after a small seedbed than it is the whole 
tgarden. It is also done in order to get earlier varie- 
ties of a fruit or vegetable. For instance, by planting 
tomato seed in a hotbed the plants will have a good 
start before it would be possible to plant them in the 
open field. Transplanting, as a rule, should be done 
in damp weather. Many farmers and gardeners 
Tiake the mistake of pulling up the plants from the 
lied, thus stripping them of their rootlets. This 

I 



should never be done. Plants should be removed 
with a trowel or similar tool. Most plants should be 
transplanted deeper than they ordinarily stood in the 
seed bed. The root and rootlets should not be al- 
lowed to point upwards, but should be spread out- 
ward and downward, as is the natural tendency of the 
plant. The soil should be pressed down firmly around 
the stem so that the roots will come into firm contact 
with the earth. 

In small gardens it is a good practice to mulch 
after transplanting the plants. This is simply cov- 
ering the soil around fresh set plants, vines or shrubs 
with three or four inches of litter, straw, hay, leaves, 
manure or weeds, to prevent an excessive evapora- 
tion of moisture from the soil. iNIulching has some 
advantage in that the crop that is mulched will re- 
main comparatively free from weeds except when 
one will occasionally push its way through ; but these 
can be easily pulled up. Moreover, it keeps the ground 
in a good mellow condition. If you have never 
tried mulching it would be a good idea to exper- 
iment with it. 

ROTATION OF GARDEN CROPS. 

Just as it is important for the farmer to rotate his 
field crops, so it is with garden crops. There are 
many reasons for this. In the first place, to keep 
planting the same land in the same crop year after 
year soon exhausts certain elements of plant food, 
and unless very large quantities of manure are used 
the land fails to give the very best returns. Then, 
too, there are certain fungus diseases that will live 
over the winter in the soil, and should your land be 
infested with these it wdl mean great loss to plant 
the land again in the san:e crop. In a proper rota- 
tion there are certain crops which do better if they 
follow certain other crops. Peas may be followed 
by kale- or turnips-, Irish potatoes by late cabbage 
or ruta baga turnips, but tomatoes or egg-plant 
should never follow potatoes. Beans may be followed 
by turnips, winter radishes, lettuce or collards. This 
list only suggests to 3'ou something of what is in- 
tended. It is a good idea to try to rotate crops as 
dissimilar in character as possible. Rotation is a 
great help in keeping vegetable crops awav from in- 
sect pests, which are apt to become very disastrous 
where the same crop is grown in the same place a 
number of vears in succession. 



62 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



PACKING AND SHIPPING VEGETABLES. 

One of the problems of gardening is marketing the 
vegetables after they are grown. And right on this 
point is where many farmers .and gardeners lose 
money. It makes little difference if fine, large vege- 
tables are grown, unless they can be put on a good 
market, in good shape. The price obtained for produce 
shipped North by Soutbern gardeners depends large- 
ly upon condition of produce when it reaches its des- 
tination, and the amount of such produce on the mar- 
ket at that time. It is useless to ship produce from the 
South to the North at a time when it will decay before 
it reaches the market. It is also a losing proposition 
to ship vegetables to the North when the market is 
supplied nearer home. For example, tomatoes ship- 
ped to Philadelphia from the South in March or 
April bring anywhere from $3.00 to $5.00 per crate, 
but in June they will bring very little, for they will 
come in competition with the crop from Maryland 
or Delaware: and besides, the weather is so warm 
in June that the tomatoes shipped then are liable to 
spoil before they reach the market. Many garden- 
ers also lose money by shipping tomatoes too green. 
During the shipping season the field should be gone 
over every other day at first ; and later, every day, 
and the fruit gathered just as soon as they, start to 
turn. They should also be carefully selected, 
wra])ped, and placed in good crates. 

Vegetables generate heat and moisture, which in- 
crease as the temperature rises. If this heat and 
moisture is removed rapidly the fruit will keep 
much longer and much better. In other words, the 
crates for vegetables should be of such a size as to 
permit free ventilation. Barrels are poor things to 
ship vegetables in, with the exception of potatoes, as 
small packages carry much better. When you have 
secured the proper crate or package the next thing is 
to see that the fruit or vegetable is properly assort- 
ed before it is packed. A few spoiled or poor speci- 
mens of fruit Or vegetable will injure the sale of vour 
whole lot. The packing should be done in the shade, 
and it is much better to pack where they can be' 
cooled by passing breezes. When packed in the 
hot sun they will not keep near so well. You see to 
it that the outside appearance of 3'our package is neat 
and attractive. Some shippers are of the opinion that 
the transportation company will pay especial atten- 
tion to their shipments, and are therefore careless in 



regard to shipping them. Remember that you will 
be treated as any other shipper, and unless you go to 
the trouble of correctly packing, marking and ship- 
ping your vegetables you cannot expect good returns. 
The earliest crops command the best prices. But do 
not sacrifice quality in order to get your produce on 
the market first. 

THE FARMER'S GARDEN. 

How can a farmer living on a farm and always 
busy, so manage his garden as to secure the largest 
amount of fresh vegetables at the smallest expendi- 
ture of time and labor. "Now," says a writer in the 
Review, "I am in no sense a market gardener, nor do 
I raise vegetables for any other purposes than to se- 
cure for my family a succession of vegetables the 
year around ; but anything I may say in this article 
is the result of fifteen years' experience with a farm 
garden. In selecting your garden have it as conven- 
iently situated as possible; if not rich or well drained 
it should be made so. One-quarter of an acre is not 
too much, and if small fruits are to be included in it, 
it should be larger. I do not approve of such 
though, in the vegetable garden. While they are a 
great luxury and should be on every farm, it is better 
to keep them out of the garden. The shape of the 
garden should be oblong, giving long rows. All 
herbs, beds of asparagus, rhubarb, beds for cabbage 
and early plants should be placed on the same side 
together, leaving nothing to interfere with the thor- 
ough cultivation of the vegetables. The old way of 
having a small garden for the "women folks and chil- 
dren" to work in the spring, and which went to 
weeds in the summer, is mostly a thing of the past. 
The garden of the progressive farmer is as up-to- 
date as himself. He gives the same careful cultiva- 
tion to his garden that he does to his corn or wheat, 
realizing its advantages and recognising the fact 
that it is a part of the farm ; demanding and receiv- 
ing its full share of work, and no longer left neglect- 
ed. 

Of the very greatest importance is your choice of 
seeds. Send early for the catalogues of the leading 
seedsmen. They are lovely to look at, and much 
useful information can be gleaned from them. If 
you are just starting a garden for yourself they will 
be a great help to you and their description of the 
different varieties grown which will enable yoti to de- 



Select the Best Land for Your Garden. 



63 



cide which is most suitable for you. It is best to or- 
der early and get plenty of seeds, so if a late frost or 
a hard rain injures your stand you can plant over at 
once. Prepare your ground thoroughly. Vegetables 
delight in a rich, well prepared soil. In laying off your 
rows keep them perfectly straight, as the cultivation is 
much easier. Make your rows 2 1-2 or 3 feet apart ; 
I prefer 3 feet. A wheel hoe is a good thing, but I 
can take a mule and cultivate a garden quicker and 
better than any other way. My garden is treated 
like my crops; first plowing it deep, then I cultivate 
often and shallow. If dry weather comes on I culti- 
vate more and keep a dust mulch to save the mois- 
ture. Just as fast as early vegetables come off, I re- 
place them with others. My aim is to have no enjp- 
ty rows for weeds. I plant radishes every Friday, to 
have plenty, and beans every two weeks. After 
May, I plant all vacant rows in cow peas ; in August 
sow turnips, winter lettuce, and radishes; in Septem- 
ber set out winter cabbage; in October all my gar- 
den is broadcast to mustard, kale, and spinach, which 
gives an abundance of green for winter, and serves 
as a covering for the land. In short, I practice in- 
tensive farming. This requires plenty of fertilizer 
and high cultivation; but it pays. I save no seeds; 
I leave that to those who make a business of it and 
understand it. My business is to raise vegetables, 
not seeds. All chicken manure is put on the garden, 
scattering it between the rows as fast as made. I 
find it good for onions and cabbage, especially. 
That vegetables and fruit are healthy, is certain. I 
have a large family, but in fifteen years our drug 
and doctor's bills together will not average $5.00 per 
year. Give a farmer's wife a good garden, milk and 
butter, and eggs, with a plump chicken, and she will 
prepare a dinner that is fit to be set, not before a 
king, but before an American farmer, who surely de- 
serves the best in the land, for does he not feed the 
world? Prepare your garden, plant your seed, culti- 
vate it well and enjoy the fruits thereof." 

VEGETABLE NOTES. 

If you let your strawberry patch get in the grass 
you are going to have trouble. 

Try a small patch of Chinese Winter Rose Radish. 
They are fine for home use and the local market. 

We have made our best fall lettuce in open ground 
by sowing the seed the latter part of August. Flori- 



da Header and Big Boston are excellent varieties for 
this purpose. 

When you set out those celery plants do not forget 
to make the land rich. Fill up the furrows with good, 
old compost ; then try irrigation. Celery is 84 per 
cent, water. 

If the land you wish to plant in vegetables in very 
grassy when plowed, run over it several times with a 
Planet Jr., or Iron Age Cultivator, with three inch 
scooter attached. This will tear up the grass so it 
will die. Then run a straight tooth harrow over the 
field and drag out as much as possible. Repeat the 
operation, and you will soon have your land in shape. 

It is often a difficult matter to get seed to come up 
in hot weather, even when they are perfectly sound, 
unless the conditions are just right. If the weather 
should happen to be dry when you wish to plant, try 
tramping in the seed with your feet. We have often 
been able to bring up seed in this manner when other- 
wise they would not have come up at all. We like 
best to have land prepared ahead, get a good rain 
on it, and then rake or harrow off the rows and plant. 
We almost always secure a stand when we do this. 
We have also found it necessary to shade lettuce at 
this season in order to get it to germinate well. 

Don't wait until the last minute to prepare those 
hotbed sashes, but begin to overhaul them now. A 
good coat of paint will add to their usefulness. 

For the early crop, we find that the early varieties 
of cabbage like the Early Jersey Wakefield, pay us 
best. The second, or mid-section varieties, usually 
find a glutted market and show a much smaller mar- 
gin of profit. 

October is an excellent time to plant spinach. The 
weather is cool and the seed germinate well. Seven 
Top turnip for spring salad may also be planted in 
open ground. 

We find it a good plan not to spread manure on 
land intended for early vegetables until after the land 
has been plowed in the spring. Where the manure 
is spread during the winter it prevents the land dry- 
ing out, keeps it wet until late in the spring, and de- 
lays planting. 

When sowing seed of almost any description very 
early in the spring we find it best to plant very shal- 
low. In fact, it is hardly necessary to cover seed like 
turnips at all when they are sown on freshly prepared 
land. The rain will usually cover them as much as is 
necessary and they will sprout and come up much 



64 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



quicker, and you will obtain a better stand than if 
they were covered deeper. 

If you use cottonseed meal as a fertilizer, be sure 
to apply it at least ten days before you plant, and see 
that it is well stirred into the soil and does not come 
in contact with the seed ; otherwise you are very like- 
ly to lose your stand. We have seen it kill turnip seed 
and even snap beans. It does not seem to affect 
beets, however. 

Try an application of quick-lime on the land you 
intend to plant in turnips. It will help to prevent 
scab and make nice, smooth roots. 

When applying lime to land for any purpose do not 
let it air slack, for in doing this it loses much of its 
strength. It is much better to haul the lump lime 
direct to the f^eld, scoop out a hollow place in the 
ground at different places where the lime will be 
needed, put in several barrels cf lime, throw on a lit- 
tle water and cover the whole pile with earth. In this 
position the lime will crumble to a fine powder so it 
can be spread without losing any of its strength, and 
you will find it much more effective. Ur.e about 40 
bushels per acre. 

We have found that a good application of lime to 
land which we intended to plant in tomatoes prevent- 
ed their dying from Idight. 

An application of lime to some soils has been 
found to more than double the size of lettuce. It will 
also prevent lettuce from damping off in cold frames. 

Lime will make clay land more friable, and sand 
less loose. It will sweeten sour land and where land 
is poorly drained, is a great help toward making it 
productive. Do not let it come into direct contact, 
however, with either guano or manure. 

ARTICHOKES. 

No farmer who is raising hogs should omit a good 
supply of Jerusalem artichokes for the hogs to feed 
on during the late winter or early spring months. 
They can be grown with half the labor needed for 
sweet potatoes, will yiehl from three to five times as 
much, and, bushel for bushel, are worth nearly or 
quite as much. They can remain in the ground 
through the winter without injury by freezing, antl 
are so available for fresh feed at a season when pota- 
toes, peanuts and other similar hog feeds have been 
exhausted. 

They arc not particular about the soil on which 
they grow, though a rich, sandy loam is best, and a 



dry, heavy, and barren clay the poorest. A good 
sweet potato soil is a good soil for artichokes The 
land needs no special preparation, but we prefer it 
plowed broadcast so as to plant on a level. Seed can 
be purchased from most seed dealers, and about as 
much per acre is needed as is needed for Irish pota- 
toes. The tubers are about as large as potatoes, and 
can be cut in the same manner. When to be planted 
early, on rich soil, which is in good condition, very 
small pieces may be used. Lay off in rows four feet 
apart, drop the seed about eighteen inches apart in 
the rows and cover with a plow. No fertilizer will 
be needed on good ground. 




Fig 



-Jerusalem Artichuke. 



The only cultivation necessary is what will be 
needed to keep the ground clean from weeds and to 
prevent the surface from becoming hard and baked. 
Usually one thorough harrowing about the time the 
plants come up, and two later cultivations are suffi- 
cient, and by the first of July the plants should be so 
large as to shade the ground and prevent any further 
growth of weeds. As the tubers are not formed un- 
til late in the season, and are clustered very close to 
the bottom of the stalk, we like to make the last cul- 
tivation with a turning plow, and then throw the dirt 
toward the rows. 

Harvesting may be safely delayed until January, 
and then only enough for planting need be gathered. 
Plow up a few rows, gather up the tubers, and bury 
or store them away like potatoes ; then let the hogs 
have the rest. If more convenient a small part of the 
field may be fenced off from the lot where the hogs 
run, and the tubers allowed to remain where they 
g-rew, until needed for planting. 

A few who have grown this crop claim that their 
hogs did not relish the roots, and would not eat them 
freely. We have never heard such complaint from 
anyone after the first of January, though we are sat- 



Do Not Fail to Fertilize Your Garden Spot Well. 



65 



isfied that there is often good ground for it early in 

the winter. The roots do not form until in the 

! fall, September and October, and so do not become 

j well matured until two or three months later. We 

I have never heard of a hog which was not hungry for 

artichokes at any time from January to March. 

I Some farmers have objected to the crop on account 
I of the supposed difficulty in getting rid of the plants 
when in a field wanted for other uses. It is true that 
i artichokes will persist for many years, if not disturbed 
during the summer, but a single good plowing or hoe- 
ing out between June and September will kill every 
plant. This work can be successfully done at any 
I time during the summer, after the old tubers have be- 
come exhausted and before the new ones are formed. 
j On the other hand, some growers regard this persis- 
; tent character as an advantage, as hogs usually leave 
I enough tubers in the ground to make a crop the fol- 
I lowing year. We have never liked that way of do- 
j ing, as the second season the plants are so irregular 
1 that it is impossible to- cultivate them, and we have 
I always found it more profitable, even when using the 
same field, to plow broadcast and replant every 
1 spring. 

The yield, of course, depends on the soil ; but on 
land of fair quality it is seldom less than thiee hun- . 
■ dred bushels per acre, while on very good land dou- 
ble that amount may reasonably be expected. Try a 
few this spring. 

ASPARAGUS. 

' Asparagus is one of the finest vegetables of the 
spring, and is grown quite largely for the market. It 
grows year after year from the same roots. As it is 
ordinarily grown in the garden it is a troublesome 
crop, but if it is planted in rows so as to be cultivated 
with a horse, it can be as easily grown as any other 
crop. Asparagus thrives best in a rich sandy low 
soil, and is a crop that cannot receive too much ma- 
luire. There are two methods of making an aspara- 
gus bed. One plan is to get the roots from a seeds- 
man, and set out your bed, and the other plan it to 
plant the seed and grow the plants at home vourself. 

If you desire to raise your own plants, the seed 
should be sown in drills about eighteen inches apart 
early in the spring. One ounce will sow fifty feet of 



drill, and these seed should be covered one inch deep. 
Before sowing the seed the land should be thorough- 
ly prepared by plowing and harrowing or spading, us- 
ing a liberal quantity of some complete commercial 
fertilizer, as the weed seed in the manure make 
it difficult to clean out the young plants. The seed 
germinate very slowly, so it will be well to plant rad- 
ish seed with it, then break the ground and mark the 
row, so that you can cultivate and keep the weeds 
down. The radish will also gfet some benefit from the 




Fig. o. — PosUion of Asparagus Roots at Planting. 

land. The ground should be kept free from weeds at 
all times, and by the ne.xt spring the plants should be 
large enough to transplant to their permanent bed. 
Sometimes they are allowed to stand for another 
year, but this is not the general practice., 

■ The ground selected for the permanent asparagus 
bed should be well fertilized. By well fertilized we 
mean at least ten tons of manure per acre broadcast, 
or 1000 lbs. of high grade fertilizer. The rows in the 
asparagus bed should be four feet apart, and the 
plants should be set three or four feet apart in the 
rows. The plants should be set with their crowns 
about six inches apart under the ground. If they are 
planted at a less depth than this, the roots push up the 
surface and interfere with the cultivation. It will not 
do to cover them six inches at once, as the young shoots 
would not be able to push up through six inches of 
soil. They should be frequently cultivated with the 
cultivator and hoe. In the fall the tops should be cut 
off close to the ground and a liberal application of 
well-rotted manure worked in on the surface. No at- 
tention- should be paid to the plants, but the whole 
surface can be plowed or harrowed to a depth of three 
inches. In the spring, as soon as the land can be 
worked, give one shallow cultivation in order that 
the soil may warm up quickly. When the crop has 
been harvested, or about the last of June, the whole 
bed should have another thorough cultivation to a 
depth of three inches, without regard to rows. These 



66 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



cultivations should make unnecessary the liand weed- 
ing which so often makes asparagfus growing a diffi- 
cult task. 

Asparagus is best when it is white, crisp, and ten- 
der, and to secure it so the hills must be mounded up 
somewhat to bleach the sprouts. Ordinarily, howev-- 
er, the sprouts are taken when from four to six inch- 
es long, and cut an inch or two beneath the surface 
with an asparagus knife. All should be cut when of 
the proper size, for if any are permitted to grow on, 
they interfere with subsequent cutting and stop the 
growth of new sprouts. The time between cuttings 
is laregly dependent on the weather; Once in two 




Fig. 4. — Florida Asparagus. 

days is the average time. Frost kills shoots above 
ground, but does not injure subsequent cuttings. 
There are a number of good varieties, among the best 
of which are Conover's Colossal, Moore's, and Pal- 
metto. 

For the enemies to Asparagus see Diseases of 
Plants, and the Insect Department. 

BEANS. 

There are many varieties of beans, such as com- 
mon field and garden, or kidney beans, Lima beans. 
Scarlet Runner beans, and horse or broad beans. The 
most extensively planted varieties for market pur- 
poses are Extra Early Red Valentine, Stringless 
Green Pod, Round Pod Refugee, Kidney Wax, Rust 
Proof Wax, and White Wax; also Henderson's Bush 
Lima. Beans thrive best on a welHdrained clay 
loam, or sandy loam soil, with good clay subsoil. The 
land should be well prepared by plowing and har- 



rowing, using a liberal application of rotted barn- 
yard manure in the row. The bean is a leguminous 
plant, and therefore can draw nitrogen from the air; 
at the same time this will not take the place of ammo- 
nia in the fertilizer. Wood ashes are an excellent fer- 
tilizer for beans, used as a top dressing in addition to 
the manure. 

Beans are very sensitive to frost, and therefore are 
easily killed, and the seed should not be planted too 
e'arl_v. This is especially true of the Lima bean, which 
should never be planted until the soil is warm, or the 
seed will rot in the ground. Beans may be either 
planted in hills or drills. When planted in drills, the 
rows should be from two to three feet wide, and if 
planted in hills, the hills should be from a foot to 
a foot and a half apart, using from three to six beans 
to a hill. They should be cultivated often and shal- 
low. This not only helps to furnish plant food and 
keep down the weeds, but it preserves the soil mois- 
ture. 

The cultivation of the White Navy bean is similar 
to the above, except that it does not require as rich 
land nor as much fertilizer. If the crop is large the 
plants are pulled up when the pods are ripe, and this 
is sometimes done by running a plovv' along the side 




Fig. 5. — White Mexican or Prolific Tree Bean. 

of the row, cutting the vines off just under the sur- 
face of the ground. The vines are then thrown to- 
gether in small piles, where they are left for a day 
or so. The vines should not be allowed to get wet, 
as this discolors the beans and lowers their market 



Do Not Neglect to Work Your Garden. 



67- 



value. When the vines are dry the beans are thresh- 
ed out by using either a machine made for the busi- 
ness, or they are threshed out with a flail. They are 
then run through a fan, then cleaned ; after which 
they are assorted. 

The garden bean requires a much richer soil than 
the field bean. They will also stand very 'heavy fertil- 
izing. When the running sort are planted, some rec- 
onnnend the placing of the poles in the ground four 
feet apart each way, and then planting the beans 
about them. We do not believe, however, that this 
plan has any advantage over the plan of planting the 
beans first, and after they begin running then to place 
poles or sticks where they are needed. If you do not 
care to use poles, you may use two wires, placing one 
about six inches above the ground, and the other 
about six feet. Ball twine may then be used for the 
vines to run on. 

For enemies to bean? see Diseases of Garden Plants 
in "this chapter, also the Insect Department. 

BEETS. 




Fig. 6. — Eclipse Turnip Beet. 

There are two varieties of beets, the sugar beet 
and the table beet. Sugar beets are not grown in the 
South, and hence we will only notice the table beet. 
Good table beets can be produced on most any friable 
soil, provided it is well-drained and made rich with 
plenty of old compost. If commercial fertilizer is 
t used, apply broadcast about 2000 lbs. of a complete 
I vegetable fertilizer per acre. If possible, the land 
should be plowed deeply in the fall and again in the 



spring, making a fine seedbed by repeated harrow- 
ings. Beets as a rule are hardy, and may be sown 
just as early as the land can be cultivated after dan- 
ger of many freezings is past. The rows are planted 
from a foot to two and a half feet apart. After they 
come up, they should be thinned to about four inches 
apart. Thin when about two inches high, or as soon 
as they can be handled easily. Plant about an inch 
deep and see that the seed go in thick enough to in- 
sure a good stand. There should be at least three to 
the inch. As soon as the beets are as large as a hen's 
egg 3'ou "may begin pulling and bunching them for 
market, putting from iWe to eight in a bunch. They 
sell readily early in the season and are one of the 
most profitable of all vegetable crops to the market 
gardener. Early Egyptian. Eclipse, and Blood Tur- 
nip, are the most popular varieties. 

CABBAGE. ' 

The cabbage is largely grown all over the whole 
countrv, and market gardeners have found that it is 
one of the most profitable crops they can grow. Cab- 
bage can be shipped much better than collards, and 
sell for better prices. The early crop is usually the 
most profitable, but of recent years gardeners have 
been making good money from the late crop as well. 

Cabbage delight in a rich, well-drained soil, but 
one that retains the moisture. You cannot make the 
land too rich and many gardeners apply as much as 
100 two-horse loads of stable manure or 3,000 lbs. of 
guano per acre. Land for cabbage should be broken 
deeply, thoroughly pulverized, and the manure and 
fertilizer worked into tlie whole land near the sur- 
face. 

EARLY CABBAGE. 

The early Jersey Wakefield is still the leading sort 
for this purpose, although there are a number of 
newer varieties which the originators claim to be su- 
perior. If they are earlier, however, they usually sac- ' 
rifice size, and if they are larger they sacrifice earli- 
ness ; but the Wakefield comes nearer filling the bill 
than any we have tried. You can set the plants eigh- 
teen inches apart in rows two feet wide, which will 
give you about 12,000 plants per acre, and they will 
make cabbage that will weigh anywhere from two 
pounds to ten pounds each. 

Now, if you produce a crop of 12,000 cabbage aver- 



68 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND ?LZASU~E. 



aging five pounds each, that means 60,000 lbs. of cab- 
bage altogether. But you cannot figure on such a 
large yield, as there will be some missing places, and 
the cabbage are not likely to average five lbs. each. 
With proper preparation, cultivation, and fertilizing, 
however, 3'ou can count on half this amount, or about 
30,000 lbs. 

Now, 30,000 pounds of cabbage will remove from 
an acre of ground 114 lbs. of nitrogen, 33 lbs. of 
p'hosphoric acid and 129 lbs. potash. To supply this 
amount of plant food it would require a ton of ferti- 
lizer that would analyze 7 per cent nitrogen, about 
2 per cent, phosphoric acid, and over 14 per cent, pot- 
ash. This crop of cabbage would alsO' require 26.100 
lbs. of water. I give you these figures to show what 




Fig 



-Succession Cabbage. 



a crop of 30,000 lbs. of cabbage would require, and, 
of course, the cabbage cannot be produced unless the 
fertilit}- is in the land to begin with. 

I am preparing to plant an acre in cabbage this 
spring myself, and 1 shall apply to that acre about 
forty tons of stable manure and at least a ton of high 
grade commercial fertilizer. And this on land that is 
already quite rich. A fertilizer for cabbage should 
analyze about 6 per cent, ammonia, 5 per cent, phos- 
phoric acid, and 7 per cent, potash. If I were short 
on manure I should not hesitate to use one and a half 
or even two tons of such fertilizer per acre. For 
to grow a big crop of cabbage it is necessary to put 
down two or three times as much plant food in the 
fertilizer as we expect the crop to consume. We have 
to do this in order to force rapid growth and large 
size, for the bulk of the cabbage crop is water any- 



way, and we want to sell as much water in the shape 
of cabbage as possible. 

To obtain the best results we must have our ma- 
nure and fertilizer worked into the first four or five 
inches of top soil, so it will all be where the plants 
can get at it. It is, therefore, best to break your land 
deeply, in the first place, and then apply and work in 
the fertilizer broadcast on the surface. A little gu- 
ano can also be applied in the drill to advantage ; but 
we must be very careful to see that it is all thorough- 
ly stirred into the soil and that our land is well worked 
down and is fine and mellow. We do not want to see 
any lumps or clods, and we must be careful not to 
work the land when too wet, as this will lock up plant 
food and is very likely to cause failure. 

Another very important point is to have good, 
strong plants, of an even size. It is impossible to 
make a good crop of cabbage with poor plants. You 
must have strong, healthy plants, as near a size as 
possible ; then the whole field will head up evenly. 
If you must use some small plants, select them out 
and get them by ourselves. It will pay better, how- 
ever, to throw the little plants away and procure 
enough strong large plants to set your whole field. 
When a man puts in an investment of $75 or $100 per 
acre for manure and fertilizer, he cannot afford to 
take chances with poor plants. If you purchase your 
plants from a grower, better have him send you a 
sample so you will know what you are getting, and 
better pay a dollar per thousand extra if necessary, 
to get selected plants. 

When you set your plants wet the roots, and see 
that the soil is pressed firmly against the stem and 
root with the foot. The plant should be so firmly 
set that when taking hold of a leaf, it will break be- 
fore pulling up the plant. 

As soon as the plants begin tO' take hold give them 
a good hoeing and then see that they a-re either hoed 
or cultivated with a horse cultivator at least once a 
week, until they become too large to work. 

When the plants start to head a little nitrate of soda 
sprinkled around them and hoed in will prove a great 
help. If you can irrigate your patch you make suc- 
cess doubly sure, and when this is impossibe try to 
select a piece of bottom land or some that will not Iv: 
likely to suffer from drouth. My cabbage will I'"' 
planted on a piece of well-drained bottom land that T 
can irritjate. 



Vegetables Pay More Than Cotton. 



69 



While I have not gone very exhaustively into de- 
tails in this article, I have tried to make clear the 
main points which must be observed to produce a bigf 
crop of cabbage ; and after all, that is the only kind 
of crop that it really pays to grow. So do not for- 
get to pile on the manure and fertilizer, prepare 
your land thoroughly, use only good, strong plants, 
and give them rapid cultivation. Whenever we fail 
to observe any of these principal points our cabbage 
crop has not been what it should. 

For early cabbages, the seed bed should be planted 
in November or December for plants to set out in 
March. They will have to be planted in a cold frame. 
A small shallow box, placed in the kitchen window 
will answer: but here tbey need not be started until 
January. The seed should be covered about one- 
fourth of an inch deep. The plants should be har- 
dened to out-of-door conditions by gradually expos- 
ing them to such conditions, so that when set in the 
field they would not be killed by a sharp frost. The 
rows should be about two and a half feet apart and 
the plants set eighteen inches to two feet in the rows. 

In growing late cabbage the great difficulty is to 
get a stand. .-Vs a rule it is better to plant the seed 
in the rows in tlie field where you wish to grow the 
cabbage. In planting by this method you thorough- 
ly prepare the land and then as soon as you have a 
good rain rake off the bed and place four or five seed 
in a hill every ten feet apart. They can be covered 
with the foot, pressing the dirt upon them with the 
ball of the foot. As foon as the plants appear, go 
over the field and dust them with air-slacked lime or 
ashes, so as to keep off the flea beetle, a little pest 
that is likely to destroy your plants before you know 
of their presence. You should be careful that a crust 
does not form around the plants, as they frequently 
die from want of moisture. To keep the crust from 
forming around them, you just keep the harrow and 
rake going. In fact, they should be pushed by thor- 
ough cultivation from then on. 

When cabbage are grown for the market, it is gen- 
erally advisable to dispose of as much of the crop as 
possible as soon as they head and not try to store 
them and wait. Cabbage should not be stored while 
wet, or handled while frozen. They keep well if 
stored in a cool, damp cellar, if stored in bins about 
four feet wide. They also keep well when the heads 
are buried in sand. They can be stored out of doors 
by digging long, narrow trenches, placing them in. 



and covering with straw and dirt deep enough to pre- 
vent serious freezing: When stored pull them up by 
the roots and turn them up-side down, leaving on all 
their leaves. 

There are a great many diseases of cabbages, and 
also enemies in the form of insects, all of which are 
treated in this book. For diseases, see Diseases of 
Garden Plants, and for insects, see Insect Depart- 
ment. Among the best varieties are the Early Jersey 
Wakefield, Long Island Wakefield, All-head Early, 
Early Summer, Sure Head, and Late Flat Dutch. 

CELERY. 

Celerv is a hardy plant grown in almost all parts 
of the country for the leaf stalf. The celery industry 




Fig. 10. — Savannah .Market Celery. 

of Florida is enormous. The best land for it is a 
muck, or sandy loam, but the sandy loam would have 
to be heavily fertilized, as celery is a rank feeder. A 
reclaimed swamp that is well-drained and in good 
tilth is a fine place for celery, but the celery grown on 
swampy lands is not so good as that grown on up- 
land. It is a frequent custom to plant muck land in a 
crop of potatoes or onions, and follow it the same 
season with a crop of celery. It is sometimes the cus- 
tom to set the celery plants out before the potato crop 
is dug, omitting every third row of potatoes. 

Celery seed are perhaps the smallest seed used by 
gardeners, and the plants are very small themselves 
when quite young. It is often the case that a small 



70 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



clod of dirt resting upon seed or plants will retard 
and sometimes prevent growth. For this reason it is 
incumbent upon the grower to thoroughly prepare his 
land, especially the seed bed, which must be as fine 
as an ash bank. The seed should be sown thickly on 
top of the ground in rows ten or twelve inches apart. 
Tread the seed into the soil with the feet, but do not 
cover them. The planting should be done while the 
soil is fresh as soon as the land is prepared, then 
sprinkle iightly with a watering pot with a fine sprin- 
kler, and cover with wet sacks. Sprinkle the sacks 
every day until the seed sprout, when the sacks may 
be removed and a partial shade given until the little 
plants get started. As soon as the plants appear, cul- 
tivate between th.e rows tv.'ice a week, weeds or no 
weeds, and when two inches lib thin out to about 
one inch apart in the row. Transplant to permanent 
field when six inches high, setting in rows 4 feet 
apart, and placing plants 6 to 8 inches in row. 

feed are sometimes sown broadcast, but this is 
usually- (lone in flats in the greenhouse. 

When the seed are sown in this manner they 
should be mixed with sand, using one part seed and 
five parts sand. When the plants are about three 
inches high they are transplanted to rows about two 
or three inches apart in other flats or beds. This 
^lan of sowing broadcast in the bed is used for early 
celery, and the other plan is used for late celery. The 
work of transplanting should be given special atten- 
tion. The time celery should be transplanted depends 
largely upon local conditions. In the central South 
this is done in August, the crop following some early 
vegetable crop. In I-lorida it is done late in t!ic fall. 
When setting have ready a pail of mud. that is. earth 
and water stirred together, mixed to the consistency 
of cream. Dip the roots in th.is. using, of course, only 
lar--e, strong plants. The plants should be dropped 
in the freshly opened row, anywhere from six to eight 
inches apart. Double rows, where the soil is suffi- 
ciently fertile to permit it, a-e better than single 
rows. Tl e double rows are six inches apart, and the 
sets of rows are four feet apart. In this manner vou 
get r.ear'y twice the amount on an acre of land. 

.mgaticn is quite important in growing celerv. 
Surface irrigation at one station doubled the yield of 
the crop, and increased its market value eight times. 
Sub-irrigation has proven very effective in manv 
places. It is needlese to state that land for celery 



should be made very rich, and repeated top dressings 
of Nitrate of Soda will prove very beneficial in pro- 
moting quick growth. Golden Self-Bleaching and 
White Plume are the principal varieties used. 

COLLARDS. 

The collard is extensively grown throughout the 
South, but not so much as a few years ago. It grows 
about two feet high, but does not make a hard head. 
The leaves are tender -ar.d are used for greens. The 




Fig. 9. — Collards. 

collards sh.ould be planted in the same manner as cab- 
bage. 

CUCUMBER. 

Cucumbers are sensitive to frost, and require for 
their best growth a rich, sandy, warm loam. Any 
land that will produce rood corn will also produce 
good cucumbers, if they are properly manured in the 
hill. • Some advocate not planting seed until the 
weather is warm, but one nuist run some risk in order 
to secure earl'ness. The following method will give 
you earlier cucumbers than the plan of waiting until 
the weather is warm before planting the seed : Take 
plant or strawberry boxes without bottoms, place 
them in cold frames or hotbed, and fill them ^vith good 
garden soil, and well rotted manure. Plant your seed 
in them, and i)rotect by placing sash, or some other 
glass over them. The feed can be planted in t::e ear- 
ly part of February, or about six weeks before it 
would be safe to set the plants in open ground. After 
the seed are up and the weather is warm, the sash can 
be taken off in the day, and replaced at night. If the 



Do Not Let the Insects Get Your Garden. 



71 



weather be extremely cold, hay or straw could be 
placed over them, and the sash on top of the hay. 
When setting in the field set a little lower than they 
were in the boxes, cut away the box, water well, and 
set firml)'. By this method you can ship cucumbers 
before anyone else, and have good profits, in that 
they are the first. 




Kig. lu. — Japanese Climbing Cucumber. 

Land for cucumbers should be prepared al^out the 
same as you would for corn. The rows should be run 
out deeply from four to six feet apart each way, and 
a good shovelful of well rotted manure worked into 
the soil, and the hill made up at the check. Keep 
||cultivated and keep free from weeds at all times. 
I For table and market use cucumbers should be 
'•picked when they are grown but still green : and for 
pickling purposes, according to size of pickle wanted. 
iAll large and over-grown cucumbers should be kept 
ppicked off and not allowed to ripen seed, for with the 
ripening of the seed the vine will stop bearing and be- 
jgin to die. 

For enemies to cucumbers see Diseases of Garden 
[Plants in this chapter, also the Insect Department. 

White Spire, Long Green and Evergreen are the 
Imost popular varieties. 



CARROTS. 



Corrots are grown almost the same as turnips. 
They should be planted very early in the spring on 
well-prepared and fertilized land in rows about eigh- 
teen inches apart. They are largely grown around 
New Orleans for shipping to Northern markets and 
here the crop is planted in the fall. Carrots are very 
valuable as a stock food as well as a vegetable for 
market. 

Sow seed in shallow drills in early spring when the 
trees are leafing out. Make several sowings about 
a month apart so as to give a succession crop. When 
plants are well started, thin out to four inches apart 
in the row. Sow in rich or v\-ell manured soil worked 
deep. This is a deep-rooted crop and the soil should 
be prepared deep enough, so the roots can penetrate 
without difficulty. Cultivate frequently, keeping 
your ground free from weeds and grass. Best make 
drills 16 to 18 inches apart to allow easy working. 
In Florida sow seed in September, October and No- 
vember. Oxheart is a good early variety ; but Chan- 
tenay and Danvers Intermediate are probably most 
largely grown. 




Kig. 11. — Oxlie.Ti-t Carrot. 



EGGPLANT. 



The eggplant is only grown in the South for com- 
inercial purposes, and. its cultivation is similar to that 
of tomatoes. 

The plants will have to be started under glass, aad 
should be vigorous and at least six or eight inches 
high v^'hen they are transplanted to the field. Tlie}" 
should be transplanted as soon as the soil is warm 
and all danger from frost is past. If you only want 
a few plants, it would be belter to buy them than to 
try to raise them. 10 or 12 plants should be a plenty 
to supply the average family. It is best to plant the 



-J^ 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 




Fig. VI. — Improved Large Purple Tlioruk-.ss Eggplant. 

seed in small bo.xes or pots, say three inch pots, as 
these can be easily transplanted, and the plant will 
not suffer on account of transplanting. The main 
thing' is to use only vigorous, healthy plants, and keep 
them growing after they get started. It is far better 
to throw away poor plants than it is to bother with 
them. The plants should be placed three feet apart 
in rows which are four feet apart. For enemies to the 
eggplant see Diseases of Garden Plants in this chap- 
ter. 



KALE 




Kale belongs to the cabbage family. It does not 
head up, but has a thick crown of leaves. It is used 
as a vegetable for greens in the early spring or late 
fall. 

Kale requires the same soil as cabbage, also similar 
cultivation. The leaves are cut and sold loose on the 
market by the busliel in the early spring when they 
are often quite profitable. The German kale or Si- 
berian is verv hardy and will grow all winter without 
protection in the South. 

LETTUCE. 

Lettuce is becoming one of the most profitable veg- 
etables grown by the market gardener at the South. 
The seed are usually planted in the open field in the 
early fall and then plants transplanted to cold frames 
protected by cloth or glass sash, and sometimes heat- 
ed bv steam or hot water. Then thev are forced and 




Vi. — Karly Green Curled Kale or Borecole. 



Fig. 14. — California Cream Butter. 

head up about Christmas for the fall trade. Seed are 
also sown in the frame in the spring, the plants to be 
transplanted to open ground in March. Lettuce 
grows best in a clay loam soil made rich with well rot- 
ted manure. It is usualy planted in rows about one 
foot apart, with the plants six inches apart. If you 
desire first-class lettuce, the crop must be grown rap- 
idly. A quick growth is sometimes secured by an ap- 
plication of 200 to 300 pounds of nitrate of soda 
broadcast and raked in. Apply after a rain, but when 
the plants are dry. Constant cultivation is also nee- 



Thorough Preparation is Half the Battle. 



73 



essary to success. The crop should mature from six 
to eight weeks after it is transplanted.- 

For enemies to lettuce, see Diseases of Plants, also 
the insect department. 

The Iceberg is an excellent summer lettuce, but is 
very slow to run to head, but Big Boston and Cali- 
fornia Cream Butter are varieties, usually grown for 
market. 

MUSHROOMS 

Few people realize the value of mushrooms as a 
food. j\Iost of us allow these delicious plants - to 
spring up, bear fruit, and we never take advantage of 
that fruit. There is an idea that most mushrooms 
are poisonous. Some of them cannot be eaten on ac- 
count of being too woody, but the greater number of 
common, soft, fleshy mushrooms are edible and many 
are among the most delicious and nutritious foods 
that the vegetable kingdom affords. We take from 
a Bulletin recently issued by one of the expermient 
stations, the following: "Only the so-called 'cultivated 
mushroom,' Agaricus Campestris, is grown for mar- 
ket. The culture is very easy and almost any one 
can succeed at it. This mushroom thrives best at a 
steady temperature of about 55 deg. F. to 65 deg. F. 
The temperature must not fall below 50 deg. F. nor 
rise above 70 deg. F. ' 

"In France and England, this mushroom is exten- 
sively grown for market in sheds, stables, cellars, dis- 
used quarries, mines and caves. It is also grown dur- 
ing the fall months out of doors in garden-beds, kept 
covered from direct sunlight. Mushrooms do not re- 
quire sunlight as green plants do, but ordinary dif- 
fused light will do them no harm though direct sun- 
light is injurious. In eastern and central North Car- 
olina the temperature of the air during the months of 
September, October, and November is well suited for 
growing this mushroom out of doors. The plant may 
also be grown in ordinarv pits roofed over or under 
cold frames or disused hot-beds — the sashes being 
kept covered with straw to exclude the light. 

"In preparing mushroom beds, whether for indoor 
or outdoor beds, horse or mule droppings must be 
obtained, though one-fourth the manure may be from 
cows. The fresh manure should be mixed with one- 
third its bulk of clean garden or pasture loam soil. 
The mixture is then firmly beaten down with a spade 
and allowed to stand under cover for a week unless 
in the meantime it ferments too violentlv, in which 



case the pile must be turned over and made afresh, 
adding a little fresh soil to the pile. In making the 
beds, firm the mixture of soil and manure by tread- 
ing on it Avith the feet or beating with a brick. Make 
the bed when firm about 8 inches thick. Let the bed 
stand for a few days, then insert a thermometer into 
a hole made in the bed, and when temperature falls 
to about 90 deg. F. it is ready for spawning. The 
spawn of the cultivated mushroom is sold in bricks 
by all the larger seedsmen. Another variety is sold 
in flakes, but the brick spawn seems to be better. 
The bricks weigh about one pound and cost from 12 
to 15 cents each, or about $7.50 per 100 pounds. Each 
br.ck is broken into a dozen or eighteen pieces. ]Make 
holes in the bed about 10 inches apart each way and 
insert the pieces of brick-spawn so that they will be 
covered two inches deep. Beat the covering as firm 
as rest of bed. Let the spawned bed stand for 6 to 8 
days and then cover the whole with two inches of 
clean garden soil. This soil covering must not be 
put on until at least six days after spawning. The 
beds, if out of doors, must be covered with rain-proof 
cloth, such as the ordinary oiled plant-bed cloth. 
Over this if the air is very warm, mats of straw may 
be placed to keep the bed cool. The beds must be 
watered if the soil shows any tendency to crust on 
top. Use water heated to 100 deg. F. Cold water 
must not be used. Give just enough water to moisten 
the top two inches of soil and no more. 

The fruits or "mushrooms" will begin to push 
through the soil in from 5 to 7 weeks, according to 
the temperature. The plants are salable in all stages 
of growth, but are most valued when just out of the 
"button" stage — when the cap can be distinguished 
from the stem. The mushrooms tend to come up in 
clusters. In gathering it is best to twist the stem off 
its hold on the underground spawn. If necessary the 
stem may be cut off. The crop should be gathered 
every day. If any mushrooms are allowed to attain 
full size, yield of bed will be diminished. The bed 
should continue to bear from four to six weeks. The 
average yield is about 3-4 pound per square foot of 
bed surface. After the first crop is gathered -the bed 
should be copiou^y watered with warm water, to each 
gallon of which has been added one ounce of nitrate 
of soda. In lack of nitrate, use a strong decoction of 
hen manure for same purpose. -A second crop can be 
obtained, often superior to the first. 

The market price for mushrooms varies greatly. It 
sometimes reaches $1.25 per pound, but as a rule the 



74 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



price is from 25 cents to 50 cents per pound for young, 
fresh stock of uniform size. At present mushrooms 
are consumed chiefly by the wealthy and only first- 
class goods are salable at any price. The lower grade 
of mushrooms must be consumed at home or utilized 
in manufacture of catsups or sauces. 

The lo-pound "Georgia" grape basket is a suitable 
package for shipping mushrooms. The basket should 
be lined with clean white paper. Pack solidly and 
keep as cool as possible until sold. 

Some mushrooms are poisonous, notably the Ama- 
nita genus. If you are inexperienced in the mush- 
room business, you will do well to avoid eating tlic 
following kinds of mushrooms: 

1. All mushrooms which are worm-eaten, or in the 
least degree decayed. 

2. All mushrooms which are woody or corky. 

3. All mushrooms which are bitter, sour or peppery 
to the taste. 

4. All mushrooms which have a fetid or strong dis- 
agreeable odor 

5. All mushrooms which have a sheath surrounding 
a bulbous or swpllen base. 

6. All mushrooms having a milky juice, uidess the 
milk is reddish. 

7. All bright-colored mushrooms having a sticky, 
warty or scaly cap with thickish gills. 

8. All tube mushrooms wdiose flesh changes color 
-when broken, or whose tubes have reddish mouths. 

A good wav to test the edibility of mushrooms is 
to break off a piece of the cap about the size of a 
grain of corn and chew it, rejecting the chewed mat- 
ter after a few minutes. If the mushroom seems to 
agree with any species described in this paper as 
edible, and is pleasant to the taste, the chances are 
greatlv in favor of its being wholesome. There is no 
reliable short test for determining the edibility of 
mushrooms. 

MUSKMELON. 

The muskmelon is a sensitive, annual, trailing vine, 
wdiich is very sensitive to frost. The term canta- 
loupe is quite often applied to muskmelons, but should 
only be applied to one group, which is characterized 
by a hard, scaly and sometimes deep-furrowed rind. 
Cantaloupes are grown very largely in the South for 
shi]imcnt and has proven most profitable. They 
thrive best when grown on a medium, light, sandy 



the fall before and frequent harrowing during the 
winter and spring. Where it is desired to get in an 
extra early crop, some growers start the plants under 
glass, as suggested for cucumbers, and transplant 
hem as soon as the weather permits. It is often dif- 




Fig. 15. — Eden, the Great Shipping Melon. 

ficult to get the vines to live, and it is best to plant 
the seed in bottondess boxes or in cans. These can 
be removed to the field, wdien the weather is cloudy 
or late some afternoon, and the plants transferred to 
the ground without disturbing the roots. The advan- 
tage of this practice is questioned by some, who claim 
that the melons are no earlier than thev are when 




Fig. 16. — The Ponce de L«on Cantaloupe. 

the grower waits until the weather is warm enough to 
plant the seed in the field direct. At the Arkansas 



loam. The land should be well prepared, by plowing Experiment Station, however, it is said that by start- 



The Garden is a Good Recreation Spot for the Business Man. 



75 



ing the melons under glass, the crop came off from lo 
to 20 days earlier. 

When the melons are planted out of doors, the rows 
for cantaloups should be six feet apart, and the hills 
three feet in the row. It is the custom to plant from 
ten to fifteen seed in a hill. Muskmelons and canta- 
loupes should be fertilized with well-rotted barnyard 
manure, or 500 pounds of commercial fertilizers, a.s 
recommended in the Fertilizer Department of this 
book. As soon as the plants are up and past the seed 
leaf they can be thinned out, say to the three largest 
in the hill, and later thinned to the two strongest 
plants. Cultivation should be shallow. After the 




Varieties for Home Market — Early Hackensack, 
Emerald Gem, Paul Rose, Kinsman, Queen, Mont'-eal 
Green Nutmeg, Bay View. 

For enemies to muskmelons see Diseases of Garden 
Plants, also the Insect Department. 




Fig. 17. 



Fig. 18. 



runners are about two feet long, it is a good plan to 
sow broadcast thinly, with some kind of field peas, 
and sweep out with long sweeps about five times to 
the middle, or a cultivator witli three sweeps on run- 
ning three times The vines should then be placed in 
as nearly a natural position as possible, which should 
finish the cultivation. The melons at present in favor 
for shipping are mostly of small or medium size and 
high quality. A good shipping melon should possess 
the following points: i, productiveness; 2, firmness; 
3, high quality; 4. uniformity: 5, attractive appear- 
ance; 6, keeping quality. Firmness results primarily 
from a firm rind, and secondly, from firmness and 
thickness of flesh, or smallness of cavity. 

As to quality, reputation for quality will sell the 
melons from a given region, at good prices, when 
otherwise they would prove a drag on the market. 

Among melons grown here, the following are con- 
sidered best for shipment. The varieties are named 
in the order of preference: 

First Choice — Golden Netted Gem, Rocky Ford. 
New Jersey Improved Button Strain of Extra Early 
Jenny Lind, Early Netted Gem. 

Second Choice — Matchless, Burpee's Melrose, Jer- 
sey Belle, Baltimore Market, Jenny Lind, Cosmopol- 
itan, Champion Market, Wood's Perfection, Osage 
Long Island Beauty, Large Baltimore. 



MUSTARD. 

Mustard is grown for greens mostly in the South, 
but IS grown some tor seed. It requires a warm, rich 
soil, preferably a sandy loam. It is sown either 
broadcast or planted in drills. If broadcast, eight 
quarts of seed per acre are required. It requires 
about the same cultivation and fertilizers as turnips. 




WHin 

Velvet 

OKRA- 



Fig. 19. 



OKRA OR GUMBO. 

Okra is a Southern plant, and is grown without 



76 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASUI^E. 



much difficulty, and thrives in all garden soils. It is 
planted about the same time as snap beans, and the 
cultivation is about the same as cotton. The rows 
are usually three or four feet apart, and the plants 
should be from one to two feet apart in the row. The 
seed should be covered about one inch deep and 
planted when there is a good season in the ground, as 
the seed are hard and slow to germinate. The green 
pods are used for cooking as long as they snap easily. 

ONIONS. 

Onions are coming to be one of the best paying 
vegetable crops in the South. Up until a few years 
ago little attention was paid to them except for local 
consumption, but now many growers are making 
splendid profits raising and shipjiing them, especially 
in the extreme South where the Bermuda onion is 
grown for early shipment in April and May. 

There are three methods of growing onions which 
we will describe : First, with sets, second, by sowing 
in the fall and transplanting early in the spring, and 




Fig. 20.— White Multiplier Onion Sets. 

third, by sowing the seed in the open ground in the 
spring as soon as the weather will permit. Onions 
for sets are grown principally for bunching, and 
sold green to supply our spring market : they are not 
suitable for ripe dry onions, as they will not keep, al- 
though we have kept the Pearl variety through the 
summer for home use. Sets can be grown in the 
South as well as in the North, and are much preferred. 
The seed should be sown on very thin soil, too poor 
to produce weeds, and sown very thickly in the row, 
so as to produce very small bulbs ; they ought not to 
be much larger than a pea. From seed sown in March 
or April, the sets will be ready to pull in July when 



they can be laid by to plant in the fall for the young 
spring crop of bunch or green onions. It would be 
well to apply a dressing of chemical fertilizers to the 
soil devoted to growing sets, applying at the rate of 
400 lbs. per acre, and this should be applied some- 
time before sowing the seed; this gives the fertilizers 
a chance to be assimilated with the soil. 




Fig. 21. — Bermuda Onions just arrived from L,a Fourclie, La. 

Another good method that is practiced by some, is 
to sow the seed in shallow boxes in the hot-house 
then transfer them to the cold frames later, then 
transplant to open ground in the spring as soon as the 
weather will permit. There is some work attached 
to this method, and the work should be well done, 
but no more than planting the sets, and is less costly 
if you have to buy your sets. By following this meth- 
od you can produi^e onions that will grow to large 
size, and ripen suitable to supply home markets or 
ship to more distant sections. 

Another method is to grow the seed in February 
Or early in March in open ground where you expect 
to mature the crop, but this method requires high cul- 
ture and well prepared soil, and in fact either method 
requires this, but the latter method must not want 
for any cond'tions that 'are required to force an early 
growth, and grow the crop to maturity. A clay loam 
or a mucky soil is suitable for onions ; in preparing the 
soil, it should be plowed deep and fine, so as to leave 
no lumps, finishing with a heavy roller to firm the 
soil, as onions form bulbs on the surface, onlv the 
roots penetrate the soil. This rule applies whether 
you follow either method. 

The best soil for onions is a rich, well-drained 
loam. Heavy clays, hillsides and stony lands should 
not be planted in onions. Muck lands that have been 
in cultivation for three or four years produce excel- 
lent crops of onions. The land that onions are plant- 



Complain of Hard Times. Some Folks Leave the Garden to the Children, and 



n 



ed on should have been in some heavily manured, 
hoed crop the preceding year. It is a mistake to 
plant onions on weedy land, or on land that is run 
down. 

Land for onions cannot be made too rich. The 
more manure you place under your onions the better 
crop you will make. If you are in the onion business, 
remember that fertilizers pay. Use anywhere from 
40 to 50 two-horse wagon loads of stable manure, and 
from 500 to 1500 lbs. of commercial fertilizer, as di- 
rected in tlie Fertilizer Department of this book. 
Then during the growing season, the most successful 
growers apply from 250 to 500 lbs. of nitrate of soda, 
applied broadcast in three or four applications. Re- 
member that fertilizer applied to onions is not lost, 




Fig. 22. — Tliree Globe Onions. 

for you do not have to rotate onions, but can grow 
them from year to year on the same land. 

Onions are planted in rows from 12 to I4 inches 
and about 4 inches in the row in garden culture, 
whether you plant sets or sow the seed and thin to a 
stand. On an extensive scale it might be well to wi- 
den the rows to admit of horse culture, but with the 
improved implements for hand work, this crop with 
high fertilizing, will pay for close planting and hand 
culture. Some growers lay off their land slightly 



ridged, but we prefer a level, but are careful to firm 
the soil before planting. 

Cultivation should begin as soon as the young 
plants are seen. The soil should be loosened on both 
sides, and thrown slightly away from the plants. 
Throughout the season, the crop should be hoed 
whenever weeds appear, or the ground becomes hard. 
Of course shallow cultivation should be given. After 
the bulbs begin to form cultivation should not be so 
frequent. 

As soon as the onion is mature, the stalks become 
weak just above the bulb and the top falls over to 
the ground. When this occurs the crop is ready for 
harvesting, even though some of the tops are green. 
They can then be pulled, but should not be allowed 
to dry in the sun, as it is liable to scald them. .As a 
rule, the onion crop in the South ripens at a time when 
rains are frequent, consequently they should be cured 
under a shed. Here they should be spread out in slat 
trays on shelves so that the air can circulate through 
them freely, and in this position they will keep until 
they can be marketed. When ready to market trim 
off the tops and roots and pack in crates, assorting 
them to a uniform size. The dark red and yellow va- 
rieties are often shipped in sacks. A dry loft is a 
good place to keep them. 

Within the last few years what is known as "The 
New Onion Culture," has come into practice. The 
seed are sown in cold frames in Novemberor Decem- 
ber under glass in rich soil and the plants transplant- 
ed to open ground in February or March, when they 
are about the size of a good quill. While the cost is 
a little more for transplanting them, yet it is claimed 
that the saving in work afterwards, thinning, etc., the 
gain in growing larger crops, more onions of a mar- 
ketable size, more than pays for the extra cost of 
transplanting. 

For enemies to onions, see Diseases of Plants, also 
the Insect Department. 

PUMPKIN. 

The pumpkin is grown for both man and beast, and 
is quite a paying crop, especially when grown with 
some other crop. It is quite a splendid crop to grow ' 
in corn fields. As a food for dairy cows, it is said to 
be equal to ensilage. If the land is very fertile and 
the vine grows very rapidly, the pumpkins cannot be 



78 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



planted closer than ten or twelve feet apart. Six or 
cig'lit seed should be planted in a hill, and two of the 
best plants allowed to crrow. The crop is grown with 
comparatively little work, and brings in good returns 
when marketed, as the demand for them is increasing. 



should not be grown in the summer time, as they will 
be stringy and tough, which renders them unfit for 
use. Winter radishes can be planted from the first 




When grown with corn they do not need extra fer- 
tilizers or work other than given the corn. They 
should be planted in April, or when the soil gets 
warm. 



RADISH. 

The radish is a quick growing, early season garden 
crop. It grows best in cool weather and must contin- 
ue until it is mature or it will not be tender. The 
crop is quite frequently grown in hotbeds or cold 
frames in the early spring. The seed hawing been 
sown in January or February, five or six weeks after 
planting the crop should be ready for use. The rows 
should be from a half to a foot wide, and the seed 
should be covered about a half inch deep. One ounce 
of seed should plant a hundred feet of row. They 




Fig. 24. — Rosy Gem Radish. 

to the last of September. The Rosy. Gem, or White 
Tipped Scarlet Ball is a popular variety, also the 
Half Long Deep Scarlet, also French Breakfast are 
popular. 




Fig. 2.5. — Improved American Rutabaga. 

RUTABAGAS. 

The rutabaga is also known as the Swedish turnip- 



Have a Good Fence Around the Garden to Keep the Chickens Out. 



79 



The root is a large fleshy bulb and is produced the 
first 3'ear, while the seed are not produced until the 
second year. Rutabagas do best on rich, well pre- 
pared loam soils. The crop is grown both for man 
and stock. Every farmer would find it to his interest 
to devote an acre or two to the rutabaga crop. The 
rows should be two feet apart, and should be planted 
from June to August, and harvested before freezing 
weather. It requires about two and a half pounds of 
seed per acre. The crop should be cultivated much the 
same as white turnips, but more care should be given 
to early thinning. The plants should be left no near- 
er than ten inches apart in the drill. The American 
r>rown seed give best results. 



plants being 8 or lo inches apart in the row. The 
plants should be kept free from weeds. When in 
bloom it is ready to cut. The roots should be protect- 
ed during the winter with straw mulch. 

SALSIFY, OR VEGETABLE OYSTER. 

Salsify, or vegetable oyster, is a hardy oiennial 
plant. The root is similar to the radish. It requires 
a deep, cool soil and the entire season to mature 
in. The seed should be planted in drills from one to 
two feet apart, and the plants thinned out to four or 
five inches apart in the row. The seed should be 
sown very early in the spring and covered an inch 
deep. 

One ounce of seed should plant a row 70 feet long. 
The roots may be dug in the late fall, or they may be 
allowed to remain in the ground all winter, digging 
as required. The roots when cooked have the flavor 
of oysters. 



fe&i 



SQUASH. 

Squashes require a warm, fertile, sandy soil. They 
are grown in hills about four feet apart each way for 
the summer or bunch varieties, and for the trailing 
varieties eight feet apart each way. The plant is quite 



Fig. 26.^Salsify. 




Gold«n Custard Squash. 



SAGE. 

Sage is a perennial garden shrub which is used for 
seasoning sausages, meats, and for other culinary 
purposes. The plants are generally started in a hot- 
bed, then set in rows eighteen or twenty inches apart. 



sensitive to frost and therefore should not be planted 
out of doors until the danger from frost is past. From 
eight to ten seed should be planted in each hill, and' 
after the danger from bugs is past, these may be 
thinned down to three plants. The seed should be 
covered one inch deep. The hill should be well ma- 



8o 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE, 



nured with a good shovel full of well rotted manure 
or compost. 

Summer squashes should be eaten before the skin 
hardens, and winter squashes may also be eaten in 
this state, but if you desire to store winter squashes 
they should not be pulled until the skin hardens. Af- 
ter they are pulled, which should be before the first 
frost, they should be allowed to stand in the sun for a 
few days, covering them up at night with vines and 
other litter to protect them from the frost. Care must 
be taken that the skin be not bruised in handling them, 
or they will be likely to decay. 

SWEET CORN. 

Sweet corn is grown mostly for a vegetable and al- 
so for canning before the kernels are hard. It is 
claimed 'that sweet corn does not do as well in the 
South unless the seed are secured from the North 
each year. This, however, is a mistake, and if we could 
procure Southern grown seed, or save our own seed 
we would be much more successful. Sweet corn is 
grown and cultivated like field corn, except that it 
requires more intensive cultivation and richer soil for 
the best results. It should be planted in warm soil 
that has been well prepared and heavily fertilized by 
the use of stable manure. It will not stand as much 
cold as field corn. However, you can take some risk, 
as early corn brings the best price. Be sure to use 
plenty of seed, for if the ground is cold part of the 
seed will be likely to rot. It should be planted at the 
earliest possible moment after danger from frost is 
past and continuous plantings made every ten days 
thereafter to afford a succession until late in the fall. 
The rows should be about three feet wide and the 
stalks allowed to- stand from one to two feet apart in 
the drills. Cultivate shallow until corn is in the 
roasting ear. 

SWEET POTATO. 

For directions for growing both sweet and Irish 
potatoes see Field Crops, under head of Potatoes. 

TEA. 



Indeed if this be true, and there is no reason why it 
should not come to pass, there is nothing in the 
world that can keep the South down. As it is, all the 
tea used in the United States is imported, and for the 
South to corhe forward and furnish our tea as she is 
doing in furnishing our cotton, sugar and rice, there 
is nothing that can keep her from being the richest 
part of the world. Tea requires a moist climate, and 
the temperature should seldom go below 25 deg. Fah. 
It is propagated from seed sown in the nursery, and 
when about a foot high transplanted. The seedlings are 
set from four to five feet apart each way. It is al- 
lowed to then grow about four feet high. Tea comes 
into full bearing when it is about six years old. The 
tea of commerce is the immature leaves of the tea 
plant which have been dried. The leaves are first 
withered in the sun by artificial heat, and then rolled 
to give them a twisted shape, then fermented to bring 
out the peculiar tea flavor, and then fired by spread- 
ing in thin layers and allowed to dry in the sun or by 
artificial heat. For more complete information on 
this subject we refer you to Report of Agriculture No. 
61 issued b}' the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
These bulletins are distributed free. 

TOMATOES. 

Tomatoes are used more in canning than any oth- 
er vegetable. They can be grown in almost any part 
of the United States. As a rule plants are grown from 




Fig. 2S. — Matchless Tomato. 



Experiments made at Pinehurst, S. C, on a planta- seed started in a hotbed or flats in the greenhouse, 
tion of 50 acres planted in tea indicate that tea cul- They may also be started in the kitchen window, 
ture can be made a profitable industry in the South. Growers should select their seed each year from per- 



Seed that are Cheap in Price are as a Rule Cheap in Quality. 



8l 



feet fruit whenever this is possible, as much finer to- 
matoes can be grown from such seed than from those 
usually purchased. Tomato plants should be started 
early. Most e.xperiment stations agree that plants 
should be transplanted twice. Rich soils especially 
prepared should be used in the flats or hotbed. 
Scrapings from the horse lot, piled up and rotted and 
then run through a common screen are excellent. 
Pack this soil in the flats, wet thoroughly, then sprin- 
kle your seed over evenly, and sift on enough fine 
soil to cover and place on the benches. They should 
begin to come up in from three to five days. The 
young plants should be given plenty of light and air 




Fig. oil. — Ijwari Tiniiaiiirs Crown on Soul ln-iu Rurallst 
Farm. Atlanta, Ga. 

and kept well watered. You want to secure strong 
plants, and it is essential that they be kept growing 
all the time. Within a month or six weeks after the 
plants come up, they are ready for transplanting. 
They should be set four or five inches each way in 
the cold frames, or they can be placed in tin cans, ber- 
ry boxes and the like. The soil in the beds should be 
rich. Continue to .give them plenty of air and sun- 
shine and stir around them once a week with a hand 
weeder. The plants should be twelve or fifteen inch- 
es high before they are transplanted to the field, but 
be sure that all danger of frost is past before they are 
removed to the open ground. In this last transplant- 
; ing cut out a square of earth and remove with the 
plant so as not to disturb the roots of the plants. 
Wet the bed thoroughly before beginning this opera- 



tion and remove to the field in a spring wagon. A 
rich sandy loam which has been heavily manured the 
previous year for some vegetable crop is the best 
place for tomatoes. Then apply from 500 to 1000 lbs. 
of a high-grade fertilizer per acre in the drill. Set the 
plants three feet apart in rows which should be five 
feet wide according to the fertility of the land. A 
light mulch of straw or hay is sometimes used under 
the plants to keep the fruit off the ground. Some kind 
of support will have to be used to hold up the vines, 
for they will not be able to support themselves. 

Tomatoes are easily injured by handling, so in 
placnig them on the market great care should be ob- 
served that only sound tomatoes are gathered, and 
that these are not bruised by rough handling. If ap- 
plications of 50 lbs. nitrate of soda per acre is given 
when the fruit first begins to set it will add much to 
the size, quality and earliness of the crop. Cultiva- 
tion should begin almost immediately after setting 
the plants and continue as long as possible without 
injury to the plants. 

Chalk's Early Jewel, Dwarf Champion, Living- 
ston's Beauty, Matchless, Imperial, etc., are good 
varieties. 

For enemies to tomatoes see Diseases of Plants in 
this chapter ; also the Insect Department. 

TURNIP. 

The turnip is grown in the United States principal- 
ly as a table vegetable, and is used very little as a 
stock food. Tlie seed may be sown either very ear- 
ly in the spring and an early crop secured, or in x\u- 
gust and September and a winter crop produced. The 




Fig. 31. — Early White Flat Duteli. Early Purple Red Top. 



82 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



plant is not sensitive to frost, and grows best in cool, 
moist weather. They may be sown broadcast or they 
may be drilled in rows about a foot and a half or two 
feet apart. The plants are thinned from 4 to 8 inches 
in the row arcording to the variety sown. The White 
Egg-, White Flat Dutch, Purple Top Globe, and 
Snow White are excellent varieties. 

WATERMELON. 

The watermelon is grown very largely in the South, 
not only for home consumption but for shipment. 
It is a native of Africa and many fortunes have been 
made and lost growing this delicious melon. Water- 
melons should have a well-drained, sandy loam. They 
do well after cowpeas or velvet beans and should nev- 
er be planted on the same land more than once in five 
years, but should be rotated with other crops. An old 
straw field is an excellent place for melons, and if 
you desire them extra early select a southern slope. 
Prepare the land well by deep plowing, and if the 



land is rough this should be done in the fall. Then 
m the spring lay off your rows ten feet apart and bed 
out to a center furrow. If the land is very poor it is 
a good idea to broadcast with barnyard manure be- 
fore bedding out. Now lay off rows at right angles 
across these beds every eight or ten feet and put in a 
good shovel full of well rotted compost in the checks. 
Add to this a handful of high grade fertilizer, mix this 
with your manure and soil, and mix thoroughly with 
a hoe. When danger from frost is past plant eight 
or ten seed in a hill, an inch deep, firming the soil 
over the seed. After the plants are up and have 
started to grow, thin to 3 plants in a hill and later, 
after danger from insects is past, thin to one or two 
of the strongest. In cultivation, work the soil back 
towards the row, and after the first plowing cultivate 
very shallow, keeping it up until the vines begin to 
set fruit, after which cultivation should cease. At 
the last plowing it is a good idea to plant a row or so 
of cow peas in the middle to help shade the melons. 




Fig. 32.— A Tempting Slice. 



Fungus Diseases of Garden Plants 



ASPARAGUS RUST. 

This disease appears on the seedling and on neg- 
lected plants about the first of June. After a little, 
slits are formed in the bark from which the rust pro- 



trudes. It has been the practice to cut and burn the 
affected parts. While this practice will get rid of the 
disease the plants are often injured. You are apt to', 
see rust proof varieties advertised. These varieties 
while they are not subject to rust, still are sometimes 



Prepare Your Land Well for the Garden. 



83 



affected. One of the best remedies is to spray with 
Bordeaux mixture. The plants may be sprayed with 
1 power spray where asparagus is raised over large 
areas. 

ANTHRACNOSE. 

Anthracnose appears on the bean pods in the form 
,bf dark colored pits, and spreads rapidly from pod to 
pod. The disease passes the winter in the bean, and 
ijtfvhen it is planted the next spring, the plant soon 
tives evidence of the disease and shrivels up and dies, 
br fails to develop. The disease also affects cucum- 
jers, pumpkins, and muskmelons. It may be check- 
ed by spraying with Bordeaux mixture when the dis- 
[;ase first appears. If it secures a hold the diseased 
'portion should be removed and burned. It is a good 
dea to soak beans in hot water at a temperature of 
1|l49 deg. Fah. for 5 minutes before planting, or at 130 
leg. Fah. for 15 minutes before planting, which will 
cill the fungi that are likely to be on the seed. 

RUST. 

Rust attacks more vegetables than perhaps any oth- 
hr fungi. It forms small brown spots on the foliage 
jind these spots frequently change from brown to 
)lack. The disease appears on the inside of the leaf 
md works outwards, and for that reason it is diffi- 
■:ult to administer a treatment. The diseased parts 
Ihould be removed and burned, and the plants spray- 
d with a diluted Bordeaux mixture. 

BLACK ROT OF CABBAGE. 

This disease has come into prominence within the 

jast few years, and is now a serious hindrance to cab- 

)age growers in many States. On account of its 

eriousness, it will be treated in more detail than 

[nany of the other diseases. It appears on the plant 

^t any stage of growth and is characterized with the 

iiollowing symptoms: dwarfing, or one-sided growth 

:)f the heads, or if the disease is very severe and be- 

^an early in the growth of the plant, the plant will fail 

lio head at all. It is frequently the case that the plant dies 

liltogether. Sometimes the head rots and falls off. The 

|:ause of the disease is a yellow bacteria which enters 

he plant above the ground through small openings 

snown as water pores. As yet there is no evidence 

liivhatever that the organism can enter the plant 



through the root system. The disease is not confined 
to cabbage, but it affects all members of the mustard 
famil}^ It has been found on turnips, causing a brown 
internal rot, also it affects cauliflowers, kale and rape. 
It is easily spread by animals going from one field to 
another, also from manure of animals that have been 
fed on plants affected with the disease. You can 
readily see the importance of destroying and not feed- 
ing affected plants. The parasite lives in the soil 
during the winter, and therefore makes it imper- 
ative not to plant cabbage or other plants of like na- 
ture on infected ground. So far no remedy has been 
found for this trouble that is any good. The only 
thing to be done is to prevent the diease from spread- 
ing. The following from a recent bulletin of the U. S. 
Department of Agriculture will be found quite help- 
ful. 

"i. Plant the cabbage on land where the disease has 
never appeared. When the plants are ready to set out 
inspect the seedbed very carefully, and if any cases 
of the disease are found reject all of the plants and 
set from some other bed. One cannot afford to run 
any risk of infecting his land by the use of seedlings 
from suspicious beds. It would be better to plant 
some other crop than to take this risk. A good prac- 
tice is to strew the land to be used for seedbed with 
straw or dry brush and burn it over before plowing. 
The seedbed should be made in a different place ev- 
ery year. 

"2. Set the plants on land which has not been in 
cabbages or other cruciferous plants for some time. 
If it is impossible to avoid following cabbages by cab- 
bages, at least take the precaution to plant only on 
land which has never suffered from the disease. To 
follow any other course is simply to invite trouble. The 
practice of planting cabbages after cabbages for a 
long series of years also invites other parasites and 
must, as a rule, be considered very bad economy. 

"3. As a matter of i)recaution avoid the use of stable 
manures, since these may possibly serve as means of 
carrying the disease into uninfested fields, that is, 
through cabbage refuse fed to animals or thrown in- 
to the barnyard or onto manure piles. As far as pos- 
sible make use of commercial fertilizers in place of 
barnyard manures, both in the seed bed and in the 
field, at least until it shall have been shown conclu- 
sively that there is no danger in the manure pile. Too 
much stress cannot be laid on the necessity of keep- 
ing the germs out of the soil, and consequently on the 



84 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



avoidance of practices which, if not absolutely prov- 
ed to be dangerous, are at least questionable. 

"4. Do not turn animals into diseased fields and 
then allow them to wander over other parts of the 
farm. Cattle or other stock should not be allowed to 
roam in cabbage fields where this disease prevails. 

"5. All farm tools used on infected land should be 
scoured bright before using on uninfected land. The 
transfer of soil from infected to healthy fields ought 
in all cases to be reduced to a minimum. 

"6. Keep up a constant warfare against insect ene- 
mies, especially the cabbage butterfly and the harle- 
quin bug. 

"7. As a palliative remove badly affected plants 
from the field as fast as they appear. In early stages 



"9. Store cabbages from diseased fields only when 
it is impossible to sell them in the fall, and in such 
cases take particular care to reject all heads showing 
any trace of black in the stump and to keep all parts 
of the houses below 40 deg. Fah. If any affected 
heads are stored they should be put by themselves in 
the lowestj coolest part of the house.'' 

CLUBFOOT. 

This disease is quite common to cabbage and kin- 
dred plants, such as turnips, radishes, etc. It may 
attack the plants at any time, and cause them to ap- 
pear sickly. The disease sometimes appears in the 
roots and causes the whole root system to become 




:J3. — Garden of Dr. K. L. McChirg, Atlanta, Texas 



of the disease — i. e., while it is still confined- to the 
margins of the leaves and has not yet entered into 
the head or stump — go over the fields systematically 
about once every ten days and break off and remove 
all the affected leaves. Do not throw this refuse into 
cultivated fields or into ditches from which it can be 
washed to other fields or on roadways to be tracked 
about. It should be burned or put into a deep pit in 
some fence corner or other out-of-the-way place. 

"8. Weeds which harbor the disease, especiallv the 
■wild mustards, must be destroyed systematically. 



one mass of diseased tissue. Spraying seems to do 
no good. An application of air-slacked lime, however, 
sometimes helps, if put on at the rate of 75 bushels 
per acre. The disease sometimes remains in the soil 
for a year or more, and we would therefore recommend 
the wide rotation of crops, and the removal and burn- 
ing of all affected plants. 

LEAF BLIGHT. 

Leaf Blight attacks many plants, especially of the 



Buy the Very Best Seed, and a Plenty of Them. 



85 



^ mustard family, such as cabbages, turnips, radishes, 
I etc. This disease causes the leaves to discolor and 

fall off. It may be controlled by spraying with Bor- 
I deaux mixture. Perhaps it is a different form of 
i Leaf Blight that attacks celery than that which at- 
I tacks the plants above referred to. Some claim that 
i the form that attacks celery flourishes most in dry 
j weather, while others claim that dry weather is death 
I to it. It is treated in the same way that ordinary Leaf 
I Blight, that is, with a fungicide, such as Bordeaux 

mixture. 

DAMPING OFF. 

This disease attacks many plants. The stem de- 
' cays near the surface of the ground and the plant 
falls off. There is little that can be done for this dis- 
ease, except to pick all diseased parts and burn them. 
See also that the land is well drained, and the soil 
about the plants kept stirred. A liberal application of 
lime will sometimes help. 

POWDERY MILDEW. 

fi 

|| Powdery Mildew affects plants that produce much 

(vine. The fungus grows on the surface of the leaves 

I forming a fine powder. It also affects the stem of 

plants. It may be checked by spraying with some 
' fungicide such as Bordeaux mixture in a diluted 

form. 

DOWNY MILDEW. 

This disease appears on cucumbers, onion, pump- 



kins, squash, watermelons, etc., and appears as yel- 
low irregular spots on the leaves, which are soon en- 
tirely covered. The disease may be controlled by 
spraying with Bordeaux mixture every ten days. 

TOMATO BLIGHT. 

Tomato blight appears as sudden wilting of the 
vines. The small roots decay and the vine soon dies. 
Diseased plants should be dug up and destroyed. A 
wide rotation, never planting on the same land more 
than once in four years, and the liberal use of lime on 
land intended for tomatoes is the best remedy. 

TOMATO BLACK ROT. 

This black rot affects the fruit, a black spot appear- 
ing on the seed end before the tomato begins to ripen 
and gradually enlarging until nearly half the fruit is 
affected. The best remedy is to avoid the direct use 
of fresh stable manure on this crop and frequent 
spraying with Bordeaux mixture, which is made as 
follows : Into a 50 gallon barrel pour 30 gallons of 
water and suspend in it 6 pounds of bluestone in 
coarse sacking. Slack 4 pounds of fresh lime in an- 
other vessel, adding water slowly to obtain a creamy 
liquid free from grit. When the bluestone is dissolv- 
ed add the lime milk slowly, with water enough to 
fill the barrel, stirring constantly. Apply this mix- 
ture with an ordinary sprinkling pot about once ev- 
ery two weeks until the blight has been gotten rid of. 



Quantity of Seed Required. 



SEEDS NECESSARY TO PRODUCE A GIVEN 

NUMBER OF PLANTS AND SOW A 

GIVEN AMOUNT OF GROUND. 

Quantity 
per acre. 

Artichoke, i oz. to 500 plants '; lb. 

Asparagus, i oz. to 200 plants 5 lbs. 

Barley 2 • -^ bu. 

Beans, dwarf, i quart to 150 feet of drill . . 1^4 bu. 

Beans, pole, i quart to 200 hills '■/.: bu. 

Beet, garden, i oz. to 100 feet of drill 10 lbs. 



Beet, Mangel, i oz. to 150 feet of drill 6 lbs. 

Broccoli, I oz. to 3,000 plants 5 ozs. 

Broom Corn 10 lbs. 

Brussels Sprouts, i oz. ro 3,000 plants 5 oz. 

Buckwheat J^ bu. 

*Cabbage, i oz. to 3,000 plants 4 oz. 

Carrots, i oz. to 250 feet of drill 2^ lbs. 

*Cauliflower, i oz. to 3,000 plants 5 oz. 

*Celery, i oz. to 10,000 plants 4 oz. 

Clover, Alsike and White Dutch 6 lbs. 

Lucerne, Large Red and Crimson ... 15 lbs. 

Medium 10 lbs. 



8C) 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



*Colards, i oz. to 2,500 plants 6 oz. 

Corn, sweet, i quart to 500 hills 8 qts. 

Cress, I oz. to 150 feet of drill 8 lbs. 

Cucumbers, i oz. to 80 hills i>4 lbs. 

Egg Plant, I oz. to' 1,500 plants 4 02. 

Endive, i oz. to 300 feet of drill 3 lbs. 

Gourd, I oz. to 25 hills 2>4 lbs. 

Grass, Blue Kentucky (cleaned seed) 2 bu. 

Hungarian and Millet Yi bu. 

Mixed Lawn 3 bu. 

" Orchard, Perennial Rye, Red Top F'owl 

Meadow and Wood Meadow 2 bu. 

Garlic, bulbs, i lb. to 10 feet of drill 2 bu. 

Hemp V2 bu. 

Kale, I oz. to 3,000 plants 6 oz. 

Ko'hl-Rabi, i oz. to 200 feet of drill i>4 lbs. 

Leek, I oz. to 250 feet of drill 4 lbs. 

Lettuce, i oz. to 250 feet of drill 3 lbs. 

Melon, Musk, i oz. to 100 hills i,H lbs. 

Melon. Water, i oz. to 25 hills \V2 lbs. 

Nasturtium, i oz. to 50 feet of drill 10 lbs. 

Oats . 2>4 bu. 

Okra, I oz. to 50 feet of drill 10 lbs. 

Onion Seed, i oz. to 200 feet of drill 4 lbs. 

" " for transplanting 2j^ lbs. 

" for sets 60 lbs. 

" Sets I quart to 20 feet of drill 8 bu. 

Parsnips, i oz. to 250 feet of drill 5 lbs. 

Parsley, i oz. to 250 feet of drill 8 lbs. 

Peas, garden, i quart to 160 feet of drill .. i>'2 bu. 

" field or cowpeas, broadcasted 2 bu. 

Pepper, i oz. to 1,500 plants 4 oz*^ 

Potatoes 9 bu. 

Pumpkins, l quart to 300 hills 4 qts. 

Radish, i oz. to 150 feet of drill 8 lbs. 

Rye ^Yi bu. 

Salsify, i oz. to 60 feet of drill 8 lbs. 

Spinach, i oz. to 150 feet of drill 10 lbs. 

Summer Savory, i oz. to 500 feet of drill .... 2 lbs. 



Squash, summer, i oz. to 40 hills 2 lbs. 

winter, i oz. to 10 hills 3 lbs. 

Tomato, i oz. to 2,000 plants 4 oz. 

Tobacco, I oz. to 5,000 plants 2 oz. 

Turnip, i oz. to 250 feet of drill , .... Ij4 lbs. 

Wheat I to 2 bu. 

*The above calculations are made for sowing in 
the spring; during the summer it requires double the 
c|uantity of seed to give the same number of plants. 

NUMBER OF PLANTS OR TREES TO THE 
ACRE AT GIVEN DISTANCES. 

Dis. apart. No. Plants. 
Y2 foot 174,240 

1 foot 43.560 

i>4 feet 19..360 

2 feet 10,890 

2.Y2 feet 6,969 

3 feet by i foot i4>520 

3 feet by 2 feet 7,260 

3 feet by 3 feet 4.840 

4 feet by i foot 10,888 

4 feet by 2 feet 5.444 

4 feet by 3 feet 3,629 

4 feet by 4 feet 2,722 

5 feet by 5 feet 1,742 

6 feet 1,210 

7 feet 889 

8 feet 680 

9 feet 573 

10 feet 435 

IT f^et 360 

12 feet r*. 302 

15 feet 193 

t8 feet 134 

20 feet 108 

25 feet 69 

30 feet 49 




GATHERING PEACHES. 



Book III. 
Fruit Department 



Edited and revised by 

P. J. BERCKMANS, 

AUGUSTA, GA. 



Poultry make good scavengers and insect gatherers, when placed in the orchard. 



89 



Fruits and Nuts. 



APPLES. 

Apples are raised in most of the States. While 
apples are not raised so extensively in the Southern 
States as in some other States, still apple growing 
has been quite a profitable industry in the upper sec- 
tions of the Southern States. Virginia, West Vir- 
ginia, Tennessee, Georgia, Western North Carolina, 
and the Ozark section of Arkansas produce excel- 
lent apples. 



set out in the fall, as more satisfactory results are 
obtained, than when trees are planted late in the 
spring. In the Southern sections, vegetation al- 
though inactive in winter for the formation of leaves 
and new wood, is never so, as to new roots. A tree 
transplanted during November or December, will by 
the ensuing spring have formed sufficient new roots 
to give it a firm hold in the ground and will grow 
more rapidly when active vegetation begins in the 
sprmg than trees planted in March or April. This 



ir r- 







Fig. 1. Apple Tret's in Siiiilh Bros.' Nurseries, Concord, Ga. 



The ideal location of an apple orchard is on a gen- 
tle eastern or northeastern slope which has full wa- 
ter drainage. Some varieties, like Shockley, succeed 
well in sandy loams. Low, flat meadow loca- 
tions should not be used for an apple orchard. 
Hard wood timber lands, limestone soils and loamy 
clays are especially desirable for apples. Of course 
apples for home consumption can be grown almost 
anywhere in the United States where farming is car- 
ried on at all. Trees one and two years should be 
set out, rather than use older stock. They should be 



rule holds good for all deciduous fruit trees. The 
trees should be planted from thirty to forty feet 
each way according to the quality of soil. For this 
climate, experience has taught us that one and two 
year old trees of thrifty growth are the most desira- 
ble. One should bear in mind that such trees can 
be removed from the nursery with all their roots ; 
whereas a four or five year old tree can not be taken 
up without cutting away a large portion of them. 
Success in transplanting is increased according as at- 
tention is paid in selecting well-rooted trees, instead 



9° 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



of heavily-branched one. Give as many sound roots, 
and as little head to a tree as possible. 

Preparation of the Tree. 

Before planting, remove all broken roots, cut back 
one year peach or apple trees to a naked stem one 
and one-half or two and a half feet high, leaving no 
side branches. Two year old trees should have 
their branches cut back to one-half their length or 
more, the lower limb less fhan those above, cutting 
in shorter as you go upward, and leaving the leader 
the longer. Plant as deep as the tree was standing 
in the nursery row, excepting dwarf pears and cher- 






Fig. 2. — One-year-old tree with Line to Show Where to Cut 
Back (U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

ries, which should be planted sufficiently deep to 
cover the stock from 2 tO' 3 inches. It is best to al- 
low the tree to form its head in its permanent place 
rather than in the nursery row. 

To insure the earliest crop of fruit after trans- 
planting, always select one or two year old trees. In 
planting the roots should be placed in their natural 
position, and the dirt trampled around them tightly. 
All plants and trees that are transplanted should be 
set a little deeper than they were originally in the 
nursery. Contrary to some people's belief, an ap- 
ple orchard should be plowed deeply every year, be- 

Fall and 
For the first 



four or five years crops such as potatoes, small fruits, 
cotton, corn, etc., may be grown between the rows of 
apples. Small grain crops should never be planted in 
an orchard unless it is desired to throw an overluxu- 
riant orchard into bearing, or where the ground is 
not well drained, and this is the only plan of evapo- 
rating the water. Horticulturists advise cultivating 
the crop until June or July, and then seeding down 
the orchard with some leguminous crop, such as 
vetch, cowpeas, etc. 

In fertilizing orchards, potash is the element most- 
ly used. If you have a small farm, this can be best 
supplied with unleached wood ashes, using from 40 
to 50 bushels per acre each season. If you have not 
enough wood ashes, you may use from 500 to 700 
pounds of muriate of potash. Nitrogen in a great 
many cases is especially desirable, as it promotes the 
growth of wood, and it rejuvenates old worn-out or- 
chards. It can safely be used in all old orchards, 
for they are always in need of nitrogen. If a ma- 
ture or bearing tree does not make a foot or more 
growth upon all shoots per year, or when the tree 
matures in season and the leaves have a yellowish 
appearance, it is a sure sign that nitrogen is needed. 
But on the other hand, if the tree makes a vigorous 
growth each season, and has large leaves which are 
dark in color, this is a sign that the tree has plenty 
of nitrogen, and the use of any more nitrogen should 
cease, as this will be of damage rather than a benefit. 
When the trees have a sufficient amount of nitrogen 
the leguminous crops should not be used. 

Apples should be gathered when they have at- 




gmnmg when the trees are first set out. 



Fig, 



winter plowing is as a rule advisable. 



3. — Two-year-old Tree with Lines to Show Where 
Cut Back at Transplanting. (U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



to 



The Doctor has Little Business in the Home Where Fruit is Eaten. 



91 



tained their largest size, and not wait until they ma- 
ture on the trees, as tliey will keep much better, and 
develop a better flavor to gather early, than to wait 
for their maturing on the trees. Where apples are 
stored, they should be free from currents of air, and 
storeroom should be kept as cool as possible. Ap- 
ples that are bruised should not 'be stored, as they 
not only soon decay, but cause others to decay also. 
Apples should be picked from the tree by 'hand, and 
not knocked down with a stick. 

Apples that do not find a market as such, can be 
turned into profits by evaporating, preserving, ap- 
ple butter, etc. The feature of by-products in ap- 
ples is quite an important one, for the profits or loss 
comes in these small matters. Alany farmers find it 
profitabe to make apple cider and vinegar. Let the 
farmer see to it that nothing is wasted in the way of 
fruit. W it will not sell change its form and make it 
sell. For twig blight, see Pear Blight, for Brown Rot, 
see Brown Rot of Peac'h. All insects are treated un- 
der the Insect Department, such as moths, apple tree 
borers, etc. 

BLACKBERRIES. 

Blackberries grow wild, but the improved varieties 
have been cultivated to considerable extent through- 
out some sections of the South. There is money to 
be made in the cultivation of blackberries as well as 
other berries and fruits. The blackberry has grown 
wild for a long time, and are free as a rule to any 
one that will pick them, hence the public fails to 
recognize the value of cultivated blackberries. The 
valued of the cultivated blackberries over those 
growing wild in fence corners, is recognized because 
of their commercial value. The public is realizing 
the superiority of the cultivated berries over the 
wild berry as the better market price fully attests. 

They should be planted on a rich, deep loam soil, 
which is well drained. The land should be as thor- 
oughly prepared as possible, and the fall is the prop- 
er time for this preparation. About the same fertil- 
izer should be applied to blackberries as is applied to 
Other garden crops. They are propagated by using 
root cuttings, or by tips for dewberries. These cut- 
tings can easily be made by cutting the roots in two 
inch lengths. They should be set out in March or 
a little earlier. The rows should be six feet apart, 
and the plants put three to four feet apart in the 
row. The blackberry must be cultivated, if you 



hope to have results. But you say that the black- 
berry grows wild without cultivation. Granting 
that this is true, yet we want to produce a superior 
berry, and this can only be done by cultivation, prun- 
ing, and fertilization, and by planting the best im- 
proved varieties. Cultivation should extend through 
the season, and should be sufficient to keep down 
fhe weeds, and keep the ground thoroughly stirred. 

Pruning is quite important in raising blackberries. 
The object of pruning is to force the plant to assume 
a strong, stocky form that will be self-supporting, 
requiring no artificial assistance from trellises or 
stakes, and also to cause vigorous lateral shoots to 
put forth, on which the crop is mainlv set. There- 
fore, as soon as the suckers have reached the proper 
height in early summer, after the fruit is off, it is 
the practice to top them back, but the proper height 
is still an unsettled question. Many growers top at 
one and a half feet, a large number at two feet and 
a half, some at three feet, and a few at a still greater 




Fig. 4. — Rooted Tips of Blaclicap Canes. 

height. In this section it is probably advisable to 
top at two and a half feet. All shoots coming up in 
the proper position along the row should be topped 
as they reach this height, until an average of some 
five or six canes to the yard has been secured, after 
which all others should be treated as weeds and cut 
out unless required for propagation. 

Where young shoots, however, are observed to be 



92 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



affected with either Orange Rust or Anthracnose, 
they should be taken up bodily and burned, no mat- 
ter how ugly a gap in the row such destruction may 
leave, and the grower would do well to thin his canes 
with an eye more to the eradication of these two 
maladies than to the production and maintenance of 
a symmetrical and sightly row. 

Theoretically, a plat should be kept in stools of 
five or six canes each, some three feet apart in the 
row, but this will be found almost impossible to ef- 
fect in practice, and hence the advice given here is to 
preserve a number of canes approximating five or 
six to the yard, as stated, located in the most con- 
venient spots along the row, as they chance to pre- 
.sent themselves. Thus the original site of each stool 
will soon be lost, and the row will take the form of 
a short, stocky hedge. This is the only practical 
method of treatment. 

Trellising in various forms has been fully tested, 
and has proven superfluous and impractical with 
blackberries when properly pruned, though advisable 
with dewberries, as will be noticed under the proper 
head. 

During the winter, the dead canes — those that 
have borne previous summer — should be removed. 
A piece of hoop iron, bent in the form of sugar tongs, 
and a pair of ordinary pruning shears are the best 
implements for this purpose. 

Just before growth commences in the spring, the 
laterals that formed on the topped canes of the pre- 
vious summer should be shortened in about one-third. 
This may be done with either pruning shears or or- 
dinary hedge shears. 

The yield varies, being anywhere from 20 to 100 
bushels per acre. The first year a moderate crop 
will be produced and by the third year, they should 
be matured and producing full crops. 

CHERRY. 



The cherry should have a rather rich, warm soil. 
Perhaps a dry gravelly or sandy loam is about as 
good soil as can be secured. Cherries are propagat- 
ed by budding and grafting. They should be set in 
the orchard when from two years old. The sour va- 
rieties should be planted 18 feet each way, and the 
sweet varieties 30 feet apart each way. Cherries be- 
gin to bear in two to three years. The tops should 
be started from three and a half to four feet from: 
the ground. The cherry orchard should be cultivat- 
ed clean until the fruit is ripe, after which it may 
be planed in cotton, potatoes, etc., but no grain. Do 
not use too much of nitrogenous manures. 

As a rule, cherries are short lived throughout the 
middle sections of the South, and succeed there only 
occasionally. They, however, thrive in the upper or 
mountain sections, where several orchards have 
yielded good crops. The only cherry that may be 
called hardy in the middle sections is the common 
Mozello. 



CHESTNUTS. 

The growth of chestnuts for profit is a new indus- 
try. Native chestnuts grow in the limestone sec- 
tions of the South, and find ready sale. The larger 
the nuts, the better the price paid for them. Chest- 
nuts are propagated by planting the seed, and the 
seedling later grafted or budded with improved va- 
rieties. Nuts intended for seed should not be al- 
lowed to dry out, for they will not germinate. When 
kept over winter for spring planting, they should be 
preserved in a box buried about si.x inches deep in 
the open ground and alternating in single layers 
with moist sand. Chestnuts have a long tap root,, 
which makes them difficult to transplant, therefore 
they should be planted where they are wanted if 
possible. Where you have native chestnuts, they 
can be cut down, and the sprouts when they grow tO' 
two or three inches in diameter can be grafted with 
new and improved varieties. 



Commercially, the cherry is not much grown 
throughout the South, but for home consumption, 
every family should have a few cherry trees. Cher- 
ries are divided into two groups or classes, the sweet 
and the sour cherry. The sour cherry is grown more 
than any other, because it is more resistant to sum- 
mer heat. 



DEWBERRY. 

The Dewberry is of the blackberry family, that 
has recently come into cultivation. Its fruit is from 
ten days to two weeks earlier than the blackberry. 
They ripen just between raspberries and blackber- 



Many Men Make a Living on a Few Acres of Strawberries. 



93 



ries, and therefore there is a great demand for them. 
It is handled very much on the same plan and prin- 
ciple as the blackberry. Dewberries are propagat- 
ed by what is known as tipping, i. e., by the end of 
the young canes, and can be grown on any clay soil, 
also light or sandy soils, if the land is well fertilized. 
They are usually planted six feet each way in checks, 
and are planted any time from December to March, 
provided the ground is not too wet. Prepare stakes 
during the early fall to stake all that you planted 
the previous winter, or spring. These should be 
seven feet long, and they should be driven in the 
earth about twelve or fourteen inches deep. As 
soon as the buds begin to swell, the canes of the dew- 
berries should be tied to the stakes, using three 
strings to each one. Another method is to use stakes 
three feet out of the ground, nail a wire on top and 
train the canes over these. About sixty crates, each 
crate 'holding thirty-two quarts, may be produced 
per acre, and after deducting all expenses, crating, 
packing, freighting, and all such expenses, they aver- 
age a net profit of $i.OO per crate. As to the enemies 
of the Dewberry, see Insect Department in another 
part of this book. 

CHINKAPIN. 

This is a dwarf chestnut and grows wild. So far 
as has been learned there is only one improved va- 
riety under cultivation. 

FIG. 

The fig is grown in all of the Southern States, and 
usually thrives in good soil. It has not received the 
attention in the South that it should. This is due 
to three reasons: There has been until recently a 
very slight demand for figs, but now this is increas- 
ing. It can be cultivated as an orchard crop, but 
some difficulty is connected in shipping the fruit to 
distant markets. If shipped in refrigerating cars 
and carefully packed in pint cups, t'his difficulty is 
lessened and good prices are realized in East and 
Northern markets. However, if handled with care 
fhey will sell readily in our local markets. As a 
rule, figs will not last over twenty-four hours after 
they are gathered. To be good for eating purposes, 
it must ripen on the tree and can not be gathered 
prematurely like the peac'h or plum. A rainy sea- 
son through the ripening season means ruin, for 



the fig insists upon taking its moisture through the 
soil, and not have it poured on it. The fig through- 
out the South has never been planted in orchards to 
any extent, but every family, especially in the sec- 
tions that can be cultivated away from the moun- 
tains, will gain much by having several trees in 
their backyard. They are very shallow feeders, and 
to disturb their root system in the orchard with the 
plow, means their destruction. 

The best soil for figs is a well-drained loam well 
supplied with lime, potash and phosphoric acid. The 
figs are propagated from hard wood cuttings of the 
previous season's growth. The cuttings are made 
and handled like grape cuttings. Cuttings in the 
South may be set out in March. Bulletin No. 6l of 
Georgia Experiment Station, says: "The fig grows 
so readily from cuttings, and therefrom produces 
bearing wood in such a short time that it would be 
useless to consider here any other method. While 
it also responds tolerably to grafting, little is gained 
thereby, since the same scion, used as a cutting, 
would produce fruit on its own roots almost as soon, 
certainly bearing a small crop the second year, if a 
vigorous variety. Where this is not the case, graft- 
ing may be resorted to, but the fig does not take 
kindly to "stubbing back" and the probability of its 
advantageous employment is such a remote contin- 
gency that it may well be ignored. 

"Cuttings may be taken either in late winter, just 
before the sap starts and after all danger from se- 
vere frost is past— in w'hich case they may be at 
once set out in the nursery row, with the terminal 
bud even with the surface — or they may be cut ear- 
lier in the winter, bundled and buried, as with grape 
cuttings. In either event the cuttings should be 
long— ten inches or a foot — with several joints or 
buds, and in diameter from the size of a lead pencil 
to that of the little finger. The latter size generally 
making a thriftier growth. Long cuttings stand a 
better chance to strike root than do shorter ones, as 
they are most likely to reach permanently moist 
soil. 

"Cuttings may be sometimes planted to advan- 
tage in the place the tree is to permanently occupy. 
If the conditions are favorable and the cuttino-s 
grow off promptly it should attain the heig^ht, the 
first season of from three to six feet. A few fio-s 
may be obtained the first year from Brown Turkey 
and Green Ischia, and the third season a good crop 
should result if the tree has not been cut back by 



94 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



frost, as is frequently the case in our climate. In 
this event it is customary to remove the injured 
wood, cutting clear to t'he ground, if badly frost-bit- 
ten, and starting a new stool of canes from the root. 
It is not uncommon, with prolific varieties to find 
the cuttings covered with young figs in the fall of 
the first 3'ear, these are not "brebas," although the 
first and only crop of that season, because they are 
necessarily borne on the new wood, and they are 
sometimes cut off prematurely by frost. 

"If either a cutting or a rooted plant from the 
nursery fails, when set out in its permanent place, 
to grow off well at the start, it is useless to leave it 
and endeavor to bring it out by subsequent atten- 
tion, such as manuring or cultivation ; it is unlikely 
to ever develop into a vigorous plant, something is 
radically wrong with its vitality, and it is better to 
grub it up and replant. In transplanting, only the 
most healthy and vigorous specimens from the nur- 
sery should be selected — and this is one advantage 
in using rooted plants. On the other hand, a year's 
time is frequently saved by employing cuttings. 
Only the less vigorous need be replaced. In or- 
chard planting, however, it is somewhat difficult to 
protect the cuttings placed in situ during the earlier 
stages of their growth, and this consideration often 
induces the owner to select rooted and therefore 
larger and more conspicuous plants. 

"In 'handling fig cuttings and rooted plants for 
both home use and shipment, neither the cuttings 
nor the roots should be permitted to dry out. If so, 
they are worthless, for they never recover their 
moisture like other plants." 

The "Smyrna Fig" is the commercial fig of the 
countries east of the Alediterranean Sea, and is the 
dried fig of commerce of this country. 

Bulletin No. 61 of Georgia Experiment Station 
says : "They are, as their name indicates, of Asiatic 
. origin, and to Syria, Asia Minor, Northern Africa 
and Greece, their cultivation is to-day practically con- 
fined. The figs so widely distributed throughout It- 
aly, France, Spain and Portugal are almost entirely 
the "Domesticated" or mule type. 

" 'Smyrna figs' contain only pistillate or female 
flowers. These, if pollinated artificially swell and 
grow, developing into the finest figs known to com- 
merce. Unpollinated, they shrivel and drop off. 
Pollinated 'Smyrna' figs dry readily in even a semi- 
humid climate like that of California, and present, 



even in Florida and South Georgia, our only chance 
or hopes (albeit a slender one) of ever developing 
this branch of the fig industry. 'Mule' figs only dry 
successfully in a rainless season, and here their 
profitable manipulation would .be impossible ; that 
is to say, the product, as compared with Asiatic, Eu- 
ropean or even California dried figs, would be found 
so inferior that the attempt would have to be 




Fig. 5. — Fruit and Foliage of Fig. 

abandoned. This being the case, it is altogether un- 
necessary to enter into a detail of the process of 
drying in this Bulletin. Pollinated 'Smyrna' figs ac- 
quire a rich, aromatic, nutty flavor that is exquis- 
ite in the fresh product and extends to even the 
dried article. The finest grades of commercial dried 
figs are all of the 'Smyrna' class. Quite recently 
their culture has been successfully introduced, on a 
small scale, into California — the pioneer in this work 
being George C. Roeding, of the Fancher Creek 
Nursery, at Fresno. Yet without the close compan- 
ionship of the next class — 'Caprifigs' the 'Smyrna' 
fig would be absolutely valueless, as self-pollination 
is of course impossible. 

"'Caprifig,' or Wild-figs' (literally 'Goat-figs') 
were evidently the prototype of t'he entire race. 
They rarely develop edible quality and their prov- 
ince in nature is apparently to serve as pollinators 
for the pistillate group. This they effect in a most 
peculiar manner. The 'Caprifig' with its first crop, 
or 'Profichi' (referred to more in detail further on) 
whic'h is the one used in artificial pollination, bears 
three kinds of flowers. First, Staminate or Male, 
clustered in a compact mass around the interior rim 
of the 'eye' (sometimes termed the 'ostiolum' or 'lit- 
tle mouth') their anthers or pollen case blocking 



See that all fruit is well Packed Before Shipping. 



95 



the exit like a screen of brushwood. The rest of 
the interior of the receptacle bristles with 'Gall' 
flowers but there are no Pistillates. In the base or 
false ovary of the Gall flowers, which are merely 
degenerate pistillates, the egg of the Blastophaga 
grossorum or 'Fig Wasp' — a minute insect — is de- 
posited, hatches and develops to maturity. The 
wingless males emerge first and with powerful man- 
dibles cut into the flowers containing the female 
wasps partially release and impregnate them. The 
gravid females shortly complete the liberating, and 
being winged, at once seek to escape for the instinc- 
tive purpose of ovipositing. They emerge from the 
eye of the 'Caprifig' after squeezing through the 
mass of pollen covered anthers protecting the exit 
and seek other fruit in which to lay their eggs. Nat- 
urally they would enter the nearest 'Caprifig' in the 
proper stage of development. But meanwhile, if the 
'Caprifig' containing the colony has been plucked 
from its stem and suspended from the branches of 
an adjacent 'Smyrna' tree, the female, on emerging, 
forces her way into a fruit of the latter class, losing 
her wings in the process, and at once begins a fran- 
tic scramble around the interior, searchinsf for the 
anticipated Gall flowers, in which to oviposit. 
I-"ailing, necessarily, to find them, and incapable of 
again taking flight, she finally curls up and dies 
heartbroken, but not until she and her companions 
between them pretty thoroughly pollinated every fe- 
male flower in the cavity with the plentiful store of 
pollen conveyed from the 'Caprifig' — therebv in- 
suring the development of the fruit. 

"It is in this way that 'Smyrna' figs are artificial- 
ly pollinated. The process is termed 'Caprification,' 
and required, of course, for its own conduct, the par- 
allel cultivation of a sufficient number of 'Caprifig' 
trees to furnish the necessary quantity of Blasto- 
phaga to pollinate tiie crop of Pistillate 'Smyrna' 
figs. It is estimated that some 400 females, on an 
average, emerge from a normal 'Caprifig' and from 
50 to 100 figs per tree are needed for the thorough 
pollination of the crop, while the proportion of 'Cap- 
rifig' trees to 'Smyrna' trees, should be for thor- 
ough work, according to Eisen, about i to 50. 

"Seed of pollinated 'Smyrna' figs (even when 
dried) are capable of germination, and from their 
planting it is impossible to originate new varieties — 
a field of work that at no very distant day may offer 
an inviting opportunity to the patient experimenter 



in this section of the South. Yet it should be noted 
that all 'Smyrna' seedlings are not 'Smyrna' figs, but 
true hybrids, with the hybrid tendency to revert 
more or less to the male parent — the 'Caprifig' — this 
greatly reducing the chance of obtaining a valuable 
product in the progeny." 

The fig can be crowded more than it would seem 
possible. It is only necessary to give sufficient dis- 
tance between the rows for passage between them, 
and the trees may be crowded in the rows so close 
that the top branches of the trees touch. It may be 
safe to say that the trees may be placed anywhere 
from 10 to 15 feet apart, up to 20 by 20 feet apart 
for orchards, depending, of course, upon the loca- 
tion, and the size the bush grows. Where they are 
placed close together, they should be fertilized ac- 
cordingly. 

The best fertilizer for figs, is barnyard manure, 
supplemented when the trees are bearing by an addi- 
tion of phosphoric acid and potash, using five pounds 
of acid phosphate and two pounds muriate of potash 
broadcast will be of sufficient quantity. 

Figs where they are to be shipped should be 
packed in 24 quart berry crates, (as shown in illus- 
tration) for nearby markets. There are many 
cities and towns in the South that will consume all 
that will be grown for many years. 

GRAPE. 







Planting the Grapevine. 



The grape is one of the surest fruit crops grown 
anywhere in the country. A great deal of money 
has been made raising grapes, and as t'hey are al- 
most sure to bear, it is quite a safe crop. Vines of 
most varieties commence to bear the second year af- 
ter planting in the vineyard. They are easily 



96 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE- 



grown and do well on almost any soil. There are 
upwards of three hundred varieties grown in the 
United States, but all varieties in cultivation that 
are of any importance as market sorts, may be re- 
duced to fifteen or twenty. 

The selection of the site of the vineyard is of 
great importance, and therefore should receive the 
greatest care and consideration. Nearly any soil 
will grow grapes at least to some extent. The best 
soil, hov^ever, is a light sandy or gravelly one, on 
high elevation and exposed to the south so that 
there will 'be little danger from frost in the early 
■winter. The soil should be well drained, and wet 
lands are not desirable for grapes. Limestone soils 
are very desirable. 

The best vines are strong, one year old plants 
from the cutting or layer, and with plenty of root. 
Before planting the top shoultl be cut back to two 
buds, and the root lo one foot in length. The grape 
is propagated by layers, or cuttings and grafting for 
a few growing- sorts. 




Pig. 7. — Tlie Kuilfin System of Grape Training. 

The growing of grapes from seed has given us 
our best variety, but the practice is only intended 
for experimental purposes. If you desire to raise 
from seed, select the seed from some very good va- 
riety. Choose the very best bunches, and then the 
very best berries. Take the seed from these berries 
and sow in the early spring in well pulverized clay 
soils in rows about one foot apart, placing seed one 
inch apart in drill, and cover three-quarters of an 
inch deep. When the young plants appear, keep 
them clean and well cultivated through the summer. 
In the fall take them up carefully and transplant the 
most promising plants in rows 5 to 6 feet each way, 
in good soil, then stake them, and carefully prune 
back the following winter. Seedlings may begin to 
bear fruit in three years. Should any of them show 
signs of disease in the leaf, pull them up, as it is use- 
less to keep them. 



The easiest and most simple way of propagation 
of the grape is by cuttings planted in the ground. 
While this plan will not succeed with all varieties, 
yet it will with most, and prove quite successful. It 
is done by selecting the best ripened wood of medi- 
um size and cut in lengths of from 9 to 12 inches, 
cutting close below the lower bud, and about an 
inch above the -ipper. They should be kept in the 
cellar during the winter or bury them in finely pul- 
verized soil, keeping the upper end downward. In 
the spring as soon as the ground is dry sufficiently, 
the bed should be prepared for the cuttings. The 
cuttings should be placed in this bed from one to 
two inches apart, and the rows from one to two 
feet apart. They will grow from one to two feet 
the first year. In the fall they should be taken up 
and set in the vineyard, as a good one year old vine 
is best. But a simple plan is to plant the cuttings 
in well prepared land in rows 3 to 4 feet apart and 
the cuttings four to six inches in the rows. 

All varieties of the grape may be increased by lay- 
ering. To layer a vine, s'horten in the canes of last 
season's growth to about one-half their length, then 
early in the spring, thoroughly pulverize the ground 
around them. Make a small furrow about T:hree 
inches deep, and bend down the canes, and fasten 
in it by the use of pegs. The canes may thus be left 
until the following winter and transplanted in per- 
manent places. Layering is practiced with varieties 
that do not readily grow from cuttings. 

When grapes are grafted, take a strong growing 
two or three years well established vine and use the 
cleft grafting method, inserting the graft four to six 
inches below the soil and hill up the graft with soil 
after having wrapped the cleft part with some thread 
that will decay in a month or two. do not use wax 
cloth, as this will eventually cut in the stock and injure 
it. 

The land should be thoroughly prepared by plow- 
ing and harrowing, before setting out a vineyard. 
The vines are usually planted six feet one way and 
eight feet the other. Some varieties, like Delaware, 
may be planted closer than this. It is better tc use 
rooted plants, as cuttings are unsatisfactory. You 
should see to it that the plants are first-class in ev- 
ery respect. The best are always the cheapest. Plant- 
ing can be done in the fall and in the spring when- 



Your Fruit Will hz Treated Like Every One Else's by the Railroads. 



97 



ever the ground is in good shape for work. The 
crown of the vine should not be planted too deep, as 
the grape roots naturally run very near the surface. 
Three or four inches is deep enough for the crown, 
but the roots should be put down in the soil, as 
shown in illustration. (See Fig. No. 6.) It is some- 
times the practice to put the roots on the sloping side 
of the furrows with the crown four inc'hes deep. 

The grape does not require a great amount of fer- 
tilizer. Phosphoric acid, and potas'h are the greatest 
need with the grape. The following is a very good 
general formulae for grapes: 

500 pounds of Fine ground bone, 

300 pounds of Sulphate of potash, 

Or the following: 

200 pounds of Nitrate of Soda, 

200 pounds of sulphate of potash, 

400 pounds acid phosphate, 

Of course the fertilizer should be varied according 
to tlie particular ground that is used. 

The first two years, some hoed crop, such as peas, 
beans, etc., may be grown in the vineyard, but clean 
cultivation is preferable. There are maiiv methods 
of training grape vine, but perhaps the best is to 
train on a trellis made of two or three wires. The 
top wire should be about five feet from the ground, 
the bottom wire two feet from the ground, and the 
other wire midway between these two. 

For enemies to grapes, see Insect Department, and 
Diseases of Trees and Vines in this chapter. 

MULBERRY. 

The improved varieties of the mulberry are grown 
quite considerably throughout the South, for feeding 
poultry and hogs, the fruit 'has no other commercial 
value. The best variety for these purposes are, first 
Hicks, and second Stubbs and Downing. The Hicks 
produces fruit during a period of six to eight weeks. 
The Stubbs is the best for fruit as a feeder for silk 
worms. At present the world's supply of silk is se- 
cured from Europe and Asia where they have cheap 
labor. Mulberry is propagated by cuttings of the 
ripe wood or of roots. Early spring grafting with 
entirely dormant scions is the most successful meth- 
od of grafting the mulberry. When the fruit is ripe 
it drops from the trees, 'and may be gathered by 
shaking the trees, and allowing the mulberries to fall 
on a sheet. The mulberry has another value, in that 



birds are very fond of them, and it frequently pays 
to have one or two mulberry trees to furnish food 
for the birds, for by doing so, you can protect your 
valuable fruit. 







Fig. a. — New Aiueriican 
Mulberry. 



Fig. 81/2.— Downing 
Mulberry. 



ORANGES. 

Excepting the apple and peach, the orange is the 
most important fruit grown in the United States, 
but its area is confined to localities where 'heavy 
frosts do not prevail, therefore the citrus fruit belt 
may be considered to be only in the extreme South- 
ern part of the United States. 

As varieties are not certain to come true from 
seed, budding must be resorted to if one expects to 
have such fruit as the market demands. Good plump 
seed selected from home-grown fruit may be used 
for producing seedlings for budding or for growing 
in the orchard for fruit. Seed intended for propaga- 
tion should never be allowed to dry out. Ift'hey are 
not planted immediately, the seed should be mixed 
with moist sand, and allowed to stay until warm 
weather comes in. The seed should be ready to be 
transplanted to the nursery the following spring. 
The trees should be planted in the nursery from a 
foot to a foot and a 'half apart. Then by the next 
spring the seedlings will be ready for budding. Bud- 
ding, though sometimes practiced in the summer and 
fall, should be done when the trees are in full sap. 
After they are budded, the trees should remain in 
the nursery from one to two years. The trees should 
be set out any time from December to March ist. 
Tlie land should be prepared by thorough working. 
Some growers advise breaking the soil a foot deep, 
and then using a subsoil plow breaking it still deep- 
er. As to the distance the trees should be apart, it 



98 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



is a difficult matter to lay down any general rule. 
The distance varies according to the variety grown, 
the method of pruning and richness of soil. How- 
ever, (although circumstances may call for different 
distances), seedling trees should be placed from thirty 
to forty feet apart each way, semi-dwarfs like the 
Mandarin eighteen to twenty-four feet apart each way 
and tlie dwarfs about lo feet each way. When the 
trees are first set out it is the common practice to cut 
off a large part of the top, leaving only short stubs or 
branches. In growing oranges, the object is to pro- 
duce a vigorous and heall'hy tree. If the soil is fer- 
tile, and is resistant to drouth, a great deal of culti- 
vation will not be nece:-,/,ary. Tf on the, other hand. 
the soil is thin, although well fertilized, it will be 



The orange tree requires but little pruning after 
the removal of the undesirable and dead branches. 

PEACH. 

Commercial Peach orchards began to be planted 

to a limited extent in Georgia and South Carolina 
about 1854, but it can be said that the industry really 
began on an extensive scale immediately after the 
Civil War, until now millions of trees are in full 
bearing and yield fruit of a quality that commands 
tl.e very best prices. On account of is iinportance, 
we go into the culture of peaches in detail, and espe- 
cially for commercial orcb.ards. 

There are a great manv kinds of soil where the 




Fig. 9.— Budded Orange Grove. BrroU Farm, Plymouth, Fla. 



quite necessary to give inorough and frequent culti- 
vation. A good supply of vegetable matter, or hu- 
mus, can be given by growing some leguminous 
crop, like a vetch or cowpea, when the trees are ma- 
turing their annual growth. An excellent fertilizer 
is a compost of muck and lime spread broadcast 

To protect the trees from frost some provision, 
which shall be ready for use at all times should be 
made. If the trees are rrown close to the f^round, 
conrsc hay, reeds, brush or similar material can be 
quickly piled up around the trunks and in among t'he 
branches with but little expense. Other methods, 
such as smoking, b^- using p'les of rubbish, are re- 
commended and used with good results. 



peach will grow successfully. Good orchards may 
be grown on stony and gravelly poor soil, as well as 
on fertile loams, and very light pine sands, on lime- 
stone soils ; on stiff red clay lands, and even on beach 
sands so light as to be blown about by the winds. 
To lav down a general rule, it may be said that 
peaches prefer a light, well-drained sandy or loamy 
land with a clay subsoil, although some very fine or- 
chards have been grown upon stiff clays, and deep 
sands. JMuck lands, and soils 'that retain the mois- 
ture, and in fact, all wet lands should not be used to 
plant peaches. In selecting a place for an orchard 
one thing of importance is to select a place where 
vou can reach tl-e markets. There are thousands of 



Plan Your Work in the Orchard, as you do Your Other Work. 



99 



acres of land throughout the South that would grow 
fine peaches if transportation facilities were availa- 
ble, but it would be unprofitable to plant peaches if 
they cannot be shipped. A peac'h orchard should be 
close to a main line of a railroad, so that they can 
be readily shipped to the markets. Also select the 
best part of the farm for the orchard. Some parts 
of a farm are better suited for peach growing than 
, others. As a rule higher lands are to be selected 
rather than the lower. A hillside with a Northern 
exposure is better than one with a Southern expos- 
ure, this being due to the fact tliat the Northern ex- 
posure will retard the opening of the blossoms, and in 
this way orchards w'ill escape the late spring frosts. 
After the site of the orchard has been chosen ; a se- 
lection of the varieties made, therefore, a proper pre- 
paration of the land should be the first point consid- 
ered. 

PREPARATION OF THE LAND. 

If the land is fresh and has just been cleared, it 
should be cultivated at least two years in cotton or 
some other crop adapted to the locality. Should this 
new land be too rich for peaches, the fertility could 
be reduced by planting it in corn or some other ex- 
haustive crop for a year, however, if it is old and 
worn out, it should be restored tO' a state of fertility 
before setting out the trees. The land should be 
broken up to the proper depth with a two-horse 
plow: followed with a sub-soil plow if necessary. 
Sow in crimson clover, cow peas, or plant potatoes, 
or some other crop w'hich will require fertilization. 
In late winter turn under the cover crop. Excellent 
results have been derived from the following treat- 
ment : 



stable manure or applying good commercial fertiliz- 
er. Plow under the clover in May, subsoil, and sow 
in peas. All peach lands should be thoroughly and 
deeply plowed, because after the trees are planted,, 
and are in growth, they can not be plowed deeply- 
All places in the orchard where the top soil has been 
washed away, should receive careful and special at- 




Fig. 10.— Proper Method of Pruning Peach-trees Whe» 
in the Orehard. Tree oo the left ready for 
planting (after Taft.) 



Set 



After the land has received the proper plowing 
and sub-soiling broadcast or drill in peas in May, 
using one bushel to the acre, 150 to 200 pounds of 
good fertilizer per acre will materially increase the 
growth. In February or March break up the pea 
vines by running over the ground with a Cuttaway 
Harrow, then turn under with a good turn plow. As 
the depth of the top soil has been increased, the land 
can be plowed to a greater depth than at the pre- 
vious plowing: stvbsoil again, if necessarv, and in No- 
vember your land is ready for the orchard. 

Another excellent mode of preparation is to sow 
crimson clover in September, first broadcasting with 



tention : such places are devoid of humus, and this; 
must be supplied by a liberal application of stable 
manure or compost, and should be put in peas and 
clover, which must be plowed under in March. In 
two years' time, by treating as above mentioned, 
these depleted parts of the orchard can be made very 
fertile. 

PLANTING. 

Check off the land at the proper distances, using a 
good two-horse turn plow. At the intersections dig 
a hole two feet square, throwing the top soil to one 
side, use a liberal amount of well decani.posed stable 



lOO 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



manure to each hole, have this thoroughly incorpor- 
ated with the soil ; if stable manure is not available 
then use from i to 2 pounds of bone meal, or the 
same quantity of mixture of two parts acid phos- 
phate to one part cotton-seed meal. When using 
chemical fertilizers the best results are attained by 
first setting the tree in the hole, fill up the hole one- 
half its depth, and then apply the fertilizer, but mix- 
ing it thoroughly wit'h the soil, firm the earth well 
about the roots of the tree and level off. 

CULTIVATION. 

After the trees have put out a growth of i 1-2 to 
2 inches, rub off all but three growths, and these 
should be so distributed about the tree that it will 
be well balanced. The early rubbing off of the sur- 
plus growth can not be too thoroughly emphasized ; 
it is a great saving of time to do this rubbing off be- 
fore the young growth becomes tough. It is also not 
so severe a shock to t'he tree. The trees should be 
gone over once or twice during the growing season, 
and all superfluous growth ruljbed out. If these 
growths are allowed to attain some length it is then 
necessary to use the pruning knife, which is necesp 
sarily a slow and more expensive operation. Keep 
the orchard thoroughly cultivated, and the trees free 
from grass and weeds, drill in 3 to 4 rows of peas in 
the orchard ; leave at least 4 feet between the peas 
and trees. Cotton, melons, or other hoed crops should 
also be planted in the orchard, but if the land is 
poor, use peas. Let t'he vines remain on the ground 
and turn under in February or March with a one- 
horse turn plow. Great care must be exercised in 
plowing, especially the first strip near the trees, oth- 
erwise the roots will be injured. The depth of the 
plowing can be increased as the distance from the 
tree is increased. The Cutaway and Acne Harrows and 
weeders are the best and most economical tools for sub- 
sequent cultivation. The question has frequently been 
asked how often an orchard should be cultivated; the 
answer to this is, whenever needed, frequently an or- 
chard is gone over with the harrow and weeder as 
many as 20 times during a season. T'he ground 
should 'never be allowed to bake or become hard. 
Frequently beating rains will harden the ground; in 
this case the Acme or Cuttaway Harrow should be 
used to break the crust, but the cultivation should 
be shallow. During the fall and winter hogs could 
be pastured in t'he orchard, but under no circum- 



stances should horses, mules or cows be allowed to 
run at large. 

FERTILIZATION. 

For the first two years the growth of the orchard 
should be stimulated as much as possible by an 
abundant supply of phosphoric acid and nitrogen, but 
care should be exercised not to give an excess of nit- 
rogen. This is readily distinguishable by the vigor- 
ous growth, and the dark green color of the leaves. 
An excess of nitrogen will also produce an exuda- 
tion of sap, and immature the ripening of the twigs, 
which are frequently winter killed. When the tree 
shows a pale color it indicates a lack of nitrogen. 
In such cases an application of stable manure is 




Fig. 11.— PeacU Yellows (U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

beneficial. A most excellent chemical fertilizer to 
use at this period is a mixture of 1,200 pounds of 
acid phosphate, 400 pounds cotton-seed meal, and 400 
pounds muriate or sulphate of potash ; apply broad- 
cast or in furrows on opposite sides of the tree at 
the proper distance from 2 to 4 pounds of this mix- 
ture according to the size of the tree. When the 
bearing period is reached, potash is needed ; this can 
be supplied in the form of muriate or sulphate of pot- 
ash. As the tree increases in age the quantity of this 
fertilizer per tree can be increased ; it is best applied 



Some hoed crop will help Young Orchards. 



lOI 



in February or March, or just before active root 
growth commences. Hard wood ashes when obtain- 
able is a most excellent and economical fertilizer. A 
bearing orchard should be given clean cultivation, 
which should be continued until the fruit is harvest- 
ed ; after that time, if practicable, drill in peas and 
continue the cultivation until middle of August or 
first of September. Many orchards do not require 
fertilization annually, but should be kept thoroughly 
and constantly in cultivation from spring until mid- 
dle of August or I St of September. If the trees re- 
ceive too much phosphoric acid and nitrogen the 
growth will be excessive, the fruit will lack color, 
and it will be very susceptible to Brown Rot ; in this 
case ashes or potash fertilizer should be liberally ap- 
plied. 



the fruit. Should the trees have a rank or vigorous 
growth the surplus wood should be removed. The 
pruning should be done annually. Great care must 
be exercised in leaving a proper quantity of fruiting 
wood. Frequently a peach crop is materially re- 
duced by an ignorant cutting away of too many fruit 
buds. 

BORERS. 

In early winter the earth should be removed from 
about the body of the tree down to the crown, all 
gummy exudations scraped off; for this purpose use 
a tool somewhat hke a farrier's knife. All borers 
should be carefully taken out, then apply the follow- 
ing wash, which is excellent to prevent the attack of 
the borer: 




Fig. 12,— Orcliard near Fort Valley, Ga. 



PRUNING. 

Upon proper and intelligent pruning will depend 
in a great measure the success of your orchard. In 
this section trees should be headed low when set 
out, I to I 1-2 to 2 feet above ground being the best 
height. The tree having been set to three limbs so 
that it is well balanced, i-2 to 1-3 of the previous 
year's growth of these limbs should be removed dur- 
ing the winter, and tree pruned so that it will have 
a broad open head, thus admittin-:^ light and air to 



I bushel of quick lime, 

20 pounds of sulphur, 

I gallon coal tar, 

50 gallons water. 

Mix tar and sulphur in 10 gallons of water in bar- 
rel, add lime, keep well stirred. When entirely slack- 
ed dilute to 50 gallons. Apply with a brush to the 
body and large limbs of the tree. In February draw 
the soil up to the tree, forming a cone about 6 inches 
above tke level. The above operat'on should b^ re- 
peated annual'". 



102 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



THINNING. 

This is a most deceptive occupation. It should be 
started when the fruit is about 1-2 inch in diameter, 
and at that time we do not realize that these little 
peaches will attain a diameter of i 1-2 to 2 1-2 and 
frequently three inches, consequently the thinning 
process is not always sufficiently severe. Some va- 
rieties should be so thinned that when the fruit ma- 
tures there should be at least 4 to 6 inches between 
each specimen; this may seem unduly severe, but it 
will give you better financial results, and at the same 
time add to the healthfulness and life of the tree. 
Your entire crop of fruit will be of a merchantable 
size, and you will not have a lot of undersize and 
worthless fruit. All peaches removed from the tree 
should be carried to the dump and burned, as in this 
manner you will destroy thousands of Curculio in 
the embryotic state. Thinning the fruit in connec- 
tion with proper pruning and cultivation will keep 
the peach orchard up to its standard, and barring 
frost and storms there is no reason why the peach 
orchard should not produce a good crop annually and 
not have off years. 

CURCULIO. 

This pest is the cause of the loss of many car loads 
of fruit annually, and we should wage vigorous war- 
fare against him. Wild plums, crab apples, and 
haws are excellent feeding for this insect, and the 
■careful cultivator will see that such trees are remov- 
ed from the vicinity of the orchard. It is well to re- 
move all woods adjoining the orchard, but if this is 
not practicable you should burn off the woods in late 
winter, so as to kill all the undergrowth. The only 
practical mode of destroying the Curculio is to jar 
the trees, catching the insects on cloth covered frames 
especially made for this operation. The best time to 
jar the trees is early in the morning and late in the 
afternoon when the Curculio is dormant. The jar- 
ring should commence as soon as the fruit is set, and 
should be continued as long as necessary. Spraying 
for Curculio is not entirely successful, but if 2 lbs. 
of arsenite of lead added to 50 gallons of Bordeaux 
is used when spraying for Brown Rot many Curculio 
will be desctroyed. 

BROWN ROT. 

The following treatment has given good results: 



1st. Remove all mummified fruit, sTiould there be 
any on the tree. 

2nd. Before the buds open spray with Bordeaux 
4-6-50. 

3rd. When in full bloom prune out all twigs and 
blossoms affected with Rot. 

4th. When fruit is well set, spray with Bordeaux 

3-9-50. 

5th. Ten days later Bordeaux 3-9-50. 

6th. Ten days to two weeks later Bordeaux 3-9- 

50. 

The same spray should be continued at intervals 
of ten days to two weeks until the fruit begins to 
ripen. If the Bordeau.x is carefully applied there is 
no material injury to the foliage, but if milk or lime 
is used three days after an application of Bordeaux 
the shot-holding of the foliage will be greatly re- 
duced. 

Many orchardists do not believe in spraying, as the 
results obtained have been unsatisfactory, and in 
many instances the results have been fatal to the 
trees. Not infrequently the spraying is intrusted to 
the most trifling and most careless help on the farm, 
whereas, this should be done by the most careful and 
intelligent man. The spray should be thoroughly 
distributed over the tree, but not in such copious 
showers that the liquid will drip from the leaves, not 
run down the trunk of the tree in streams. Spray 
properly, or omit it altogether. Another most im- 
portant feature in reducing the ravages of Brown 
liot and visitations of Curculio is the removal of all 
fallen fruit. During the harvesting season the or- 
chard should be gone over carefully at least twice a 
week and all fallen fruit gathered up and carried to 
the dump and burned. After the crop is harvested 
it is well to go o\'er the orchard and cut out all twigs 
showing the effects of Brown Rot; these twigs like 
the fruit should be cremated. The above is taken 
from the transaction of the Georgia State Horticul- 
ture Society, prepared by Mr. P. J. Berckmans. 

All preparation of the orchard should be done in 
advance of the arrival of the trees. The selection of 
the trees is quite important. It is not necessary that 
they be large, but the trunks should be smooth and 
well grown, and the roots abundant and as little in- 
jured as possible. Before you give your order for 
trees, have a written agreement with the agent nur- 
sery covering each of these points. Make him spe- 
cify that they should come up to these requirements 



Don't let the Insects Get Started. 



103 



and state them. Remember that a few stress that 
are poor in quality means more than the price you 
pay for them, for they mean the land, cultivation, 
and other expenses that are not touched by the 
amount you pay for the tree. Nearly every State 
has enacted laws which compel every nursery man 
to have his trees inspected annually by duly appoint- 
ed State entomologists, who can not deliver a certifi- 
cate if trees are infested with scale insects or fungous 
diseases of an injurious nature, and further that all 
trees must be properly fumigated in a thoroug'hly 
well constructed house, with hydrocyanic gas before 
shipping. Failure to receive a certificate of inspec- 
tion forbids the sale of all nursery products and 
transportation companies can not accept any pack- 
age unless a certificate of State Entomologist is at- 
tached thereto. This is a protection for tree buyers 
and prevents diseased trees to be sold under penalty 
of a misdemeanor. The greatest care should be ob- 
served that they be not infested with borers, scale 
insects, etc. It is better tO' pay two prices for a tree 
of assured character, that it is to accept trees as a 
gift of doubtful character. 

In the selection of the variety, common sense 
should prevail. For instance in Georgia for the past 
few years, there has been more Elberta trees planted 
than of other varieties. As Elbertas ripen about the 
same time, there is often a glut of these in certain 
sections. Now the wise peach grower will plant 
some other varieties that will come in earlier or later 
than the Elberta. In order to get those that will pay 
commercially, the peach must have as many good 
points as possible. For instance, the trees must be 
productive, the fruit must be of good size, and fine 

: color, and superior flavor, and must be firm enough 
to stand shipping. 

' Fifty to one hundred pounds of nitrate of soda or 
its equivalent in some other material per acre is as 

I much nitrogenous fertilizer as any orchard should 
have, and some orchards no not need any nitrogen 

j at all. Additional information can be had on the 
subject by reference to the chapter on Fertilizer 

1 found in another part of this book. 

One great trouble with peaches in the South, is 

' that fhey bloom during a warm spell in early spring, 
and then, comes a frost and kills the fruit. For that 
reason the crop is not as safe and sure as some other 
■crops. The Missouri Experiment Station found that 
if peach trees are thoroughly whitewashed, that fhe 
trees absorb less heat on sunny days, and that 



the buds remain dormant, while the trees around 
them which were not whitewashed, bloomed. This 
is worth trying and may mean much to the peach 
grower. 

Picking and packing peaches require the personal 
supervision of the grower. You can not trust these 
matters to hired help unless you are there to look af- 
ter it yourself. A peacli should be picked and pack- 
ed with as much care as an orange. They should 
not be poured from basket to basket, as this will 
surely bruise them. More attention needs to be giv- 
en to picking peaches. If you pick a day too early 
the peaches are too green, and if you are a day too 
late they are over-ripe. If growers would give more 








Fig. 13. — Shipping Packages for Figs. (24 qt. crate.) 

attention to the picking, packing and shipping of 
their fruit, t'hey would certainly get better results. 
Some shippers make the mistake of shipping in too 
large crates or baskets. The best package is the six 
basket carrier crate. For the diseases of the peach 
see diseases of Fruit trees in this chapter. 

PEAR. 

The pear is one of the most delicious fruits grown. 
As a canning fruit, they are equally as desirable as 
peaches. On account of blight it is not grown so 
much as it otherwise would be. Pears, like most 
fruit, are propagated by budding upon seedlings dur- 
ing June and August. They will grow successfully 
on much heavier lands than either the peach or the 
apple, but succeed best on clay, or clay loams. 

The pear orchard should be well-prepared by deep, 
thorough plowing. Standard trees are set 18 to 22 
feet apart, and the Dwarf 12 to 16 feet apart. The 
pear orchard should be cultivated similar to the peach 
orchard. Before the crops commence bearing some 
crops can be planted in the orchard, suc'h as pota- 
toes, cabbages, peas and beans. The pear tree begins 
bearing from five to eight years after planting, and 



104 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



should continue to bear for fifty years, unless disease 
attacks it. As to fertilizers, if the soil be good, pears 
do not require any fertilizer until they commence to 
bear, when phosphoric acid, and potash should be 
applied. Leguminous crops are better than an appli- 
cation of nitrogen. Wood as'hes and grojnd bone 
are preferable to ammouiated manures. 

The practice of thinning pears is quite important, 
and should be practiced as regularly as for peaches. 
Thinning prevents them from overbearing, also im- 
proves the quality and size, and tends to make the 
tree bear each year. This is especially required for 
the Keiffer. Where the tree overbears, fhere is a 
tendency towards the tree failing to fruit every year. 
Pears should be picked before they are ripe, and be 
allowed to ripen in a closed room. They should be 
picked when they reach their full size, and a very 
slight color begins to s'how, and be carefully picked 
by hand. Varieties like the Clapp, which rot at the 
core as soon as it is fully matured, should be picked 
one week before tliey would mature on the tree. 

As to the variety which sb.ould be planted, tliis de- 
pends upon their prospecti\-e use If needed for 
home consumption many varieties of known good 
quality will be desirable, but if for market few sorts, 
except Keiffer and LeConte will pay. The Keiffer 
is grown more than any other commercially, as it is 
very valuable for canning and produces large crops 
at an early age of the trees. For enemies to the pear, 
see diseases of trees found in another part of this 
work. 

PECAN. 

The Pecan is tlie most important native nut tree in 
the United States. The tree belongs to the Hickory 
genus and grows wild in the rich bottoms of Ken- 
tucky, Louisiana, Texas, and south-east to_ Georgia. 
The bulk of the pecans of commerce are gathered 
from seedling trees, but orchards of grafted sorts are 
being set out throughout the South, and are provmg 
quite profitable. Pecans are propagated from seed, 
but only about fifteen per cent, come true to the pa- 
rent form, so most growers are budding or grafting 
pecans, but with a smaller proportion of success than 
with other fruits. They are quite difficult to bud or 
graft, and hence are very expensive, but in the end it 
pays much better to have the grafted or budded 



stock. You can then be sure to get what you want. 
After the pecan nut is planted it will take the tree 
two years to be ready to place in the permanent or- 
chard, and if budded or grafted, it should remain in 
the ground a year longer before being transplanted to 
its permanent orchard. The trees may be transplanted 
any time after the leaves drop in the fall and before 
the buds swell in the spring. It does not injure the 
tree to cut the tap root, and some growers recom- 
mend the cutting off of the tap root so that the tree 
will bear earlier than it otherwise would do. In 
transplanting trees of any kind the top should be cut 
back so as to put the young tree in good shape, and 
the amount of cutting back should be made to bal- 
ance the loss of roots. Few trees are injured by be- 
ing cut back severely. 

On very rich soils, pecan trees tend to grow wood 
rather than nuts. Sandy loam soils with a good clay 
subsoil has been found to give excellent results. 
Land that is suited to the cultivation of corn and 
cotton will grow good pecans. On poor soils, the 
trees should stand 40 feet apart each way, and on 
richer soils, and bottom lands they should be from 
50 to 60 feet apart each way. The pecan orchard 
will require about the same care as other fruit or- 
chards. The pecan seedlings do not begin to bear 
fruit until the trees are ten years old, but grafted 
trees usually give their first crop wdien four years 
old. Few trees respond more readily to heavy and 
regular fertilization.. Trees 5 years old which were 
regularly supplied with washings of barnyard have 
been known to bear fruit. The nuts retail in the 
market from 5 to 50 cts. per pound. An extra large 
variety has been known to command $1.00 per pound 
in New York City. 

JAPANESE PERSIMMONS. 

The Japan persimmon is thoroughly adapted to 
the Cotton Belt. It does especially well in the coast 
region. The tree is a vigorous grower, an early and 
prolific bearer. As it is apt to overbear the fruit 
should be thinned out, leaving only a number com- 
mensurate with the size of the tree. The fruit va- 
ries in color and shape. The dark-flesh varieties are 
never astringent, but the light-fleshed should never 
be eaten until soft. The flesh also varies in color; 
in the pointed varieties it is usually deep orange; in 
these it remains solid and quite astringent until 



Cut off all Dead Parts of Trees. 



105 



I November, but become soft and edible after being 

! house-ripened. In the round varieties, those having 

dark-brown flesh are edible while still solid, while 

most of these with orange flesh should be allowed 

! to become soft before being eaten. The fruit of near- 

I ly every variety begins to color when half-grown, 

but should be allowed to hang on the tree until just 

j before a frost is expected, or in case of early ripen- 

; ing varieties, when fully soft. If gathered before a 

frost, there is a slight astringency next to the skin, 

but this disappears after being kept in the house for 

a few days or weeks. If allowed to be sligTitly 

touched by frost the flavor is much improved, but 

the fruit will then not keep many days. Gather the 

fruit before frost, if intended for keeping; some va- 



PINEAPPLE. 



The pineapple and frost are bitter enemies. For 
this reason the commercial culture of pineapples is 
limited to Southern Florida where the temperature 
varies from y^ deg. to 76 deg. F. The pineapple is 
propagated from offsets from the parent plant. As 
a rule t'he suckers or offsets that grow near the base 
of the plant are most desirable to use in propagat- 
ing. In using these suckers, you can secure fruit 
much earlier than when you use slips, or offsets that 
are produced at the base of the fruit, for fhese require 
eighteen months or two years to produce fruit. 

In Florida the soils upon which the pineapple 
grows best is a fine sand which is exceedingly poor 




Fig. 14. — Pineapples as Grown in Florida. 



rieties will remain sound until January or February. 
The flesh is soft, rich and sweet, and of a slight 
apricot flavor. Some varieties will be perfectly seed- 
less during one or more years, and again every spec- 
imen will contain more or less seeds the following 
season. 

The best varieties are as follows in the order of 
maturity: Zengi, Migro-Tan, Maru-Gata, Aoong, Hi- 
yakume, Okame, Hachaya, and Tsum-no-ko. Trees 
of the early maturing sorts do not grow as tall as 
those of the late sorts. 



in plant food. "Hickory Scrub" is considered the 
best land for pineapples and this will analyze from 
94 per cent, to 99 per cent, pure sand, under whic'h 
is a layer of yellowish sand. One of the most im- 
portant matters is that the land be well drained. It 
is not so important as to w'hat kind of soil you use, 
as it is how well that soil is drained. Pineapples 
will stand drouth considerable, but they cannot stand 
water. The Florida Experiment Station has con- 
ducted several experiments to determine the fertili- 
zation question in connection wit'h pineapples. As a 
result of these experiments it is suggested that if the 



io6 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



pineapple plants are set in July or August a handful 
of fertilizer composed of three parts cotton-seed meal 
and one part fine unleached tobacco dust should be 
immediately dropped into the bud. This furnished 
plant food, and prevents them from filling with sand. 
Then later, say in October or November, 680 pounds 
of blood and bone and 500 pounds potassium magne- 
sium carbonate should be applied. As soon as the 
danger of frost is over, this same application should 
be repeated, say in F'ebruary. Then just before the 
beginning of the rainy season from 1000 to 2000 
pounds of blood and bone and from 750 to 1500 of 
potassium magnesunn carbonate should be applied. 
This same application should be repeated in October 
or November. The plants should be set in rows 30 
inches wide and from 15 to 18 inches apart. Very 
little cultivation is necessary. It will be well enough 
to 'hoe them sufficicntlv to keep the weeds down. 

In the past few years pineapples have been grown 
under sheds. The sheds are built seven or eight feet 
high, and are covered with laths three inches wide, 
leaving a space between them equal to the width of 
a lath. These sheds protect them from frost, also 
from the very hot sun. The cost of production is not 
so high as it used to be, and the value of the market 
fruit is much greater than it was a few years ago. 

PLUMS. 

There is no more delicious or nutritious fruit than 
the plum, of which numerous varieties grow in the 
U. S. The European varieties which have been do- 
mesticated, are represented by the blue, red and yel- 
low plums and prodace excellent fruit. The great 
objection to t'he European plum is that they are sub- 
ject to the attack of insects and fungus pests, and 
cannot be grown unless they are given careful atten- 
tion. This group grows best on a deep moist loam, 
but they will grow on many other soils. They should 
be so planted as to allow full exposure to the air and 
sunlight, which will do much to prevent the rotting 
of the fruit and the growth of black rot. Ecw varie- 
ties of this group succeed except in restricted locali- 
ties. 

The second group are the Japanese plums which 
have become quite popular in the last twenty years, 
and are planted quite extensively. They are nearly 
all of vigorous growth and are precocious bearers. 



The fruit varies as to quality, some varieties being 
most excellent. Nearly all varieties are prolific bear- 
ers. They thrive in the same soil as the peach, and 
are subject to the same insects and fungus diseases. 
However, on acount of their bearing so much young- 
er and being more reliable than the European sort, 
they can be more profitably grown. They sTiould be 
so planted as to get the full benefit of the sunlight 
and air, as th.ey are subject to brown rot and black 
knot. The same method of pruning the peach ap- 
])lies to the Japanese plums. 

The third group consists of American or native va- 
rieties of plun;s. Some varieties like the White 
Goose or the Chickasaw type are very prolific, pro- 
ductive and free from disease, and are well suited to 
the South. 

In order to get the best results from plums, it is 
necessary to cultivate the orchard. They should al- 
so be fertilized, using t'he same fertilizers and the 
same cultivation that you would use in growing 
peaches. The soil that is best adapted to plum 
growing is a heavy clay soil. However, plums will 
grow in a wide range of soils. The trees should be 
set 15 feet apart each way and either in the fall or 
spring. Trees should be one and two years old when 
set out. The Wild Goose will be expected to pro- 
duce some fruit when two years old. All broken and 
injured roots should be trimmed off before setting 
out, and the top trimmed to a whip alxmt two or 
three feet long. The tree should be planted a little 
deeper than it stood in the nursery. Overbearing in 
the Japanese and American groups is quite a com- 
mon fault, and therefore it is very important that 
they should be t'hinned. I'ruit growers should real- 
ize the importance of thinning fruit. By doing so, 
much larger fruit will be produced, and also you will 
get much more regular crops by thinning early if 
much fruit is set. 

QUINCE. 

Commercially the quince is not much grown. It 
cannot be eaten without cooking, and has little value 
except for preserving purposes. It makes perhaps 
t'he best preserves of any fruit, and in this consists 
its value. It has very little value as a shipping fruit, 
for the slightest bruise or scratch injures it. A few 
quince bushes are usually planted in gardens, but 
verv few orchards are in existence in the South. The 



Insects are the great enemies to fruit. 



107 



quince is propagated by hard wood cuttings taken 
in the fall or winter and placed in the sand. These 
cuttings should be a foot long. In the early spring, 
the cuttings after having been in the sand a couple 
of months, may be planted out, and remain in the 




Fig. 15. — 'Outlines of Prineiiial Varieties of Quinces. 

nursery for two or three years before planting out 

in the orchard or garden. The best soil for the pro- 

I duction of the quince is a deep, rich, moist loam. 

The trees should be planted 10 feet apart each way 

j or perhaps 12 feet each way, depending of course up- 

[ on the fertility of the soil. Nitrogenous manures 

I should not be too freely used. The fruit should be 

I gathered when it turns yellow, when t'he whole crop 

{ may be gathered. They must be handled with a 

great deal of care, as the slightest scratch will cause 

the skin to turn brown. The fruit may be kept for 

a month in a cool cellar. 

RASPBERRY. 

The raspberry is grown most everywhere in gar- 
dens, but it is not grown for the market as exten- 
sively in the South as in the North-eastern States 
and on the Pacific Coast. There are two classes of 
raspberry grown in this country, the black cap varie- 
ties and the red. The black is sometimes of more 
commercial importance than the red, as it stands 
s'hipping better, and bears heavier. The reds are 
! relished more than the black. 

The red raspberries are similar to the blackberry 
and are propagated in the same way, by root cut- 
tings or from suckers thrown up from the roots. It 
delights in a cool, moist location, but grows in almost 
every kind of soil. The land should be fertile if you 



expect large fruit. Barnyard manure should be used 
as a fertilzer and should be used liberally. There 
can be no definite rule laid down concerning the dis- 
tance the red raspberry should be planted. Different 
growers, and different varieties and different meth- 
ods cause a wide variation in the distance between 
the bushes. In very rich soils, it is perhaps best to 
have them in six feet rows and the bushes placed 
four or five feet apart, but in poorer soils three by 
five feet would not be too close. Raspberries will 
stand our coldest winters, but unless kept well cul- 
tivated during summer, excessi\-e heat will injure 
them. The raspberry should be cultivated shallow, 
as it is a shallow feeder and working; too deep is lia- 
ble to injure the plants. It is best to pick the fruit 
in pint baskets every day. They should not be pick- 
ed while wet if possible to avoid it. As soon as they 
are picked they should be sent to the market at once, 
as they quickly spoil. 

The black raspberries arc much better shippers 
than the red, and therefore are grown a great deal 
more commercially than the red berries. They are 
propagated by burying the tips of growing canes 
shallow, late in the summer, as shown in the illustra- 
shallow, late in the summer. The habits and 
growth of the blackcaps differ widely from the 
red berries. The black raspberries gi'ow if hills, 
and do not throw up suckers. Thev mature a 
little earlier than the red raspberries and are planted 
either 4 feet apart in rows, rows 5 feet apart, or 3 
feet apart in rows, rows 6 feet apart. The end bud 
should not be planted more than two inches under 
the surface, but the roots should be planted down in 
the moist soil. The culture is about the same as for 
blackberries. 

STRAWBERRY. 

The strawberry is quite an important berry through- 
out the South. Over 200 bulletins from the differ- 
ent experiment stations have been issued, thus show- 
ing the importance of this fruit. Perhaps there is 
more money made out of strawberries than any oth- 
er crop. It is a crop that requires more skill in grow- 
ing and more shrewdness in marketing than any 
other, but when it is carried on as it should be, you 
need have no fear as to results. In exceptional in- 
stances $200.00 to $300.00 per acre have been realiz- 
ed. It is better for strawberry growers, that grow 



io8 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASUI^E. 



for t'he market to get together, so that they can co- 
operate in buying 'boxes, crates, fertilizers and the 
securing of the best shipping rates, etc. Before be- 
ginning to raise strawberries there are several ques- 
tions that you must answer. For what purpose are 
you going to raise strawberries? Do you want them 
for your family, or do you want to raise them for 
the market? i\nd then when you have decided these 
questions, there are others to be considered. In the 
next place, if you are going to raise them for mar- 
ket, are you to raise t'hem for the local market, or to 
ship? This question is important, for if you raise 
them for the local market you will want to get a va- 
riety that will do well in your locality, one that will 
ripen at a time to command the best prices and a 
quality that will be in demand by your customers. 
It takes more time and money to produce a berry of 
the best quality than it does to produce a berry of 
poor quality. If you desire to ship your berries, you 
will have to select in many cases, an altogether dif- 
ferent variety. It must bear sliipping well, be of best 
quality, large size, and good appearance. So you can 
readily see that there are several things that are to 
be determined before you are to go into the straw- 
berry business. 

.As to the soil upon which to raise strawberries, it 
is quite difficult to lay down a general rule. In 
Florida the best strawberry soil is a good flat wood 
soil. Next best is a hammock or "Bay-head." The 
soil must hold moisture well but not be soggy. Light 
sandy soils well fertilized good for an early crop, 
yield well, if you are in position to irrigate. Any 
land that will grow good corn will grow strawber- 
ries. 

The soil for strawberries should be well prepared. 
In fact, you cannot overdo the matter of preparation 
of your strawberry ground. It sliould be broken 
deeply and plowed in the fall, before the plants are 
set out. After the ground has been thoroughly 
broken, heavily manured with barnyard manure 
(from ten to twenty loads per acre should be put 
on,) the plants may be set in rows from three and 
a 'half to four feet apart. The plants may be set out 
in the fall or spring, (but fall planting is recommend- 
ed for the middle South) and should be from eigh- 
teen to twenty inches apart. They should be care- 
fully planted so that the crown is just above the sur- 
face level.^The same bed should not be used to pro- 
duce plants and fruits. Let the energy o[ one bed be 



devoted to one purpose. You can secure much larger 
berries if you grow berries and not plants in the 
same bed. Never take up the plants and reset them, 
that is, after taking up plants, never reset the ones 
that have been bearing, but use the plants that ar? 
made from the runners. One plot of ground should 
not be used longer than tliree years for strawberries, 
and to secure the best results, it should not be used 
that long. After the plants bear two or three crops, 
they loose their vitality, and cease to bear. The 
plant soon after it is planted in the spring should be 
mulched 'with straw as it keeps the weeds down, al- 
so retains the moisture. 




Fig. 16.— Planted Too Deep. Fig. 17.— Planted Too High 




Fig. IS.— Planted Just Right. 

There are several Systems of Planting Strawberries. 

The Hill System. This consists in setting the 
plants in rows three feet apart and placing the plants 
one foot apart and keeping the runners cut off.. The 
runners, of course, should be cut off as soon as they 
start out, and makes t'hem easier cultivated, mulched 
and harvested. There is a modification of this sys- 



Don't fail to work the orchard. 



109 



tern called the Hedgerow system in which the plants 
lare placed two and a half feet by two feet and the 
Iplants treated in the same way, except the plants are 
jallowed to fill in the space at eig'ht to ten inches 
apart. 

Wide Matted Row. This system consists in plant- 
ing the rows from three to five feet apart varying ac- 
pording to the fertility of the soil, and letting the 
runners grow over the space between the rows. 

! The following cultural directions will apply to 
nearly, all sections of the South: The strawberry 
adapts itself to almost any soil which is not too wet 
or arid, but it will do best on a deep, rich, sandy 



tender, and more susceptible to being burned out 
during the hot, dry summers. Plants set out after 
t'he fall rains will yield a fair crop of fruit during the 
following spring, but a large crop cannot be expect- 
ed until the second year. It is undesirable to let the 
plants remain after the second year, and more profi- 
table to plant every 3^ear, so that one field may take 
the place, as the other is plowed up. Set the plants 
in rows, three by one foot, thus one acre will require, 
14,520 plants: For the South we advise matted rows 
in preference to stool cultivation, as the former is 
more resistant to long drouths. After the crop is 
gathered, keep t'he soil well stirred and always free 
from weeds. Remove all runners as fast as they ap- 
pear; this will increase the size of the plant and also 




strawberries gro-wn by J. W. Goree, Wliitewright, Texas. 



jpam. The land should be thoroughly prepared by 
lleing broken up with a two-horse turn plow, first 
[pplying from fifteen to twenty-five two-horse loads 
f well decomposed manure to the acre ; a top dress- 
ig of hard-wood ashes, (thirty to fifty bushels,) 
luriate of potash (300 to 400 pounds,) or bone meal 
500 pounds,) should be applied per acre during 
ebruary. Avoid nitrogenous fertilizers just before 
le blooming period, as these will induce a strong 
ine at the expense of the fruit; the plant is also 
)rced into a very sappy growth, which will make it 



the quantity of the berries produced. We have test- 
ed hundred of varieties of strawberries and find few 
that will give general satisfaction. Locality has a 
great influence upon the success of this fruit and 
therefore we cannot depend upon the same variety 
thriving equally as well in different soils and locali- 
tes. 

Mulching. After a thorough working of the soil in 
the early spring, a thin covering of straw or leaves 
should be placed around, but not over the plants. 



no 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Let this mulc'hing remain during the fruiting period, 
then remove. Keep the beds well cultivated and free 
from weeds, during the balance of the year. 

Sex of blossoms. The blossoms of most varieties 
are perfect, or bi-sexual, and are termed staminate, 
but some varieties, destitute of stamens are imper- 
fect and are termed, pistillate. The latter are, as a 
rule the most productive if planted near perfect flow- 
ering sorts ; otherwise they will not produce fruit. 
Plant three rows of a good pistillate variety, and 
then three rows of a perfect or staminate sort, etc. 
Hoffman, Lady Thompson, Michel and Tennessee Pro- 
lific are good pollenizers, but care must be taken to 
keep the runners of each variety from encroaching 
upon others. 

The strawberry is a very perishable fruit, and 
therefore requires the greatest care in handling. The 
picking should be done early in the morning or late 
in the day when possible. The fruit should be re- 
moved to some cool place immediately, but should 
not be placed on ice, if possible to avoid it. They 
are almost universally marketed in quart baskets. 
Picking strawberries is one of the greatest problems 
t'hat confronts the grower. Some growers employ 
men, some boys, and some women. Perhaps the best 
results are obtained where women are employed to 
pick. One of the greatest, if not the greatest thing, 
in handling strawberries is to present them on the 
market in the very finest condition. When that is 
done, little trouble will be experienced to find a sale. 
It is much better, if you can get the pickers that will 
do so, to assort the fruit as it is picked. Great care 
must be exercised not to bruise the berry in picking 
or packing. By having large and small berries in 
the same box, the price realized will be less than if 
the fruit is properly graded. Put the large berries in 
one box and the smaller in another, and let the fruit 
at the bottom of fhe box be of the same size as that 
which is on top. Mix sizes bring only the price of the 
smaller ones. The smaller size rules. 

As to varieties, not all be as equally successful in 
every section, but the following have given the best 
results, as a rule, Lady Thompson, Brandywine, 
Wilson's Albany, Hoffman, Haverland, Sampler. 

FUNGOUS DISEASES. 

Diseases commonly known as rusts, blights, rots. 



mildews, etc., are known to botanists as fungous 
diseases. These fungous diseases are parasitic plant 
growths, t'hat grow on other plants, thus weaken- 
ing the host plant, upon or in which they grow, and 
causes them to cast their leaves, the fruit to become 
spotted or decayed, or the trunk or branches to be- 
come injured. These plants tliat cause so much trou- 
ble are very minute, and are frequently invisible to 
the eye. Most of these plants are more prevalent 
during moist and heat periods, although some, like the 
apple scab, grow in rather cold weather. 

Anything that will destroy a fungous plant is call- 
ed a fungicide. In growing fruits or vegetables it 
■becomes absolutely necessary to use fungicides ac- 
cording to formulas given hereafter. 

THE APPLE SCAB. 

The apple scab attacks t'he fruit and leaves of the 
apple and pear trees. It is an olive green spot fun- 
gous that grows during moist, cool weather. It feeds 
only on the skin' of the leaves or fruit, often causing ; 
the leaves to fall off during t'he summer. It does not 
disfigure the fruit unless it attacks it early in the 
season, when it will cause the fruit to fall off also. 
Its main effect on the fruit is to disfigure it, and de- , 
stroy its keeping qualities. The spores in this dis- 
ease are very minute and can only be seen by very 
close observation, and are often carried long dis- , 
tances by the wind. | 

Remedy. Spray with Bordeaux mixture when the ,1 
buds are swelling, and copper sulphate solution after J 
the fruit is nearly grown. j 

CEDAR APPLE FUNGOUS OR RUST. 



This disease is caused by a fungous which spends 
part of its life on the cedar. The disease causes 
small yellow spots on the under sides of t'he leaves, 
and sometimes on the fruit. Sometimes the leaves 
and fruit fall off. The disease attacks apples, pears,, 
and quince. 

Remedy. Where it is impossible to gather the ,j. 
cedar apples, and destroy them, the best thing to dO' 
is to cut down all cedars growing near apple trees.. 
Bordeaux mixture used as a spray in early spring' 
before vegetation starts is advisable. 



The Orchard Needs Fertilizers. 



Ill 



BLACK ROT. 

Blackrot is a disease that attacks the apple, pear 
and quince. The dying of the end branches, the 
dead patches of bark found on the branches and 
trunk are caused by this disease. It also attacks the 
fruit, and will be known by discolored patch and 
SDOts on the fruit. The injured parts are nearly 
black in color and studded over with pistulcs or 
bead-like projections in which the spores are produced. 
If it attacks the fruit, it finally cracks open and 
hangs on the tree over winter. 

Remedy. The tree should be sprayed with a solution 
of copper carbonate beginning soon after the fruit 
sets, and repeating if necessary two or three times. 

If trees are sprayed with Bordeaux mixture there 
will be less trouble with black rot as it acts as a pre- 
ventative. 



LEAF BLIGHT OR LEAF SPOT. 

This disease attacks the pear and quince, affecting 
the fruit, stems and leaves. The disease appears as 
soon as the leaves appear, and sometimes later, if the 
season is dry. It first appears as minute red dots 
about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter which af- 
terwards grows to an eighth of an inch in diameter. 
These cause the leaves to fall off frequently in the 
summer, it also attacks the fruit, causing it to crack. 
At first the spots are red and then turn black. On 
the quince the leaves may turn yellow before t'hey 
fall off. Sometimes a second crop of leaves appear 
and eren blossoms, but the wood, (at the end of year,) 
that year's growth bccomet hard and is considered 
dead, fails to ripen, in which case the tree is liable to 
injury during the following winter, or to an attack of 
fire blight during the following summer. 

j Remedy. By using everal applications of Bor- 
Ideaux mixture, the disease can be controlled in a great 
leasure. 

FIRE BLIGHT. 

This disease attacks apples, pears and quinces, al- 
though the pear is more subject to it than either of 
the other two. The disease is bacterial, and is some- 
thing similar to the yeast plant in habit of growth, 
ind develops very rapidly in moist, warm weather. It 
is a one-cell plant, this cell enters the tree in some 



soft part, per'haps the pistils of the flower, or some 
broken place on the bark. The disease is frequently 
transmitted from one part of the tree or flower to an- 
other by bees and other insects. The disease may not 
be noticed until t'he leaves are seen to wither on the 
branch or branches attacked. Sometimes it only at- 
tacks a small branch, while at other times, the whole 
tree will be affected. 

Remedy. The diseased part should be cut off as 
soon as the disease appears, as far back as the wood 
seems to be affected, and the part cut off burned. 
This is about the only thing that can be done. Every- 
thing possible to give the tree a vigorous growth 
should be done. 

PEACH SCAB OR BLACK SPOT. 

This disease is causea by excessive moisture espe- 
cially in close weather. It is more prevalent on low 
lands than on high lands, for the trees on high land 
are exposed to sunlight and air. When the fruit is at- 
tacked early in the season the growth is checked, the 
fruit falls off and sometimes cracks. If it spots the 
fruit, the sale of the fruit is injured. 

Remedy. Spray with a solution of Bordeaux mix- 
ture just before the leaves appear in the spring, using 
strong Bordeaux, (4-4-50) and when t'he leaves have 
opened, with a weaker solution, (4-4-200) will prevent 
the attack. It is a good idea to spray .again after the 
leaves have unfolded and then once or twice in the 
latter part of July and the first of August. Paris 
green should not be used on peach foliage, but arsen- 
ate of lead may be safely used. 

BROWN ROT. 

This disease attacks peaches, and plums and is one 
of the most serious affecting these fruits. It causes 
the fruit to rot and quite frequently attacks the twigs, 
doing serious harm. The diseased fruit turns brown, 
dries up and becomes covered with a gray fungous 
covering. The peaches that are dried up on account 
of this disease frequently remain on the trees all the 
winter, and should be removed and burned to pre- 
vent the disease being held over. 

Remedy. Spray with copper sulphate before ftuds 
swell, and with Bordeaux mixture before flowers open 
and again with Bordeaux when fruit is set. Repeat this 
at intervals of 10 to 14 days. Dusting the flowers 



I 



112 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



with sulphur when fruit is half grown, and repeated 
every lo to 14 days is advisable if Bordeaux mixture 
is not used. 

PEACH CURL. 

In seasons when the weather is warm and is fol- 
lowed by a very low temperature, the growth of the 
leaves is so checked, that this fungous finds the right 
conditions within which to grow. The leaves be- 
come short, thickened, and finally drop off, to be fol- 
lowed by another set of leaves a little later on. The 
disease is not very serious if the trees are healthy 
and in a good vigorous condition. 

Remedy. Spray with Bordeaux at least two weeks 
before the fruit buds open ; only one application is 
necessary to prevent this disease. If spraying has 
not been done and the disease appears, continuous 
cultivation and the application of nitrogenous ma- 
nures will throw off the diseased leaves and save the 
fruit crop. In case of San Jose scale in the same or- 
chard the lime, salt and sulphur wash may be used 
effectively against both scale and leaf curl at one 
spraying. 

PEACH YELLOWS. 

The exact nature of this disease is not fully under- 
stood, for no specific fungous or bacterial germs or 
growth have been discovered. The disease will be 
recognized by the premature ripening and high col- 
oration of the fruit, which is spotted with red in the 
fles'h. New buds develop on the trunk and branches 
and the winter buds sometimes unfold in the fall. 
Sometimes only one branch will be affected, but un- 
less it is remedied, the whole tree will be killed. The 
disease is very contagious and its spread should be 
prevented by the immediate removal and burning of 
all affected trees. On account of its cause being un- 
known there is little use of trying to doctor up the 
sick trees. It will be cheaper in the long run to re- 
move and burn the trees, for you run the risk of los- 
ing many by trying to save one. Fortunately this 
disease is seldom found in the South. 

PEACH ROSETTE. 

This disease is very similar to yellows. Small 
leaves are produced in small bunches of a yellow 



cast. It should be treated in the same way as yel- 
lows. 

BLACK KNOT, BLACK WART, ETC. 

Black Knot attacks plums and cherries. Many 
plum trees of European varieties are destroyed by 
this fungous. Affected branches swell on each side 
until the bark bursts, exposing a brown spongy mass. 
The spores which cause the trouble, enter the tree at 
some soft place and grow very rapidly, and soon 
cause the death of the trees. Old knots are black and 
dry. 

Remedy. — If the trees are badly affected by t'he dis- 
ease, the trees should be dug up and burned, as t'he 
disease rapidly spreads. Spraying with Bordeaux 
mixture (4-4-50) will help to hold the disease in 
check. 

SHOT-HOLE FUNGOUS. 

This disease appears as red circular spots that 
come on the nearly grown leaves. It attacks all 
plums, and will prove very destructive unless stop- 
ped by spraying. After a while the red or brown 
part of t'he leaf drops out, leaving a hole there, from 
which it gets its name. 

Remedy. Spraying as you would for Black Knot. 
PLUM POCKETS, PLUM BLADDERS. 

This disease attacks the fruit while it is young. It 
is death to plums, causing them to swell to their nat- 
ural size within a few days. They are first green or 
yellow and then as the spores develop on t'he outside 
they turn a grayish color and then a dark brown. 
The interior of such diseased plums is hollow. All 
leaves and fruit from diseased trees should be remov- 
ed and burned as soon as they fall, as the disease is 
very contagious. It is also recommended that tTie 
ground under the trees be sprinkled with air-slacked 
lime to prevent the disease from spreading. 

Remedy. Spray the tree with standard Bordeaux 
mixture before the buds swell. 

ANTHRACNOSE, SCAB, BIRD'S EYE ROT. 

This is a disease of the grape vine and attacks the 



Plow the Orchard in the Spring. 



113 



green parts of the vine during the growing season. 
Black or brown spots often appear on t'he leaves and 
the diseased tissue often cracks, leaving ragged 'holes. 
The disease appears on the fruit as brown spots with 
a narrow darker margin. Some varieties are more 
liable to attack than others, those containing Euro- 
pean blood, that is, those originating from crosses of 
European and American varieties, being more likely 
to be attacked than some of the native types. 

Remedy. The vines should be sprayed with Bor- 
deaux mixture before the leaves unfold, and two or 
three times during May or June will do much to keep 
the disease under control. 

Another Remedy. \Vash the vines with a solution 
of copperas in winter and spring. In addition to this 
in the summer regular sprays of Bordeaux may be 
used. Dusting with flowers of sulphur so soon as 
fruit is set, and repeated every ten days until fruit 
is coloring is advisable. 

BLACK ROT. 

This disease attacks grapes and first makes its ap- 
pearance known by brown or black spots on the 
leaves or shoots. Then the berries are attacked, and 
become black. In the center of the diseased spot may 
be found numerous black pistules which contain the 
spores of the fungous. 

Remedy. Thorough spraying must be done to keep 
the disease in check, using the standard Bordeaux 
mixture. 



tant that everything be done to secure a vigorous 
growth of the vine. 

Another Remedy. Spray with Bordeau.x mixture, 
just before, and after flowering. 

POWDERY MILDEW. 

This disease attacks the leaves, new growth ant 
berries of the grapes in the midsummer. The affect- 
ed parts are covered with white threads, by which the 
disease may be distinguished from Downy Mildew. 
This disease is a little similar to Downy Mildew, but 
it does not appear until after Downy Mildew. 

Remedy. The same treatment as for Downy Mil- 
dew. 

ANTHRACNOSE, CANE RUST. 

This disease is similar to Anthracnose, and attacks 
the raspberry. It appears on the young canes of the 
raspberry as small, round, light spots, with a purple 
ring. It appears in June or July and attacks the 
leaves sometimes. It is more damaging on old plan- 
tations than on those just settled. 

Remedy. Spray with copper sulphate solution be- 
fore buds break, then with Bordeau.x mixture just be- 
fore the leaves unfold, and once or twice after the 
leaves have opened, but before the fruit has set. The 
affected parts should be cut off and burned. 

CANE BLIGHT. 



DOWNY MILDEW OR BROWN ROT. 

This is a disease of the grape and affects the 
leaves, young wood, blooms and the berry. In moist, 
hot weather the disease is likely to do serious harm 
unless the vines are sprayed. On the leaves it ap- 
pears as green-yellow spots on the upper surface and 
with w'hite spots on the under surface. Then the 
white surface disappears and the leaves turn brown 
and dry up, In the gray rot the berry is covered 
with white powder. Such varieties containing for- 
eign blood, such as Delaware, Brighton, Rogers, 
Hybrids, etc., are especially subject to this disease. 

Remedy. Spray with a solution of copper carbon- 
ate before flowering and after flowering, then at in- 
tervals of from two to four weeks. It is quite impor- 

9 



This disease usually appears late in the summer, 
say in August. It appears in the form of a light 
brown spot attacking the lower leaves and working 
upward. If this loss of leaves occurs early in August, 
the damage is quite serious. 

Remedy. Use the same treatment as for Anthrac- 
nose. 

This disease affects the raspberry and the black- 
berry, and appears in the spring, attacking the leaves 
and canes. The attack is followed by large masses 
of yellow or golden spores, and finally the part at- 
tacked dries up. The spores, it is supposed, germin- 
ate in the summer and fall and grow in the tissues 
near the ground in the spring. 

Remedy. This disease is on the inside of the plant, 



114 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



consequently spraj'ing does little towards killing it 
after it has appeared. The best thing to do is to 
gather and burn all the affected parts, and after t'he 
fruit has been gathered in the summer, spray two or 
three times with Bordeaux mixture to prevent new 
spores from forming, and doing damage for the next 
year. There is another modification of this disease, 
called the Fall Orange Rust that appears in the fall 
instead of the spring. The same treatment as for this 
disease is recommended. 




Fig. 19. — Bud Stick with Bud Prepared for Insertion. 

STRAYBERRY LEAF BLIGHT. 

This disease attacks the strawberry, and makes it- 
self known by the reddish or brown spots that come 
so abundantly on the leaves in the spring or summer. 
This fungous grows very abundantly in warm, moist 
weather. 

Remedy. The best method or remedy is to dip the 
leaves of t'he plant in Bordeaux mixture before they 
are set in the spring, and then spray the plants after- 
wards several times. It is a good idea to spray in the 
spring just before the plants bloom. 

MILDEW 

This fungous attacks the strawi.jcrry plants and is 
a light grayish growth of the plant. It injures the 
berries. 



Remedy. The disease may be controlled by using 
Bordeaux mixture, or by dusting them with sulphur. 

BUDDING AND GRAFTING TREES. 

The practice of budding and grafting trees is that 
of changing the variety of a plant, or in some cases 
changing the plant altogether. For instance, if a 
fruit grower has a certain variety of peac'hes, of 
which he wishes more of the same variety, he can- 
not plant the seed of that variety and get it at all, 
but the small seedling tree must be budded or graft- 
ed. Grafting and budding are practiced for the same 
reason, but are different processes. Nearly all fruit 
trees t'hat are planted are grafted or budded trees. 
The [ilant on which the grafting is done is called the 
stock, and the part inserted in the stock is called the 
scion or bud. The scion as used for grafting refers to 
a twig consisting of one or more buds, the detached 




Fig, 20.— Tile Bud Inserted and Secured. 

bud is used for budding. The fundamenal principle in 
grafting is to bring the cambium layer, (which is the 
growing tissue between the bark and the wood) of 
t'he scion and the stock in contact with each other, and 
to keep them in contact until they unite and grow to- 
gether. There are several methods of grafting which 
will be discussed here; budding, scion .grafting, and 
grafting' bv .TP'^ronch. c^c. 



Don't Fail to Prune Your Fruit Trees. 



"5 



Budding is practiced with peaches, cherries, plums, 
and most stone fruits, apples, pears, etc. It consists 
in slipping a single bud under the bark of the stock. 
Budding may be done almost any time during the 
summer from June to September. June budding is 
done durmg June or early July. The work has to be 
done whenever there is a good flow of sap in the 
stock, and the bark can be separated easily. The 
stocks on which the buds are inserted should be as 
large as an ordinary lead pencil or a little larger. 
Peach stock as a rule are large enough the summer 
after they are planted, but stocks of all t'he other 
classes of fruit nnist be grown one year before. The 
buds are taken from twigs of the present season's 
growth, from a variety which it is desired to propa- 
gate. Select thrifty, vigorous twigs on which the 
buds are well developed and immediately trim off all 
the leaves except about a quarter of an inc'h of the 
stem of each. These leaf stems are a great conveni- 
ence in handling the bttds. If the twigs must be kept 
more titan a short time they should be wrapped in a 
wet cloth to prevent them from becoming dry and 
wilted. 

The only tool qeeded for the work is a sharp knife, 
and the knife must be very sharp so that it will make 
a perfectly smooth cut. Almost any good knife will 
do, but the most convenient form is one in which t'he 
edge makes a straight slope to the back at the point. 
When much work is to be done it will pay to buy a 
regular "budding knife," which will cost about fifty 
cents. One also needs a supply of the material. Raf- 
fia sold by all seedsmen and nurserymen, w'hicb 
is the best for peaches. A soft cotton yarn is very 
satisfactory and is used cjuite frequently. 

When ready for work wipe the sand and dirt from 
the stock at a place near the surface of the ground 
where a smooth, straight place can be foiuid. The cut" 
for the bud is made T-shaped, the cross cut being made 
first, and from one-half to three-fourths of an inch in 
length. Then make the perpendicular cut about an 
inch in length, and with a slight twist of the knife 
loosen the bark at the top of the cut. These cuts 
should barely go through tlie bark, and not into t'he 
wood. Fig. 19 shows t'he cut at a and the loosened 
bark at b. 

Then cut a bud from the twig, beginning tHe cu? 
about a half inch below the bud and continuing it 



half an inch above, as shown in Fig 20. This cut 
should be made so deep as to take a thin slice of wood 
with the bud, but too much wood should be avoided. 
Handle t'he bud by the short piece of leaf stem, and 
slip it gently under the loosened bark, bring the top 
of the bark above the bud down so that it will just 
fit the cross cut in the stock. 

The tieing should be snug but not so tight as to cut 
the bark. Begin at t'he bottom of the bud, bringing 
the first turn over the end of yarn to hold it fiom 
slipping, and then make three or four turns below, 




Fig. 21.— Cleet Grafting. 

and as many above the bud, being careful that the 
string does not come exactly over the bud, and that 
the loosened bark at the top of the cut is brought 
back into place. Fasten by making a loop, or by put- 
ting t'he upper part of the string into a slight cut 
made an inch or two above the bud. In two or three 
weeks the buds will have "taken" or died, and the 
tic should be removed. Nothing more needs to be 
done to September buds until t'he next spring, when 
the tops of the stocks should be cut off just above 
the bud. If the budding is done in June, the tops 
should be removed as soon as the buds begin to grow. 

GRAFTING. 

Grafting is practiced in many ways, but the more 
common ways are cleft, and whip or tongue grafting. 
Cleft grafting is done early in the spring, and is prac- 
ticed with large bunches. The scions are taken from 
the previous year's growth. Perhaps it will be well 
to explain what is meant by cleft grafting. This 
term is applied when the branch is sawed off, the 



ii6 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



stock made smooth with a knife, and split a little 
way with the chisel, and the scion^ after 'having been 
cut wedge-shaped inserted in the cleft, carefully ad- 
justing the inner bark of the scion to that of the stock. 
As a rule a scion is placed in each cleft, and if the 
stock is too large two scions are placed in each. Some- 
times it happens that fhe pinch of the cleft is too 
strong for the scions, which can be remedied by in- 
serting a short wedge. After the scion is inserted, the 
whole wound is coated over with grafting wax, whic'h 
must entirely exclude the air and moisture. The se- 
cret of success lies in making the inner bark of the 




Fig. 



!— Side Gnttmg. 



scion fit exactly against the inner bark of the stock 
and holding it there tightly, and excluding all air 
and moisture until there is complete union and the 
wound healed up. 

The following method which is termed side "bark 
grafting is recommended. All the tools necessary are a 
fine s'harp saw, and a keen cutting knife. Saw off the 
stock wherever desired, and with a knife, split the bark- 
about three quarters of an inph on opposite sides, as 
shown in Fig. 22, prepare scion by making a straight 
clean cut on one side only, as shown in Fig. 22. Then 
scrape the outside bark from the point of the scion as 
far up as the scion is set in the stock. Slip the scion 
down between the bark and wood of stock and cover 
well with wax. This method makes a better contact 
with the inner bark than cleft grafting does. The 
scion starts quicker and makes a stronger union and is 
less liable to split down. 

WHIP OR TONGUE GRAFTING. 

Whip or tongue grafting is employed in grafting 



seedling apples. The stock, and the scion should be 
the same size in whip grafting. The different steps 
in the progress are shown in illustrations : See Fig. 
23. The parts are held in place by a piece of cotton 
yarn or thread. 

In grafting by approach or inarching two branches 
from the different trees are brought together and 
united without detac'hing either branch from the 
original plant. This is done by cutting a piece of 
bark in the branches and bringing them together so 
that the cambium layer of one will come into close 
contact with the cambium layer of the ot'her. The 
branches are then bound together at the place of con- 
tact and waxed. After the union of the two is com- 
plete, the branch from the stock or mother plant is 
cut off below and above the place of union. This 
method is but little used except for such plants (es- 
pecially evergreens) as do not succeed by the former 
processes of grafting. 




FiE 



-Tongue or Whip Grafting. 



In all this work, wax must be used. The follow- 
ing receipt for making wax is given, and has been 
highly recommended: To four pounds resin and to 
one pound of beeswax add one pint of linseed oil. 
Put it in an iron pot and heat slowly, thoroughly 
mixing the same. Pour out into cold water and pull 
by hand until it assumes a light color, work into 
sticks, and place in a cool place until wanted. In 
using this wax, oil the hands, work the wax until 



I'.Iake the Farm Pleasant for the Ycun?;sters. 



117 



soft and press it tig^htly around the graft and thor- 
oughly cover the cracks. If the day be very warm 
when using, it is frequently better to wet the hands 
in cold water. 

TREE PRUNING. 

There is no subject of more importance to fruit 
growers than tree pruning. In order to do this ju- 
diciously, there are some general principles that are 
necessary to be understood. 

When a branch is cut off from a tree a wound is 
made. If the tree be in good health efforts will be 
made by the tree to heal that wound immediately. 
The bark, which is the protective covering of the tree, 
is gone, and the wood is exposed to decay. After a 
few years the wound will be frequently healed over. 
There are certain conditions that must be complied 
with before the wound will heal. Small wounds, 
other things being equal, heal more rapidl}' than 
large wounds. It is a well established fact that some 
parts of the tree grow more rapidly than other parts. 
Tliose branches directly in contact with the main food 
supply, receive more food than other branches not as 
favorably located. Bent and twisted 'branches do not 
grow so rapidly as straig'ht branches, either in length . 
or thickness. So these things being true, we can lay 
down the principle that those parts of the tree receiv- 
ing the most food suppl}' will heal the quickest. It is 
also noteworthy that a branch of any size cut off a 
few inches or more from the trunk of the tree does 
not usually heal over as rapidly as it would were the 
wound right at the trunk of the tree. \\'ounds on 
young trees or those growing vigorously heal more 
rapidly than wotmds on a mature tree. Wounds heal 
very rapidly on apple, pear and most of our shade 
trees. Wounds made on peach, plum, cherry and on 
the pine and other cone bearing trees are verv 
slow to heal. Wounds heal more rapidly when the 
trees are abundantly supplied with food. 

The stub, which is a piece of limb cut a few inches 
from the trunk of the tree, should never be left, for it 
is impossible for the wound to heal. Not only does 
it fail to heal, but decay sets up. Perhaps an illus- 
tration will help to understand the matter. Fig. 24, 
line 3, shows where the cut should be made to 
remove the branch. It is true a larger wound is 
made, but it will heal faster and better than it would 



if made away from the trunk or large branch. In 
other words, make the cut close to the part that is to 
remain and in making the cut hold the saw parallel 
to the branch or trunk from which the branch is re- 
moved. The cut should be made as smooth as possi- 
ble. No ragged or rough edges should be left. Never 
use an ax in pruning trees. It is far better never to 
cut off a branch, if it must be done with an ax. In 
removing a branch sometimes the weight of the 
branch causes the wood to split. If the branch 
be heavy saw it off a foot or two from the trunk 
of the tree, and then saw it off at the proper place. 
This will take more time but it will be far better than 
splitting it, and causing an ugly wound that may 
never heal. 




Fig. 24.— WTiere to cut and How tb Prevent Splitting. Cut 
in order of Numbers. 

A great many people do not know how to hold the 
shears to prevent them from bruising the tree. In 
making the cut, the cutting blade of the shears should 
work against the part of the tree or vine that is to 
remain, while the bruise is made on the part that 
drops off w'hen the cut is finished. See illustration. 
Fig- 25. 

When a wound is made by cutting off a branch, it 



ii8 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



leaves a part of the surface unprotected and bactefria 
enter and cause the wound to rot. The knot rots out 
and this leaves the heartwood exposed and it alsO' is 
apt to rot out, leaving the tree hollow. But all this 
can be prevented by placing something over the 
wound when it is first made that will prevent decay 
from taking place. Many things have been suggested 
and used to protect such wounds, such as tar, graft- 
ing wax, shellac and paint. Tar does well in most 
cases, 'but it sometimes prevents the healing of the 
wound. It should never be used on peac'h, plum, 
cherry or other stone fruit trees. Grafting wax is a 
good covering, but it frequently curls up around the 
edges and drops off. And then again grafting wax is 
often removed by the bees, leaving the surface ex- 
posed. Shellac often cracks and splits off. Of all 
substances that have been used from time to time, no 
material so nearly fills the bill of a good dressing for 
tree wounds as a pure lead paint made up with oil. 
It sticks well, does not crack or cliip off and is easily 
secured. The wound should be painted as soon as it 
is made. This applies to any wound where the cam- 
bium layer, which is the part between the bark and 
the wood, is exposed. While the paint does some 
good, remember t'hat it is inefficient when the wound 
is made five or six inches from the trunk of the tree. 
It is desirable that the wound be covered over as 
quickly as possible. 



on the farm and in the orchard and garden at this 
season and time is available for work. Wounds made 
at this time heal well. If it cannot be done then, the 
trees should be pruned in spring, just after they are 
.well out in leaf, but in all cases preference is given 
to the early spring period. Pruning sbould be a part 
of the regular care of shade and fruit trees. A regu- 
lar time each year should be set aside for this work, 
and the latter part of February or early March would 
suit most sections of the middle South. 

What to do With the Wood Removed. 

"Usually the branches which are cut from trees and 
vines are hauled into an old field, the edge of a wood 
or rome similar place, thrown into a heap and left. 
This should not be done. Frequently t'he branches 
are infested by insects and diseases. These may 
again find their way back to the growing trees. They 
are a menace to the health of the trees from which 
t'hey come, as well as to all other trees in the vicin- 
ity. Instead of disposing of the trimmings as indi- 
cated, they should be piled and burned in some place 
convenient for the purpose. Then the insects and 
fungous spores will be destroyed completely." 

Special directions are needed in the pruning of each 
class of fruit trees. We give such directions as are 
within the scope of this book. 



When to Prune. 

One of the Bulletins recently issued contained the 
following, and we reproduce it: "The pruning should 
be done at a time when the 'healing process may be- 
gin at once, or soon after the cut is made. For this 
reason alone the autumn and early winter months 
must be excluded. Growth will not begin until spring 
and in consequence five or six months might pass 
before the formation of callus starts. But there is an- 
other reason. The bark and wood in cold regions 
freeze, and t'he cambium layer may be injured and the 
wood will dry out and check. 

"It is not advisable to prune trees during the time 
w'hen growth is just starting in spring and the sap is 
in active motion. For at this time it will be well 
nigh impossible to protect the wound. The neces- 
sary coat of paint will not stick to the surface wet 
with sap that has bled from the tree. 

"Then the best time to prune is in the early spring 
before growth starts. There is usually less to be done 



Apples. 

When planting one year old apple trees, cut the 
stems back to 2 or 2 1-2 feet and remove all side 
branches. The object of this is to give the trees a 
permanent low body in order that the body being 
shaded by the head will prevent sun scale to whic'h 
high bodied trees are very liable to in the South. 

Two year old trees as received from nurseries 
'have usually been cut back the first year and their 
branches should be cut back to half their length. It 
is advisable that the heads should allow light and air 
by not being too crowded. After the third or fourt'h 
year all that is necessary is to cut back all branches 
that grow too tall, to one-half, so as to keep all the 
heads in uniform shape. Do not let one. branch over- 
weigh the ot'hers. 

Peach. 

Directions for pruning peaches are given under the 



Fruit is Cheap if Raised on the Farm. 



119 



head of Peaches, in the main part of this chapter. 

Pear. 

The same directions for the apple tree apply to 
the pear. 

plums. 

Same directions for pruning peaches apply to 
plums. 

Spraying. 

Tlie subject of spraying is thoroughly treated and 
considered under the head of Insects. We refer you 
to the Insect Department for information concerning 
this subject. 

FRUIT ON THE FARM. 

Every farmer should have a fruit orchard on his 
farm. Many farmers wonder why it is that their 
children do not like the farm. If the farm is made 
as attractive as it should be, and as it can be, this 
cjuestion will be solved. Where a farmer makes the 
effort to make his farm attractive, the children will 
be attached to it. Every farmer in the South can 
grow some kind of fruit, and should grow more than 
one class, but include apples, pears, peaches, plums 
and small fruits. It is of the utmost importance that 
farmers look after this department. It is the only 
way that the farm can be made attractive to the 
children. And then we must also consider the ex- 
pense account. When we have fruit on the farm, a 
great deal is saved in actual living expenses. With 
a good vegetable garden, fruit orchard and a poultry 
yard, no farmer can be starved. How often is it the 
case that the entire meal is made from these three 
sources. Yet 'how often do we hear men say that 
they have not time to look after the fruit. Now, we 
do not believe, as some people do, that fruit does not 
need attention, for we know that it does, but at the 
same time, it is claimed and justly so, that no time 
or money pays better than that which is expended 
in planting and looking after the fruit trees. A great 
deal of the canned fruit that is placed upon the mar- 
ket has preserving solutions added to it. But if one 
does not grow the fruit, he must either buy it and 
can it, or he must buy it ready canned. Now if he 
would devote a little time and money to the growing 
of a fruit orchard himself, he would save the neces- 



sity of buying canned fruit, which will cost him much 
less. The lack of suitable land need not deter any- 
one from planting trees, for you can always find a 
suitable place on some spot of the farm. It may be 
that you have nothing but an old hill-side, but you 
can get fruit from that place. Dig a large hole, say 
three feet in diameter and three feet deep, then take 
your wagon and haul from some bottom or some low 
place some good earth, mix this well with barnyard 
manure well decayed and use a liberal proportion in 
each hole. You can grow an orchard, if you will try. 
And this work can be done when you would not do 
any work otherwise. One acre is enough to grow a 
great deal of fruit on, and can have some to sell as 
a rule. The following list and number of trees may 
be placed on one acre of ground. Now this list is 
not suitable for all sections of the South, for some fruit 
will not grow in some sections, while it will grow in 
other sections. If any of the fruit that is placed in 
this list will not grow in your section, substitute a 
fruit that will grow. 

One or two vines of Muscadine grapes should be 
planted in the coast and Piedmont sections. 

16 Plum — One row, 15 feet for the row, 13 feet 
apart in the row. 

32 Peach — Two rows, 15 feet for the row, 13 feet 
apart in the row. 

16 Cherry (sour) — Two rows, 20 feet for the row, 
26 feet apart in the row. 

16 Apple — Two rows, 20 feet for the row, 26 feet 
apart in the row. 

16 Pear — Two rows, 20 feet for the row, 26 feet 
apart in the row. 

20 Fig — One row, 12 feet for the row, 10 feet apart 
in the row. 

45 Blackberry — One row, 4 feet for t'he row, 4 feet 
apart in the row. 

45 Dewberry — One row, 4 feet for the row, 4 feet 
apart in the row. 

20 Grape — One row, 10 feet for the row, 10 feet 
apart in the row. 

1050 Strawberry — Five rows, 3 feet for the row, 4 
feet apart in the row. 



J20 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE 

INCREASING THE SIZE OF THE FRUIT. 



Good size and large fruit bring the better price 
and sell more readily in the market than small size; 
fruit. In fact, small size fruit is most always sold at 
far below its real value. There are three chief things, 
says "Farmer's Review,*' that the orchardist can do 
to help his trees to produce large fruit. 

One of these things is to give good cultivation. 
The system of cultivation should be thoroug'h and 
should be continued year after year, and as often 
each season as it is necessary to keep the weeds 
down. It is surprising how quickly the weeds will 
take possession of the young orchard after the cul- 
tivator has stopped its work. In an old orc'hard the 
weeds do not bother so much, as t'he shade of the trees 
does not encourage their growth. 

The best method is to plow the land in the spring, 
if the orchard is young. Then put in the cultivator 
and later the harrow, keeping up the cultivation 'till 
the middle of the summer at least. During this time 
the fruit is increasing in size, and so are the buds for 
the fruit crop of next year. The land being kept free 
from weeds will be in shape to receive the air and 
t'he moisture, and the roots will get the benefit of 
both. The fruit on the tree will, therefore, have sup- 
plied to it the plant food in the soil to the extent 
that the roots can take it up. with the assistance of 
the water. Later in the season, cow peas or even 
field peas, or soy beans, should be planted and used 
for winter covering. If vetches can be grown so 
much the better, but the seed of the vetch is expen- 
sive. In the spring this winter covering should be 
plowed under a-nd the old regime recommended. Un- 
less the land is very ric'h, stable manure should be 
used, as this will help keep up the supply of plant 
food in the soil, which must go into the fruit. 

The second great means of increasing the size of 
the fruit is pruning. This is a matter that is too 
much neglected. Nearly all orchardists prune, but a 
good deal of the work is done in a very unscientific 
manner. The work can be done at a time when there 
is little else to be done. 

The third great means of improving the fruit is 
thinning. This is coming extensively into use with 
our tree fruits where it is desired to produce fruit of 



a good size and appearance. The thinning of plums 
and apples has been practiced to some extent by the 
horticulturists in our agricultural colleges, and has 
given good results. The practice has not, however, 
become common with t'he people. It is otherwise 
with peaches. They have been thinned more exten-' 
sively than have other fruits and with greater re- 
turns. The peach is largely water anyway and fhe 
taking away of half of the crop on the tree results in 
a very pronounced development of the remaining 
part. 

FRUIT NOTES. 

Neither the doctor nor t'he sheriff will have any 
professional errand on the farm where there is plen- 
ty of fruit raised. 

No one has failed as a fruit grower as long as he 
was willing to keep trying. 

No man was ever so poor that he could not set a 
few trees, and prune them, nor so poor that he could 
not plant a few seed and cultivate t'hem. 

There are few kinds of fruit that poultry will in- 
jure when it is growing. Therefore they make good 
scavengers, and insect gatherers among all kinds of 
berries, grapes and plums. 

Every farm porch should have some climbing vines, 
roses, crimson rambler, red, yellow rambler, jasmine, 
purple flowers; red or white honeysuckles. 

Close-netted woven wire, the riglit width is the best 
protection for trees from mice and rabbits. The 
right length may be measured and cut, and then it 
can be bent around a roller for the rig'ht shape. 

Nearly all orchard trees that are thrifty put out 
more branches than should be permitted to grow. An 
orchard should be gone over once a month during the 
early part of the season, and all of the sprouts rubbed 
off while it may be done with the fingers. Large 
sprouts and limbs sap the vitality of the tree. 

It pays to 'have wood ashes and spread them by the 
wagon load in the orchard. 

It is important with everytiiing that is set that it 



Fruit Ccn Always be Used. 



121 



should have a good start while it is growing. Every tant items. Fruit is worth double the money, if it is 
condition possible should be given to make it start within easy wagon reach of the customer. This 
off promptly. should always be considered when seeking a location. 



In the spring is the best time to give t'he orchard 
a shallow plowing. It loosens the soil, destroys the 
insects, and makes the trees grow. 

Very frequently it pays to undertake to grow un- 
desirable fruits and vegetables almost entirely un- 
known in the vicinity in which one lives. In this 
way, a good trade may be built up. 

Some orchardists claim that at least six things are 
necessary for a good orchard — climate, soil, location, 
well prepared setting, the right kind of fertilizer, and 
proper care. 

To have a good market is one of the most impor- 



The cultivator is worth more in the young orchard 
than guano. 

Better plant some crop like cotton or potatoes 
among your peach trees, whic'h will require clean cul- 
ture, and not be exhausting to the soil. Then fertil- 
ize it well. This will pay on the crop and help the 
land and the trees. 

To prevent borers, whitewash the trunks of your 
peach trees with coal tar and lime ; tliree gallons coal 
tar and one bushel of lime to fifty gallons of water. 
The odor of the tar prevents the fly from laying the 
eggs on the trees which produces the borer. 




I- 



N. 




Fig. 25. ajiowing How n> llukl iliu Shears in Pruning. 




Dutch Hyacinth. 



122 



Book IV. 
Floral Department. 



. . . EDITED BY . . . 

H. G. HASTINGS, 

FLORIST AND SEEDSMAN, 

Member Southern Florist Association. 
ATLANTA, GEORGIA. 



123 



124 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Flowers around the Home. 



A PLEA FOR MORE OF THEM.— BEST 
RIETIES AND BEST METHODS 
OF CULTURE. 



VA- 



We believe the time has come to make a plea for 
beautifying the surroundings of Southern 'homes, es- 
pecially the surroundings of the farm homes. 

It has been the writer's good fortune to travel over 
our broad land from Maine to California during the 
past dozen years, and he must confess that what has 
.surprised and pained him most was the absence of 
flowers and shrubbery around the farm homes in 
the South, as compared with other sections. 

We live in a part of our country that for ease of 
growing flowers cannot be equaled, yet the ones we 
have are few. In the years following the Civil War, 
yes, up to a few years ago, there was the excuse of 
poverty, the grinding poverty following the devasta- 
tion of war and the attempts at re-adjustment fol- 
lowing. All that has passed. The South has come 
into her own again and is growing in wealth by 
leaps and bounds, a wealth that finds its way into 
the hands of those who produce it. 

In many places are flowers and shrubbery unex- 
celled, and they grow to perfection, ^^'hy not all 
places? The time has come when we owe it to our 
families and to our own self-respect '".o beautify our 
homes and surroundings. It's well to spend fifteen 
to 'twenty dollars or more for a new plow or culti- 
vator to do better work, and it is also well to spend 
a dollar or two or more a year for flower seed and 
plants to beautify the home surroundings. It is due' 
to the wife and the daughters to give them attrac- 
tive surroundings, and having a home with suc'h 
surroundings, will go a long ways towards keeping 
those boys and girls on the farm when the attrac- 
tions of town and city life pull them away. A yard 
full of roses, flowers and shrubbery, and neatly bor- 
dered walks and green grass, make you proud to 
be known as its owner. The possession of such a 
place satisfies the desire that every woman has for 
the beautiful. It gives employment to her in the 
care of the flowers that is a welcome break in the 
regular duties of the home and makes her 'happier 
and more contented. The possession of a "beauti- 



fied" place gives its owner standing in the commu- 
nity, and last, but not least, it adds to the actual 
cash value of the place many times the cost. 

Do not think that we are advocating the expendi- 
ture of large amounts of money. We are not. It 
don't take much. The selling price of ten to twenty 
pounds of cotton every year invested in flower 
seed, plants or shrubbery will work wonders in the 
appearance of half of the Southern farm homes, and 
who among the readers of this book is so poor that 
he cannot afford to turn over to the wife or daugh- 
ter the small amount necessary to make a start tow- 
ards making your home surroundings such as you 
will be proud of? 

FLOWERS FROM SEEDS. 

It is not our intention to give a long and confus- 
ing list, but rather to give one of the more easily 
cultivated, yet satisfactory kinds. The direction^ 
given as to time of planting, varieties and methods 
of culture are based on seasons and soil such as are 
generally found in the middle South. Planting 
north or south of that section must be varied accord- 
ing to your location. If your soil is a- peculiar one, 
you may have to do a little experimenting with va- 
rieties to find out just what will do the best for you. 

Flowers from seed are divided into two general 
classes, the annuals, such as Petunias, Balsams, Nas- 
turtiums, etc., blooming the first season and the bi- 
ennials and perennials, which usually do not bloom 
until the second year after planting, but are of more 
permanent nature, lasting two or more years. Of 
this latter class t'he Carnations and Dahlias are an 
example. Based on northern conditions, these do 
not bloom the first year, but in the middle or lower 
South they will almost always show more or less 
bloom in late summer and fall of the first year, but 
do not reach perfection until the second year. The 
annual varieties are t'he most generally planted, as 
they show results quickly, still the real lover of 
flowers will not neglect the biennials and perennials. 

HOW TO SOW FLOWER SEED. 

With few exceptions, flower seed are small, and 



Money Invested in Flowers is Never Lost. 



125 



sowing them by the inexperienced often results in 
failure, either partial or complete, because a few 
simple rules are not followed out. There is nothing 
mysterious about success with flowers. It requires 
care and a little common sense. With these, failure 
is almost impossible. It is work that cannot be left 
to a negro farm hand or laborer. It must receive 
careful attention. By observing closely the follow- 
ing rules for sowing flower seed you will have little 
cause for complaint or failure. 

The Soil. — A mellow loam, which is a medium 
earth between the extremes of clay and sand, en- 
riched with a compost of rotten manure and leaf 
mold, is adapted to t'he generality of flowering plants. 
Previous to planting flower beds or borders, care 
must be taken that they are so arranged that the 
jlground may be a little elevated in the middle; that 
Ithe water may run off, and that the plants may show 
!off to better advantage; 

I Planting the Seed. — Make the surface as fine and 

jsmoofh as possible. Cover each sort of seed to a 

jidepth proportionate to its size ; the finest, like Petu- 

Ijnias, etc., should be merely sprinkled on the surface 

lOf the ground, and barely covered with finely sifted, 

lilight, mellow soil ; press the soil down firmly over 

jthe seed with a brick or a short piece of board. For 

illarger seed the depth should be regulated according 

"to the size of tlie seed, those of the size of a pin head 

|one-half inch deep, and those the size of a pea three- 

jfourths of an inc'h or more. Procure a bit of lath 

I (it would be 'better if planed smooth) about two 

feet long, press the edge down into the soil evenly, 

so as to make a groove as deep as the seed is to be 

planted, scatter the seed along this, allowing 4 or 5 

lof the larger to i or 20 of the smaller seed to the 

space one plant is to occupy when grown. Cover 

jithe seed by pressing t'he earth over it, then turn 

your lath flatwise and press the soil down firmly. 

ton light, sandy soils flower seed should be covered 

(twice the depth that they should be in stiff or heavy 

clay soils. 

Sowing in Boxes. — Almost all flowers will stand 
(transplanting. Many of them grow better for hav- 
;jing been transplanted. In sections liable to late 
tepring frosts, or where drouth comes in spring, it 
IS advisable to sow seed in shallow boxes which can 



be placed in a warm sunny window or on a porch. 
This is always advisable with the expensive seed 
and those of a tropical nature, such as Coleus, Salvia, 
etc. These need a warm soil to start the seed. Sow 
the same as in open ground, and keep the soil moist, 
but not soaking wet. If surface of soil shows ten- 
dency to cake or crust, scratch it lightly to break 
the crust. Small seed cannot force their way 
through a crusted surface. As soon as the plants 
reach a heig'ht of 2 or 3 inches they may be trans- 
planted to open ground, taking as much earth from 
the box as possible with each plant so as not to dis- 
turb the roots more than is necessary. 

AGERATUM. 

A favorite garden flower for the South. It is a 
native of Mexico and easily stands long, hot sum- 
mers. Can be grown anywhere in the South suc- 
cessfully, and stays in bloom all summer and fall. 
Sow seed in open ground beds early in April or 
earlier in boxes. Plants grow i to i 1-2 feet high 
with light green foliage, surmounted by clusters of 
tassel-like flowers. Very quick growth and profuse 
bloomers. It comes in two colors, blue and white. 
— Annual. 

ALYSSUM. 

Very free flowering annual beginning to bloom in 
earliest spring and continuing until hot weather. 
Seed may be sown in open ground January to March. 
Makes an excellent border plant, growing 8 to 10 
inches 'high. The most commonly used variety is 
what is catalogued as "Sweet Alyssum." The va- 
riety known as "Little Gem" is a very dwarf one, 
growing only 3 or 4 inches high and when in full 
bloom the plants are literally covered. The "Little 
Gem" is especially desiral)le for border work. All 
the varieties are pure white. 

ABRONIA. 

More commonly known as the "California" or 
"Land Verbena" and especially well adapted to the 
sandy and lighter soils of the lower South, as it is a 
trailing plant that grows well in rather dry open 
soil. Seeds should be sown in open ground where 
plants are to stand, about April ist. There are nu- 



126 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



merous varieties of Abronia, but they are usually of 3 inches high and may be transplanted into beds in 
yellow and pink shades. tlie open. In this way t'hey can be brought into 

bloom in early June. They are also good fall bloom- 
ers and with this in view seed can be sown in May 
and June.- The Aster grows luxuriantly in any good 
garden soil and the quantity of bloom from even a 
small bed will well repay yon. Extra large flowers 
can be made by disbudding and only leaving a few 
blossoms on each plant. 




Fig. 1. — Abronia, or Sand Verbena. 

AMARANTHUS. 

A class of annual plants grown both for the foli- 
age and showy flower clusters. They grow quickly 
and may be sown in open ground in March or April. 
There are four varieties in common use; Amaran- 
t'hus Candatus, or "Love Lies Bleeding,"' has plants 
of stiff, erect growth, 2 to 3 feet high with sprays 
of rich, crimson flowers. Amaranthus Tricolor, or 
"Joseph's Coat," has a single erect stalk and bril- 
liantly colored leaves when full grown. The rich, 
yellow and red markings are very distinct, contrast- 
ed with the deep green foliage. Amaranthus Cruen-- 
tus, or "Prince's I'^eather," comes froin Asia. Tall 
growing wit'h purplish green leaves. Heavy feath- 
ery heads which droop, giving a beautiful effect. 
Amarantlms Salicilolius, or "Fountain Plant," grows 
2 to 3 feet higli, branching freely and of pyramidal 
shape. The slender branches grow with a drooping 
habit, producing a graceful effect like the spray of 
a fountain. ,We do not recommend planting any of 
the Amaranthus in t'he lower South. 

ASTERS. 

These are favorites everywhere, a sort of early 
summer substitute for the Chrysanthemum. In the 
middle and lower South every effort should be made, 
if perfection is to be had, to start them early so that 
the blooming stage may be reached before t'he ex- 
treme heat of midsummer arrives. Seed should be 
sown in shallow boxes in the house in February or 
first of March. By time danger from frost is past, 
usually the middle of April, the plants will' be 2 or 




Fig. 2. — Asters. 

The varieties of Asters are almost innumerable 
and it is usually the most satisfactory to- buy genei 
al mixtures sold by the different seedsmen. The 
principal and most highly improved types are tlu- 
Chrysanthemum and Paeony Flowered. Victoria. 
Comet, Triumph and Branching. All of these can 
be had in various colors. 



He Who Makes Home Happiest Succeeds Most. 



127 



ANTERRHINUM OR SNAP DRAGON. 




Fig. 3. — Antirrhinum, or Snapdragon. 

An old-fashion flower that has been greatly im- 
proved in recent years. Seed sown in early spring 
will produce some flowers the following fall and will 
reach perfection the following year. Comes in va- 
rious colors. Sow seed in open ground in ^Nlarch and 
April. 

BALSAM, (Touch-Me-Nct, or Lady Slipper.) 

An interesting flower furnishing plenty of flowers 
in the bed and when the seed pods form are a source 




Fig. 4. — Camellia Flowered Balsam, or Lady Slipper. 



of almost endless amusement to the children. These 
seed pods burst, wlien fully rijie, at the slightest 
touch, scattering the seeds in all directions. A few 
plants of these, at least, ought to be in every gar- 
den. Most easily grown and the wax-like flowers 
produced so abundantly show elegant s'hades of 
color and markings. There are numerous varieties, 
the best of which are the Camellia Flowered, Rose 
Flowered and Double Spotted. 

Seed should be sown in open ground as soon as 
danger of frost is past or earlier in protected boxes. 
For best results and full development the plants 
should stand about a foot apart in the beds. 

BELLIS PERENNIS, (or Double English Daisy.) 




Fig. 5.— Bellis Perennis. or Double Daisy. 

Suited best to cool, moist locations and is not re- 
commended for the lower half of the South. Seeds 
sown in October will bloom the following spring; 
spring sown seed the next fall. After once estab- 
lished they bloom in both fall and spring for many 
years and in general should have the same treat- 
ment as violets. 

CARNATIONS. 

A famous florist's flower and a favorite e\ery- 
where, easily grown from seed, if sown in either 
boxes or carefully protected beds. Transplant to 
open ground when the young plants are 4 to 5 
inches high. The Double German (comes in mixed 
colors) and the French Grenadin (scarlet) 'do not 
reach perfection until the second season. During 
the past few years three distinct new varieties have 
been introduced which bloom in 4 to 5 months from 
seed. These are the Marguerite, the Grant Mar- 
guerite and Chaband. For quick results in bloom 



i2<: 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



use these latter varieties althoug-h they are neither 
as double or sweetly scented as the German. 



M' ■ 







Fig. 6. — Carnation Pinlis. 
CACALIA, (Tassel Flower.) 

Curious flowering plants growing 14 to 18 inc'hes 
high and producing little red and yellow tassel-like 
flowers. Seed should be sown in beds in open 
ground as soon as danger of frost is past. 

CANNAS. 

A splendid plant for decorative effect in all parts 
of the South. A quick grower with large tropical 
looking leaves, and among the later introductions 
arc many fine flowered varieties. The canna in its 
earlier days was known as "Indian Shot" and at that 
time had no value except for its foliage, but with use 
of large flowering French varieties it furnishes both 
the decorative effect as well as being worthy of cul- 
tivation for its various colored orchid-like bloom. 

Cannas can be grown from seed, but the quickest 
and most satisfactory way is to obtain the roots of 
,\he best varieties (obtainable from florists and many 
sieedsmen) and plant them in well manured soil in 
iVlarch and April. These roots should be placed 12 
tQ 15 inches apart each way and covered about three 
iijches deep. After t'he plants appear above ground 
kfeep the surface of the soil worked and free from 
gl-ass and weeds. The different varieties grow from 



3 to 7 feet tall and will continue to bloom until kill- 
ed by frost. If the roots are protected from freez- 
ing they will last for years. A covering of leaves 
several inches deep or coarse stable manure or litter 
will carry them through any ordinary winter in the 
central South. 

If you wish to grow cannas from seed you should 
sow seed in boxes of finely sifted garden soil in Feb- 
ruary and March and keep the box in a warm sunny 
place. T'he seeds have an exceedingly hard outer 
covering which should be filed through before plant- 
ing. If not cut or filed through canna seeds will fre- 
quently remain dormant in the ground for several 
years without sprouting. 




Large Flowering French Cannas. 

As soon as the young plants show 4 or 5 leaves 
they may be transplanted to open ground and tre;»t- 
ed the same as plants from the roots. 

If a fine tropical effect is wanted there is nothing 
that will give it so quickly and at suc'h little expense 
as the canna. 

COLEUS. I 

The coler.s cr.n almost be called nature's paint box. 



Don't Buy Seed Because They Are Cheap. 



129 



Grown only for their various colored leaves which 
make a splendid display. Millions of coleus plants 
are used each year in bedding in city parks and as it 
is so easily and quickly grown there is no reason 
why the dwellers in the country should not enjoy 
them. The coleus is a plant of tropical nature and 




Fig. S.— Bybrid Colens. 

cannot well be carriefl through the winter except in 
green-'houses. The plants can be obtained of any 
florist in the spring or can be grown from seed which 
should be sown in boxes in February or March and 
kept in a warm sunny window. Seeds should not be 
covered more than one-eighth of an inch with very 
finely worked soil. The young plants when once up 
should never be exposed to cold. As soon as danger 
of frost is past transplant to open ground. The 
Coleus, like the canna, delights in warm, sunny sit- 
uations and usually the warmer the sun the more 
highly colored will the leaves be. 

CHRYSANTHEMUMS. 

Another specially good plant for the South, and 
•while it can be grown from seed, yet it is almost al- 
ways advisable to purchase named varieties from 
florists. There are something like 3,000 varieties, of 
all sizes, shapes and colors and the lover of flowers 
can c'hoose their own varieties in color and style. 
The young plants should be set in the open ground 
where they are to stand as soon as danger of frost 
is past. Left to themselves they will produce large 
numbers of flowers from one to three inches in dia- 
meter. Most of us have seen the fancy "exhibition" 
blooms of the chrysanthemum, six to eight inches 
in diameter. These are easily obtained by high 'cul- 
tivation and the practice of "disbudding" by which 
means the whole strength of the plant is thrown in- 



to one or two blooms. For general yard culture this 
is not advisable and is only used to produce extra 
large flowers. 

In growing c'hrysanthemums from seed the same 
care should be taken as with coleus. Usually the 
plants will not bloom until the second season. 

The chrysanthemum is perfectly hardy in the cen- 
tral South and the roots will stand through the win- 
ter without protection. The clumps of roots should 
be taken up and divided every two or three years, 
however, if the plant is to be kept up to the stand- 
ard in quality of the bloom. 




Fig. 9. — Japanese and Chinese Chrysanthemums. 



COSMOS. 

Very handsome, free flowering, annual plant, thor- 
oughly adapted to all parts of the South. Usually 
grow 4 to 5 feet high with finely cut foliage. Flow- 
ers are borne freely from August until frost and show 
various sliades of color ranging from crimson to 
white. Sow seed broadcast in open ground as soon 
as danger of frost is past. Keep free from weeds 
''and grass. Beyond this they need no special treat- 
ment and if the flowers are left uncut they can 



10 



130 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



usually be depended on to re-seed themselves for the 
next year. 




rig. 10.— Single Flower of Cosmos. 
DAHLIA3. 

No flower in recent years 1 as r'.-own r^reater im- 
provement than has the Dahlia and it is adapted to 
all parts of the central South. 

The introductions of the last seven or ei.^ht years 
produce flowers of the largest size and striking bril- 
liancy of colorinr^ ar.d the more we see of the im- 




■**v««:* 



Fi:;. 11— DouMe Dahlia. 

proved strains the more pleased we are with the 
Dahlia and are confirmed in our belief that it will 
rival the Clirysanthenumi. Dahlias are generally 
^rown from roots, which can be purchased from 
fiorists under name or color so th:'.t }-ou know what 
you nre getting both in form and color. 



They are easily grown from seed, usually bloom- 
ing in the fall of the first season. Seed should be 
sown in shallow boxes in the house in February or 
March and kept in a warm, sunny window. When 
plants are 3 to 4 inches high and danger from frost 
is past, transfdant to open ground, two to three feet 
apart. Plant in rich or well manured soil and keep 
free from weeds and grass. 

When frost kills the tops, cut them off near the 
ground and cover with 6 to 8 inches of coarse ma- 
nure, leaves or grass. This mulch should be weight- 
ed down with a li.tle dirt to keep from blowing away 
during windy weather in winter. 

Such protection is ample to protect them in any 
ordinary winter in the central South. 

The most satisfactory varieties are the double sorts, 
although some prefer the single ones on account of 
their greater freedom of blooming. No collection of 
flowers in the South is complete without at least a 
few dahlias of the best varieties and they will well 
repay the small expense and trouble. 

DIANTHUS OR GARDEN PINKS. 

Popular everywhere and with cvcry1)oi!y and can 
be grown successfully anywhere South. They bloom 
freely from early spring sown seed the first season. 
but larrer and better blooms come the second vear. 









^^ 







Fig. 12. — Mixed Dianthus or Garden Pinks. 



Don't Fail to Give the Ladies all the Help They Need in the Flower Yard. 



131 



No trouble, as they need no protection in winter. 
Seed should be" sown as soon as the trees start to 
bud in the spring, covering the seed not over 1-2 
inch, \\nien well up, say 4 inches high, transplant 
to the borders or beds where thev are to remain. 
I There are dozens of varieties, all of them pretty and 
many of them showing most beautiful markings. 
( Most seedsmen make up mixtures containing a do?- 
; en or more of the best varieties and unless you want 
I some special color it is usually best to buy seed in 
these mixtures. If a double white pink only is want- 
ed, purchase Dianthus Chinensis Alba, as listed in 
most catalogues. There is hardly a flower that will 
give more lasting and satisfactory results than the 
Dianthus or Garden Pink. 



inches apart. Comes in two colors, blue and white. 

HELIOTROPE. 

A garden favorite, easily grown from seed, but not 
adapted to open ground bedding except in partly 
shaded locations. Heliotrope is better adapted to 
pot or box culture to be kept on porches. Seed 
should be planted in boxes in February or March 
and kept in warm, svniny situations. Seed s'hould 
not be covered over 1-4 inch. Flowers are exceed- 
ingly fragrant, a single spray often perfuming an en- 
tire room with a most delicate perfume. 

HOLLYHOCK. 



DELPHINIUM, r Larkspur.) 

I For the central South only, as it does not do well 

I toward the Gulf. This is a quick growing, very free 

II flowering plant in various colors, which come in both 
I doubles and singles. Seed should be sown in earliest 
I spring in open ground beds and when well up should 
j be thinned out to about 10 inches apart for best re- 
{ suits. They . lake a pleasing display and are very 
Jl satisfactory. 

ESCHSCHOLTZIA, (or California Poppy.) 

ij A most popular bedding plant, as it stands hot sun 

well. Sow seed in spring as early as ground can be 

worked, scattering seed thinly over the surface and 

|i raking in very lightly. They grow quickly and are 

'' fairly covered with large showv flowers and make a 

most brilliant display in open ground beds. 

GAILLARDIA. 

Well adapted to our section and often called 
"Blanket Flower."' It thrives on poor and rather 
dry soils and the plants are covered with large, 
showy flowers of many colors all throug'h the sea- 
son. Sow seed in early spring, broadcast in beds, 
covering seed lightly by raking in. 

FORGET-ME-NOTS. 

Favorites all through the central South for either 
i .borders or beds. Sow in open ground as early as it 
I is possible to work it. When well up thin out to 5 




Hollyhocks. 



Adapted to central South, but not to the Gulf 
Coast section. Easily grown from seed, but does 
not bloom much until the second season. When 
once well established they will last for years. Seed 
should be sown in early spring in boxes or protect- 
ed beds and when 6 to 8 inches high they should be 



,-,2 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



transplanted to w'here they are to stand permanent- and grass and you will have a mass of flowers. T^» 
!y, placino- them I 1-2 to 2 feet apart in the row. tall African varieties are best, growing i i-2 to 2 
They grow 5 to 6 feet tall and are fairly covered feet tall with finely cut foliage. The French varie- 
with blooms of various colors, ranging from white to ties have smaller flowers of deeper color and fre- 
deepest crimson. We do not consider the old single quently do not grow over 6 inches high and are gen- 
varieties of much value, tut the double varieties in- erally not considered so desirable as the African, 
troduced in recent years are well worth the atten- 
tion of everv lover of flowers. 



IBERIS OR CANDYTUFT. 



A well-known favorite North, but only adapted to 
the hill and mountain sections of the South. Seed 
should be sown as soon as ground can be worked in 
spring and thinned out to 4 or 5 inches apart when 
well up. Hot, dry weather destroys the beauty of 
the bloom and unless it can be planted early it is 
best to let it alone. 

LANTANA. 

Easily grown from seed and good for all parts of 
the South. It is a strong growing plant, almost a 
shrub in Florida and Gulf Coast sections. Sow seed 
in boxes, in warm, sunny window in March, trans- 
planting to open ground as soon as danger from 
frost is past. They will begin putting on verbena- 
like bloom in June and July, which will continue un- 
til frost. 

MARVEL OF PERU. 

Also known as "Mirabilis," and "Four O'Clocks." 
It is a very showy, free flowering annual, which gets 
its name from its peculiar manner of remaining open 
only during the hottest part of the day, the flowers 
closing tightly about four o'clock in the afternoon. 
Flowers all the way in color from white to carmine. 
Sow seed in open ground when danger of frost is 
past and ground is warm, thinning out when well up 
to one foot apart. They grow 2 to 3 feet tall and 
branch out freely. 

MARIGOLDS. 

An easily grown favorite for those liking yellow 
and orange colored flowers in abundance. They do 
splendidly anywhere in the South. All the culture 
necessary is to sow seed in any good garden soil as 
soon as danger 'of frost is past ; keep clear of weeds 




Fig. 14. — African Marigold. 



NASTURTIUMS. 



These might well be termed "Everybody's Flow- 
er," for there is nothing of easier culture or that will 
reward the sower in the South with such a wealth 
of bloom of brilliant and gorgeous shades of color 
from early summer until frost. No flower garden is 
complete without them and no one hardly is so poor 
that a nickle or a dime can not be invested in a 
packet of seed. We don't know of a flower listed in 
any seedsman's catalogue that will give so great re- 
sults for the little time and money spent as Nastur- 
tiums. 

Sow seed thinly in any good garden soil when 
leaves are well out on the trees, covering seed 1-2 
to 3-4 of an inch. When well up, thin out the Dwarf 
varieties to 10 inches apart and tall varieties to 6 
inches. The Dwarf varieties are of rather low grow- 
ing, bushy form, the tall varieties are essentially 
climbers and should be placed where they can have 
a chance to climb or at least be supported. It is 
usually best to buy the "Mixed" nasturtiums, which 
can be had of any of the larger seedsmen in both the 
Dwarf and Tall varieties. If you are only going to 
plant one kind of flowers let that be Nasturtiums. 



Make Home as Beautiful and Attractive as Possible. 
PANSIES. PETUNIAS. 



133 



These are always favorites, but for best results in 
ze of fiowers and richness of coloring the seed 
j should be sown in September or October and the 
I young plants covered during severe winter weather 
iwith leaves or litter which should be removed when 
I warm spring days come. The plants make little 
I growth during winter, but attain size quickly in ear- 
ly spring and are soon covered with flowers which 
continue until hot weather. The advantage of fall 




Fig. 15. — Extra Large Pansy. 

sowmg is that the plants get to full size and perfec- 
Htion during the cooler weather, which the spring 
[jlsown seed do not have a chance to do. 

There is a great difference in quality of pansy 

iseed, ranging as it does in price from 5 to 50 cents 

ijiper packet. The difference usually lies in the size 

jlicf t'he flowers and richness of coloring. These high 

i priced varieties should only be bought by experts or 

jjithose wishing to produce specially large flowers. 

|l0ur experience has been that the average person 

I can get just about as much satisfaction out of such 

''strains as "French Mixed" and the "English Face" 

pansies selling at 10 and 15 cents per packet as from 

iilthe more expensive kinds. The so-called "Fine Mix- 

,ed" pansy usually sold at 5 cents are almost invaria- 

;ably small flowered, lacking both large size and good 

<\ Icolors. 



Another splendid plant for outdoor beds, some- 
thing that will last all summer and most easily 
grow. Seed should be sown in good garden soil 
when leaves start on the trees in spring. Scatter 
seed very thinly in the beds and barely cover with 
earth, as seed is almost like fine dust. They can al- 
so be started earlier in boxes in the house and trans- 
planted. Many prefer what are known as "solid 
colors," which are found in the best mixed strains. 
With us, we have always preferred t'he so-called 
"Striped and Blotched," as this gives much greater 
variety in the markings and beauty of the flowers. 
I'he "Giant Fringed" introduced in recent 3fears, are 
most beautiful, but have none of the vigor and har- 
diness of the more common sorts. These above 
mentioned are all single varieties. The Double Pe- 
tunia is most beautiful, but not over 50 to 60 per 
cent, come double from seed, and as the seed of the 
double is very expensive and also delicate, we con- 
sider it best to buy plants of t'he double varieties 
from florists rather than attempting to grow from 
seed. 




Fig. 16. — Single Petunias. 



PHLOX DRUMMONDII. 

Easiest grown of all annual flowers in the South 
and one of the best. Seed should be sown as early 
as soil can be worked in spring, .sowing broadcast, 
thinly in the beds and covering by raking in lightly. 
Xo flower grown gives so wide a range of colors or 
variations nor is so good for early display bedding. 
Beds of phlox, if left unpicked will usually re-seed 
themselves and come up next year. It is fully adapt- 



134 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



ed to any part of the South and all varieties are 
good. What is known as "Phlox Grandiflora" gives 
flowers nearly twice the size of t'he other varieties. 




hottest part of summer, continuing until killed by 
frost. It delights in the warmest and sunniest sit- 
uations. Sow seed in open ground when leaves on 
the trees are in full leave and the soil becomes warm, 
or may be started earlier in boxes and transplanted 
when danger of frost is past. For full development 
plants should be set i8 to 20 inches apart each way. I 



Fig. 17. — Phlox Grandiflora. 



RICINUS OR CASTOR BEAN. 

While not properly a flower, the ornamental varie- 
ties are very useful for planting' for decorative pur- 
poses with their tropical appearance and quick growth 
from seed. A plentiful supply of these grown near 
a house is said to keep away mosquitoes. Although 
we can not vouch for the truth of this mosquito 
statement, we do know that it makes a splendid de- 
corative plant in yards or on lawns. 

POPPIES. 

We like poppies with all their gorgeous display of 
color in late spring and early summer. We must 
confess our inability to make a success of them from 
seed sown in late spring. Best results have been 
obtained by sowing seed November to February. 
The seed sown at that time does not come up until 
spring, but that early sown seed gives good bloom 
where the others don't. The poppy finishes bloom- 
ing in June with us. Seed is fine as dust and should 
be sown thinly broadcast and raked in very lightly. 

SALVIA SPLENDEUS, (Scarlet Sage.) 

Universally popular in the .South for a bedding 
plant to furnish a blaze of brilliant scarlet in the 




Fig. IS. — Double Poppies. 



SWEET PEAS. 



Not generally successful in Florida and the sandy 
soils along the Gulf Coast. In the central Soutli 
they are a perfect success when rightly planted. Our 
methods here near Atlanta are as follows : In Jan- 
uary or February, dig out trenches or rows to a 
depth of 15 to 18 inches. Fill this up to within 6 
or 7 inches of the surface with a mi.xture of thor- 
oughly rotted manure and top soil. Never use fresh 
manure. If you do your sweet peas will he a fail- 
ure. Sow the seed at the rate of i ounce of seed to 
every 8 or 10 feet of row and cover about 2 inches. 
You need not be afraid of freezing, as they have al- 
ways proved hardy and resistant to cold here. As 
the plants grow, fill in the trench until even with 
the surface. Support must be given, as they grow 4 
to 5 feet high. For this we 'have never found any- 
thing better than the ordinary wire netting used for 



Not Every Man that Raises Corn and Cotton is a Successful Farmer. 



135 



fencing in poultry yards. As the plants grow, keep 
the soil near them cultivated and by the end of May 
the flowers will begin to appear. If kept closely 
picked, the blooming period will last 6 or 7 weeks 
and you will be well repaid for any trouble you have 
taken. The worst enemy to success with sweet peas 
is the short period of hot, dry weather that usually 
comes in May or June. If seed is planted in trench- 
es, as described above, the roots are down below the 
reach of any ordinary drouth and will not be af- 
fected and you will have an abundance of bloom. If 
seed is planted within 2 or 3 inches of the surface 
the vines usually "fire" and die before blooming size 
is reached, from late spring drouth. Now, as to 
varieties. It is usually best to buy the "Mixed 
Sweet Peas." The largest seedsmen make up blend- 
ed mixtures giving a great variety o£ colors. These 




Fig. 19. — Sweet Peas. 

mixtures are usually sold at prices of 10 cents per 
ounce. Or 60 to 75 cents per pound and you can 
usually depend on these to be good. Don't buy the 
cheap mixtures sold at from 30 to 50 cents per lb. 
They are usually made up of the poorer colors and 
: discarded varieties. 



ilar culture to "Dianthus" described on a preceding- 
page. Very few .flowers appear the first season, but 
they are in their prime the second season. They 
come in various colors and in double and single va- 
irieties. A\'e prefer the single varieties as showing 
the most perfect development and greatest beauty. 
Very satisfactory in the central South. 

VIOLETS. 

A favorite Southern plant blooming in late fall, 
winter and early spring. Makes a splendid border 
plant and is most easily propagated by dividing the 
roots of well grown plants. Easily grown from seeds, 
however, and should be sowed and grown according 
to directions given for pansies. 

VINCA. 

An almost unknown flower, yet for bedding in the 
South, especially the lower South, it has few equals. 
Seed should be sown as soon as danger from frost is 
past. They will begin blooming in early summer 
and continue until frost. The bloom is shaped like 
p'hlox, but is two or three times as large. Comes in 
several colors. 



VERBENA. 




Fig. 20. — Mammoth Flowered Verbena. 



SWEET WILLIAM. 



Seed should be sown in early spring in boxes, or 
later in open ground. Is very easily grown, but 
seems to do best in partly shady situations. Plant- 
A member of the "Pink" family and requires sim- ing of this is not advised for the sandy soils of the 



136 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Gulf Coast. They begin blooming early and con- 
tinue until midsummer. 

ZINNIAS. 

We don't like Zinnias as an individual flower, but 
for massing in beds to produce a brilliant display 
there are few flowers that equal it. Seed should be 
sown thinly broadcast as soon as frost is over, in a 
well worked up garden soil. Should be kept weed- 
ed until plants are 6 or 7 inches high, after which 
thev need little attention. The rather coarse, but 
brilliant flowers are produced in the greatest profus- 
ion from early summer until frost. Zinnias come 
in two classes, each with mixed colors. These are 
the Tall and Half Dwarf. The Tall have always 
given best results with us. 

CLIMBERS FOR PORCHES AND TRELLIS. 

In the preceding list only such flowers as are used 
in bedding or borders have been mentioned, with the 
possible exception of the Tall Nasturtium which will, 
if properly trained and given support, grow 7 or 8 
feet high. The writer has frequently seen Tall Nas- 
turtiums in California reaching up above the sec- 
ond story of houses, but conditions are not right for 
such growth with us. 

Here in the South we live in a "sun" country and 
during the summer months that sun is both glaring 
and hot. Scores of houses will be found in every 
community where not a trace of a green vine is found 
to protect the house or porch from the heat and glare 
of the sun. Two hours' work, a few cents' worth of 
seed of almost any of the numerous climbers mean 
shade, a relief from glaring sun, a cooler and more 
comfortable home for yourself and family. In gen- 
eral, almost all seeds of climbing plants should be 
sown where plants are to stand. Ground should be 
deeply spaded or broken up as early as possible and 
seed planted as soon as danger from frost is over. 
As they begin to run, support should be furnished 
either w-ith wires or strings. We .have vines on our 
porches each year and have permanent supports of 
poultry fencing, commonly called "c'hicken wire." 
This makes a good support for any of the climbers, 
is inexpensive and lasts for years. 

ARISTOLOCHIA OF DUTCHMAN'S PIPE. 

A good climber of tropical origin, well adapted to 



porches and trellises. Grows rapidly and has large, 
dark green leaves. Needs rich or well manured 
loamy soil, also plenty of sunshine. Flowers are 3 
to 4 inches across, white and purple blotched, and 
the shape of a pipe. In buying seed of this get the 
variety known as "Elegans." Flowers of the other 
varieties have a disagreeable odor. 

BALLOON VINE. 

An interesting climbing annual from India where 
it is a general favorite. Foliage is rather open, has 
small white flowers which are followed by small 
fruits resembling miniature balloons. Sow seed 
where plants are to stand in April or May. 

BALSAM APPLE. 

A quick growing climber with finely cut ornamen- 
tal foliage and interesting and valuable fruits that 
are highly prized in many sections for their medi- 
cinal qualities. It also furnishes considerable amuse- 
ment for the children, for the bright orange colored 
fruits when fully ripe only need the slightest touch 
to cause them to burst, throwing the seeds in every 
direction. 

CYPRESS VINE. 




'Cypress Vine (Climber.) 



The most graceful of all vines and easily grown 
anywhere South. For trellises or covering trunks of 
dead trees it is unexcelled. It has finely cut, almost 
fernlike foliage, perfectly adapted to ornamental work 
and it is always covered with the small star-like scarlet 
and white blossoms. If planted thickly in good soil 
it will make a fairly dense growth. 



Better Have Less Money, and More Love in the Home. 



137 



JAPANESE MORNING GLORIES. 

The writer knows he is apt to run up against a 
snag when he mentions morning glories in some 
parts of the South where the common Morning Glory 
or Convolvulus Major has escaped from cultivation 
and becomes a pest in the fields. This is not apt to 
happen with the Japanese, as it does not seem to 
"run wild." Certainly it is well worth cultivating. 
With anything like a chance in good soil the Jap- 
anese will grow 20 to 25 feet high, furnishing a dense 



all parts of the South. A rapid grower, quickly at- 
taining a height of I to 20 feet, if planted in good 
soil, and is covered profusely with reddish, violet 
purple bell-shaped flowers. 




Fig. 22. — Imperial Japanese Morning Glories. 

shade that will protect your porches perfectly from 
the sun. In addition to the shade, the flowers are 
double the size of the common morning glory and 
nowhere will one find so great a variety of colors, 
shade and markings as in the flowers that are borne 
So freely. Some 30 distinct shades and markings 
have been noticed in recent years in the Japanese. 
Of the easiest possible culture, they stay with you 
until frost, furnishing an abundance of bloom and 
perfect shade for any porch, arbor or trellis. Seed 
should be sown in April where plants are to stand, 
allowing one plant to every 6 or 8 incites. Cover 
seed about one-half inch and as soon as plants begin 
to run give proper support. 

CORBEA SCANDENS. 

A favorite climber from Mexico, well adapted to 




Fig. 23.— A Single Flower of Cobea Scandens. 

This is a delicate plant that will not stand cold 
and seed should not be planted until the native trees 
are in full leaf. Seeds are thin and fiat and in plant- 
ing should be set on edge and covered not more than 
a half inch. Can also be sown in pots or boxes ear- 
lier if care is taken not to disturb the roots in trans- 
planting. 

JAPANESE HOP, (Hamulus Japonicus.) 

A very rapid growing, very satisfactory annual 
climber that is beautiful in appearance and furnishes 
good shape. Fine for coverinof porches, trellises or 
unsightly fences. Sow in early spring. 

MOONFLOWERS, (Ipomea.) 

The Moonflowers are popuar everywhere South 
both for bloom and the dense shade that they form. 
They are of quick enough growth to shade any two- 
story porch and the immense flowers are always a 
source of enjoyment. There are many varieties of 
Moonflowers, but in our opinion there are only two 
worthy of general planting, the Ipomea Grandiflora 
Alba or White Mexican Moonflower and the Ipomea, 
Heavenly Blue. They are both strong growers, fur- 



138 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



nishing dense shade. The Grandiflora Alba pro- 
duces immense pure white flowers; the Heavenly 
Blue has large, intensely deep, sky-blue flowers. 
They are both essentially night blooming plants, the 
flowers opening about sunset on clear days and re- 
maining open until 8 or 9 o'clock the next morning. 
In cloudy days they remain open most of the day. 
No one who has not seen the moonflowers in full 
bloom can appreciate fully their beauty. They are 
very sensitive to cold and seed should not be plant- 
ed in open ground until danger of frost is past. 
Seeds of the Gran'diflora Alba are large and very 
hard and to get a successful germination this hard 
outer covering should be cut or filed through before 



Such, if anywhere near complete, would fill two or 
three books of this size. It has been our purpose to 
give the reader briefly a list of the best_ and easiest 
grown varieties that are suitable for planting in our 
section and such only that can be easily obtained. 
We do not know of a single variety named that can 
not be obtained of any of the leading reliable seeds- 
men of the country. In flower seed buying, as well 
as vegetable seed or field seed buying, our advice to 
you is to buy only of reliable seed dealers. There 
are many of them in our country and you have only 
to choose whic'h one you will buy from. 

ABOUT SEED BUYING. 




Fig. 24. — White ilooutlowiT. 

planting. Can be planted earlier in pots in the house 
and when 5 or 6 inches high can be transplanted to 
open ground. The Ipomea Setosa or Brazilian Morn- 
ing Glory is another of this family, easily grown 
from seed and which will grow 40 to 50 feet high in 
a season with any chance. The flowers of this are 
often 5 inches in diameter and of a bright shade of 
lavender pink. All moonflowers or Ipomeas make 
dense shade and are good for that purpose as well as 
for flowers. 

ALL EASILY OBTAINED. 

It has not been our purpose to furnish a complete 
list of flowers grown from seed or their culture. 



The writer of this chapter on flowers is a seeds- 
man and has been engaged exclusively in that busi- 
ness, together with the growing of plants and fruit 
trees, for the last 20 years and it may not be out of 
place in a book of this kind to say a few words to 
you about buying seed, plants', bulbs and fruit trees. 
During the last ten or twelve years there has arisen 
in this country a class of dealers in this line of goods 
that are a disgrace to this particular line of business 
and whose business success depends entirely on their 
ability to cheat the intending buyer, or as they term 
it, "catching suckers." For instance, they will ad- 
vertise broadcast in certain papers something like this: 
"200 kinds of Flower Seeds for 15 cents." The im- 
pression they seek to give is that you will get 200 
different packets of different kinds for that price. 
What you really get is one packet of mixed flower 
seed that may contain 200 different kinds, or it may 
contain 20, for all you know. You will also see ad- 
vertisements of 50 bulbs for 25 cents and otlier 
things equally as enticing. Now, these men are not 
in business for their health only, nor arc they doing 
business at a loss, and 3'ou may rest assured that you 
are going to" be the loser and not they when you 
■^efi'd your good money for something that looks very 
cheap. The same thing holds true all through the 
list of seed, plants or bulbs. Good, honest goods are 
only sold at about a certain standard of price. If 
lower than that something is the matter with the 
seeds. If you see a seed catalogue with pictures in 
it showing pumpkins, or watermelons as big as a 
barn, an ear of corn that it takes a double team to 
haul or other things in like proportion, any firm 
making such representations either in word or by 
picture is a good firm not to send orders to. A good 



Don't Scold the Children for Loving Flowers. Its Natural. 



139 



honest article, both as to quality and quantity, is 
worth an honest and fair price and you can't buy it 
for less. 

Such practices hurt both ways. The seed-buyer, 
be it man or v/oman, sees one of these alluring ad- 
vertisements in some of the cheap "mail order month- 
ly" story papers that are scattered broadcast through 
the country, more especially to farmers' families or 
they get hold of some of these highly sensational 
catalogues. They send off their good money for 
some of these wonderful bargains. When the seed 
come they usually are disappointed and at once jump 
at the conclusion that all seedsmen, florists or nur- 
serymen are swindlers and t''hat they will get the 
same outrageous treatment from all of them. No 
one condemns these undefendable practices in the 
seed trade as strongly as do the best seedsmen of 
the country, but we all recognize that these swind- 
ling concerns are going to keep on doing business 
just as long as they find victims that will "bite at 
their bait;" just so long as victims will continue to 
send the 10, 25 or 50 cents to them. There are 
swindlers in the seed, plant and tree business as in 
other lines. The buyer is fhe one who must use his 
judgment in buying. The best guide is common 
sense and when you see unreasonably low bargains 
advertised or representations by pictures that are 
lies on the face of them, its time for you to send 
your money to some one else for supplies of this 
kind. 

FLO'WERS FROM BULBS. 

The flowering bulbs and roots represent a distinct 
class of plants and these may again be divided. intO' 
two classes; first, those to be planted in late fall and 
early winter for earliest spring blooming and, sec- 
ond, the ones to be planted in spring for summer 
blooming. The bulbs for fall planting are the most 
important, almost all of them blooming in early 
spring. There are hundreds of varieties of these, 
but the most important are the Dutch and Roman 
Hyacinths, Tulips, Narcissus and Crocus. 

Tulips are not very satisfactory south of middle 
Georgia, but all of the others can be planted with 
reasonable expectation of success as far down as the 
north line of Florida. 

OUT DOOR CULTURE. 

With Hyacinths. Tulips, Crocus and Narcissus we 



have always had best success in this latitude (At- 
lanta) by planting in open ground during Decem- 
ber. Earlier planted bulbs are too apt to start up 
above ground during the warm spells that come so 
frequently during our winters and then get cut down 
with a March freeze, weakening the plant to the det- 
riment of the bloom. 

All bulbs should have a good rich garden soil for 
best results and before planting, unless soil is very 
rich, well rotted stable manure or bone meal should 
be thoroughly mixed with the soil. Never use fresh 
manure in fhe soil with any kind of bulbs. It will 
almost always destroy the bulbs if brought in direct 
contract with fresh manure. 

It is well, when preparing soil for these bulbs, to 
remove the top soil to a depth of about 5 inches, then 
apply the manure or whatever fertilizer is to be used, 
mixing it thoroughly with the soil. Level this bed 
evenly, then cover with about an inch of top soil. 
Be careful to have the soil well firmed down and 
level. Set the bulbs firmly on this layer of top soil 
and then fill in the bed with good garden soil, cov- 
ering the bulbs some 4 inches, l-'irm t'he soil well 
over them and they are 'then ready to form roots, 
ready for spring blooming. In our climate the great 
danger with Hyacinths and, in fact, all fall planted 
bulbs, is that they are apt to start up above ground 
during warm spells that come during winter. This 
too early starting can be largely prevented by cov- 
ering the bed with either leaves or coarse stable 
straw. 

In the purc'hase of Dutch Hyacinths the average 
flower grower can get just as good results from 
bulbs costing 50 to 60 cents per dozen as from the 
fancy named varieties sold at 10 to 25 cents each. 
Also avoid buymg so-called "Dutch Hyacinths" sell- 
ing at from 30 to 40 cents per dozen. These are 
usually the small "Dutch Romans" that are almost 
worthless in t'.-e hands of any but experienced flo- 
rists in greenhouses. 

The Roman Hyacinth is largely a variety for in- 
door pot culture and for that purpose it is one of 
the best, and in the lower parts of the South does 
well for out-door planting for February and March 
blooming. For open ground culture plant in same 
manure as described for the Dutch Hyacinths. We 
would advise the use of the. White Romans only. 
There are pink and blue varieties but the colors are 
not distinct or well marked. The White Roman 



I40 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Hyacinth is a most delicate and beautiful flower Daffodils and what are commonly called Jonquils 



with a delicate fragance. 

Tulips are not well adapted to either pot or in- 
door culture and should only be used for out-door 
bedding, where beautiful designs can be produced by 
the use of the various colors. Soil for beds should 
be prepared in a similar manner to Hyacinths, but 
the bulbs should only be covered from 2 1-2 to 3 




in this section. 

They are almost all suitable for out-door culture 
and should be planted in open ground during Nov- 
ember and December, giving the same general treat- 




Fig. 25.— Single Early Tulip. 



Fig. 26. — NarcisEi'.s Grandiflnra or Paper "White 
Narcissus. 



inches. This means that the top of the bulb is to 
be covered that much. The best varieties in single 
tulips are Cardinal's Hot for scarlet ; Chrysolora for 
yellow; LTmmacuIee for white; Duchess of Parma 
for orange red; Cottage Maid for pink. In the dou- 
bles, greater variations of color are found, but we 
cannot advise extensive plantings of same, as so 
many of them do not open perfectly. 

THE NARCISSUS FAMILY 

is a most extensive one and covers the Narcissus 
Grandiflora or Paper White Narcissus, the Chinese 
Sacred Lilies and all the hundreds of varieties of 



ment as for hyacinths. Any of these can be brought 
into bloom almost any time during the winter with 
pot or water culture, w'hich ' will be treated a little 
further on. Any of the Narcissus family of bulbs 
can be left in the ground anywhere in the middle 
South and will multiply freely. For keeping up the 
size and cjuality of the flowers, however, the clumps 
of bulbs that form should be dug up and separated 
every two or three years. 

CROCUS. 

This is the earliest spring bloomer with us. They 
can be planted in rows for border work any time 



Many Southern Farmers Could Make Their Homes More Attractive if They Would. 



141 



during the fall, but the most charming effects are 
obtained by planting clusters of from four to six of 
them all over the lawn. They bloom in March with 
as, maturing quickly and then disappearing to be 
seen no more until the following spring. They can 
be had in four separate colors ; white, purple, yellow 
and blue together with striped ones. In buying these 
get the so-called Mammoth Crocus, as the Idooms are 
about double the size of the old sorts. Bulbs should 
be covered about 2 inches and do not need to be as 
carefully planted as other bulbs. A blunt stick 
driven down a couple of inches in the lawn is suffi- 
cient to drop a bulb into and co^'er. 

BULBS— POT AND WATER CULTURE. 

One great advantage with the use of bulbs is that 
you can have the flowers almost any time during the 
winter with a little care. For this purpose the kinds 
best adapted are the Dutch and Roman Hyacinths, 
Narcissus Grandiflbra, Chinese Sacred Lilies and 
Freesias. All of these can be grown to perfection 
in flower pots filled with any good garden soil mix- 
ed with about one-third sand. Bulbs like Dutch 
Hyacinths, Narcissus and Chinese Lily can be plant- 
ed at the rate of 3 bulbs in a 6-inch flower pot ; Ro- 
man Hyacinths 4 or 5 to a 6-inch pot and Freesias 
from 8 to 12 bulbs. Dutch Hyacinths (pot culture) 
will bloom in about 3 months ; Romans in 8 or g 
weeks; Narcissus and Chinese Lilies in 5 to 7 weeks 
from time of potting. 

Fill the pots aliout two-thirds full of soil, place 
the bulbs in and then finish filling in with soil to 
within 1-2 inch of top of pot. After planting, tlior- 
oughly water until the soil is wet, then put the pots 
away in a closet or some other place that is dark. 
Examine every few days and give sufificient water 
when necessary to keep the soil moist, but not too 
wet. In two or three weeks usually a shoot will 
show at the surface of the soil in the pot. When 
this shows they can be brough out and kept in any 
room in the house where there is light most of the 
day, but it is not well to keep them in direct sun- 
light in windows until they show signs of blooming. 
Two things will have to be watched closely; first, to 
see that the soil is kept moist but not soaking wet ; 
second, that they are kept from freezing during cold 
winter nights. With a little trouble and starting a 
few pots every two or three weeks you can keep up 
a succession of flowers all during the winter when 



there are no flowers out-of-doors. If color is want- 
ed, this can be obtained with the various colors of 
the Dutch Hyacinths, such as pink, dark red, light 
blue, dark blue or purple. The single Dutch hy- 
acinths usually give better results in pot culture 
than the double. Yellow color can be had by t'he 
use of the Von Lion Narcissus. Then there are the 
White Dutch Hyacinths, White Roman Hyacinths, 
Paper White Narcissus and Chinese Lily. 

The Freesia is one of the most delicate and fra- 
grant of all flowers, but for successful growth it 
should be potted in September or October in a soil 
containing at least one-half sand and grown very 
slowly. Once in bloom it lasts for weeks and well 
repays one for the extra trouble. 

In recent years the water culture of bulbs has 
been developed and it is certainly a most interest- 
ing and satisfactory method for growing the Chinese 




Fig. 27.— Chinese Sacred Lily (Water Culture.) 

Sacred Lily and the Narcissus Grandiflora or Paper 
White Narcissus. It can be done by any one suc- 
cessfully. Take any ordinary glass fruit dish any- 
where near 6 inches across and fiU the bottom of it 
with small rocks or pebbles. The only object of t'he 
use of rocks is to hold the bulbs in an upright posi- 
tion and give the roots something to twine around. 



14-2 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



In the size dish or bowl described place 3 Oiinese 
Lilies or 5 or 6 Paper White Narcissus in an up- 
right position among the rocks and then fill up part 
way with water. The bulbs should not be more than 
half covered with water at any time. Set the dish 
away in a dark place until the roots begin to make 
a good growth. When these start bring out into 
the light and as soon as they show signs of bloom- 
ing, place where they can get plenty of sunlig'ht. 
The water should be changed every three or four 
da3S by pouring off the old and putting in fresh. 
Keep them rather cool so as not to force too rapid 
a growth. The two most important things in water 
culture is to keep them from freezing and keep the 
water fresh. It is a' most interesting process and 
the bulbs will produce as good flowers in water as 
in soil. Paper White Narcissus cost about 40 cents 
a dozen; good Chinese Lily bulbs about $1.25 per 
dozen so that the trial is not an expensive one and 
you will be more than pleased with the result. 

BULBS FOR SPRING PLANTING. 

Under this head properly comes Tuberoses, Glad- 
ioli, Dahlias, Cannas and Caladiums. There are 
man)- other bulbs and roots that could be named, but 
as it is the purpose of this work to cover onl}' such 
as are sure to be satisfactory and are easily obtain- 
able; we will omit all except these. 

TUBEROSES. 

These will grow to perfection in any good garden 
scil in any Southern State. Use only what florists 
call No. I bulbs which usually cost from 30 to 40 
cents per dozen. These larger size bulbs will al- 
most invariably bloom the first year, while the 
smaller, cheaper bulbs will seldom bloom until the 
second j^ear. These bulbs should be planted any 
time from Februar}' up to June in open ground, our 
preference being March in this section. The large 
bulbs are from 3 to 4 inches long and should be 
placed in an upright position so that the top of the 
bulb is from i to i 1-2 inches below the surface of 
the ground. The young shoots will appear above 
ground shortly after warm weather sets in and by 
mid-summer will throw up a tall stalk bearing from 
10 to 20 perfect flowers of the most exquisite fra- 
grance. As these flowers open they can be picked 
off one or two at a time leaving the full strength of 



the plant to go into the production of the others. It 
is a most popular flower here around Atlanta and 
from 40,000 to 50,000 bulbs are planted each year in 
private gardens. The bulbs hold in perfect condi- 
tion through the winter in the lower South, but are 
rather uncertain as to bloom the second year, hence 
it is better to obtain new bulbs every year if you 
wish to be sure of flowers. 




Figure 28. 



GLADIOLI. 



Comparatively little known South but a perfect 
success anj'where in our climate and worthy of 
planting by any one. In hardly any flower can be 
had such a splendid display of fine color with so 
little trouble as with this. All shades and colors 
can be found from pure .white to deepest scarlet, 
many of the varieties being most beautifully shaded 
and blotched. 

Gladioli do best in rather sandy soil Intt any, loose 
garden soil will produce them satisfactorily, the only 
thing to be avoided is planting them in stiff clay. 
The bulbs are from i 1-2 to 2 inches in diameter 
and are flattened. The top of the bulb should be 



No Reason Why the Farm Should Not Be the Most Beautiful Place in the World. 



143 



about 2 inches below the surface. The growth is 
rapid after the roots once put out and each stalk 
produces 10 to 15 perfect,, almost lily shaped flow- 
ers. They require nothing after once being started, 
except to keep the surface of the soil stirred and 
free from grass and weeds. New bulbs should be 
planted each season as they, like the Tuberoses, are 
uncertain as to blooming the second year. 

As to varieties, there are hundreds of distinct, 
named kinds selling from 5 cents to $1.00 each, but 
unless you are a specialist in growing them you can 
get just about as much enjoyment and satisfaction 
out of the "Mixed Gladioli" sold at 25 to 35 cents 
per dozen by reliable seedsmen and florists as from 
the fancy named kinds at much higher prices. Any 
sold at less than above prices are apt to be small, in- 
ferior bulbs and mostly of solid scarlet color, the 
scarlet being the most common. You will find the 
gladioli very satisfactory and there should be thou- 
sands of them planted where there is only a dozen 
or so now. 

CALADIUMS. 

More commonly known as "Elepliants' Ears." 
Not a flowering bulb but a splendid plant for mak- 
ing a tropical effect. Bulbs should be planted any 
time after danger of freezing is past in either natu- 
rally moist soil or else where an abundance of wa- 
ter can be given all during the summer. Bulbs 
should be placed so that the top of bulb is about 3 
inches below the surface. The bulbs can be had in 
i several sizes, ranging in price from 10 to 15 cents 
>. each. The richer the soil and larger the bulljs the 
larger will be the leaves and the larger the leaves 
I the finer the appearance of the plant. One of the 
li best ways is to make a circular bed about 3 feet in 
' diameter. Plant 5 medium sized bulbs around the 
I edges, equally distant from each other, then one 
|| rather large bulb in the center. 

I These bulbs can be carried safely in the ground 
(through winter in the middle and lower South pro- 
Jviding the dead leaves are cut off after frost kills 
them, then a coating of 5 or 6 inches of fresh stable 
limanure and leaves is put over them and left undis- 
jiturbed until the ground stops freezing in the spring. 
iThe bulbs are very susceptible to freezing and once 
Ijthe crown of the bulb freezes it rots. Protected 
(during each winter the bulbs if left, continue to in- 
jcrease in size for years. 



CANNAS AND DAHLIAS. 

The right methods of cultivation of both of these 
will be found under their respective heads earlier in 
this chapter in that part devoted to the growing of 
owers from seed. 

THE ROSE, THE QUEEN OF FLOWERS. 

The South is the home of the rose and nowhere 
in the world can they be grown to so great perfec- 
tion as here,^ especially so in the clay soils of the 
middle South. In making this statement we refer 
more especially to what zrz ^Q-r\er3.\\y termed the 




Fig. 29. — EverlJluomiEg Rose. — ^Kaiserin Augusta Victoria. 

monthly or "Everblooming" Roses. The everbloom- 
ers, broadly speaking cover the Tea and Hybrid 
Tea Roses. Most of the climbing varieties are sat- 
isfactory also, being used to cover porches, trellises, 
etc. We cannot advise the use of the ^'"Hybrid 
Perpetual" varieties, as very few of them are adapt- 
ed to our climate. Paul Neyron is an exception to 
this rule and does well. The value of the Hybrid 
Perpetual class is largely its ability to stand North- 
ern winters without being killed and we do not have 
to meet those conditions, hence it is better to con- 
fine our plantings to varieties that give an abun- 
dance of bloom almost from frost to frost. 

Rose growing in the South is not the difficult 
matter that many lovers of flowers consider it. No-' 



144 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



where on earth will roses grow more profusely nor 
to greater perfection than in our section. 

Successful rose growing is entirely a matter of fol- 
lowing a few simple rules. The first of these is to 
get varieties adapted to this section; two-year-old, 
open ground, Southern grown plants being prefera- 
ble. The second is thorough preparation of the soil 
before planting. The third is frequent cultivation 
and close pruning to keep the plants in blooming 
condition. 




Fig. 30. — White Everblooming Rose — The Bride. 



water before the roots start well. These pot grown 
small roses are, of course, much cheaper than the 
open ground grown ones and can be had at 75 cents 
to $1.00 per dozen, w'hile the latter cost $2.50 to 
$3.00 per dozen. Another point. Don't buy roses, 
fruit trees or in fact, anything of this class from trav- 
eling agents. There are some honest agents of this 
kind, but they are so few that it is hardly worth 
while to consider. With few exceptions the best 
and most reliable nurseries will not sell trees or 
plants to traveling agents. In buying this class of 
goods buy direct from the growers. 

TIME OF PLANTING. 

Open ground plants usually become dormant be- 
tween October 15th and November ist and stay in 
that condition until March ist. They can be trans- 
planted any time while the plants are dormant. The 
earlier they are transplanted after they become dor- 
mant the better. Our soils remain warm enough all 
through the winter to promote root growth while the 
tops remain dormant, thus giving a root system by 
the time the spring growing season comes in and 
enabling the plants to make a vigorous growth at 
the start. The earlier the transplanting is done the 
greater the growth of roots during the winter, For 
this reason we advise planting at the earliest possi- 
l:)le date after heavy frosts. Pot grown plants should 
all be transplanted in spring, except in Florida and 
near the Gulf where fall planting is best. 



We advise the use of the open ground grown 
plants because they are better and stronger than the 
small pot grown stock. The plants are a year older, 
are 'hardier, having been fully acclimated to outdoor 
conditions, and if planted out during the fall and 
early winter, will give plenty of bloom the follow- 
ing spring and summer, thus saving a year in ob- 
taining results from your plantings. The use of 
these open ground grown plants relieves you of the 
necessity of the close care that has to be given the 
small, pot grown stock from greenhouses. We have 
had many years' experience in rose growing and 
planting in the South, and each year's work confirms 
us in t'he opinion that open ground grown roses are 
by far the best for the South. If you are willing to 
or prefer to use the small pot grown plants you 
should plant t'hem out in early spring, watching 
them closely to see they do not die from lack of 



SOIL PREPARATION. 

Many failures are the result of lack of preparation 
of the soil before planting. In the clay soils which 
are present in most parts of the Central South, the 
subsoil is stiff and hard and in no condition for the 
tender new roots to penetrate it. This must be thor- 
oughly dug up and pulverized to the depth of 18 
inches. A supply of well rotted stable manure 
should be used, mixing it thoroughly with the soil 
below where the roots of the new plants rest. If 
t'he rotted stable manure is not obtainable, bone 
meal worked into the soil at the rate of 2 to 2 1-2 
pounds for each plant is the best substitute. Which- 
ever is used mix thoroughly with the soil. It will 
also be found advisable to dig out the subsoil below 
where the plant is to stand and fill it in with woods 
earth, or if that is not obtainable, use t'he surface 



Most Flower Seed Are Small, and Have to Be Dealt with as Such. 



145 



soil from your own yard. Woods earth, which is 
largely decayed vegetable matter, or the surface soil 
is more fertile and looser than the subsoil and easier 
for the roots to penetrate, and for these r>asons It is 
advisable to use either oiie or the other. Never use 
fresh manure beneath the surface in a rose bed. It 
makes t'he soil "thirsty" and easily affected by 
drouth. If fresh manure is used at all use it as a 
surface mulch, putting it on several inches thick up 
around the plants after they have been set. The 
winter rains will carry much of the fertilizing value 
of the manure down to the roots, and by spring the 
manure will usually be decomposed enough so that it 
can be spaded or worked into the soil a id be benefi- 
cial instead of injurious. 



is done after 'heavy frosts have come and rendered 
the plant dormant, the better growth they will make 
the following spring. 

The plants, as thev come from the grower, usually 
have most of the top left on. Before transplanting, 





Fig. 



-Everblooming Rose. — Helen Gould. 



about one-half of this should be trimmed off. It is 
hard for' many to cut the plants back, but it practi- 
cally insures their living and making a good growth 
the following season. We do not favor pruning the 
roots except in cases where they become bruised or 
broken in handling. AVhere this has occurred cut 
off the injured or bruised parts with a sharp knife. 
Plants should be set so that the crown of the roots 
will come just below the surface after the soil has 
been pressed down until it is firm. Roots should be 
placed as near the position they formerly grew in as 
possible and the soil pressed closely and firmly 
around the roots, preferably by hand. Then fill in 
the hole until even or slightly above the surround- 
ino- surface and then firm all the soil around® the 
plant by tamping. Do not transpknt in clay soils 
when the soil is wet enougli to be sticky or muddy. 
The firming of the soil necessrry to get it close 
As stated previously, the earlier in the season this enough to the roots would be injurious when the soil 

11 



aUitpc uii.l Form 0/ o'ocilet Roses. 



Have your soil worked down fine, free from lumps 
and trash of all kinds, so that it will pack easily and 
closely around the roots. 

TRANSPLANTING. 



146 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASyRE. 



is too wet. In the sandy soils in Florida and along 
the Gulf, it is advisable to plant when the soil is 
wet, directly after rains, but in any of t'he stiff clay 
soil sections drier conditions must be had. When- 
ever roses have been planted it is advisable to pour 
on one bucket of water to each plant. No matter 
how carefully the soil has been pressed down, the 
water will carry the particles of earth more closely 
against the roots than can be done any other way. 
After watering scatter a little dry earth over the 
wet soil. This dry earth mulch will prevent the 
baking and crusting of the wet soil beneath. 

CULTIVATION. 

If roses are to be kept in good condition, they 
must be cultivated frequently; the surface of the soil 
kept from baking or getting hard and crusted, and 
the bed kept free from weeds and grass. This is 
best done by frequent rakings, deep enough to break 
any crust that may be formed by heavy rains. Keep 
t'he surface of the soil loose. It promotes growth 
and prevents drying out of the moisture below. The 
use of stable manure is good during the winter 
months as a mulch on the surface. For fertilizing 
with commercial fertilizers there is nothing better 
than ground bone or bone meal, as it is usually call- 
ed. This is not a quick acting fertilizer, but it furnishes 
a continuous supply of plant food during the season. 
If a quick acting fertilizer is wanted, any good vege- 
table fertilizer will produce the results. We prefer, 
for clay soils, one containing about 8 per cent, phos- 
phoric acid, 4 per cent, nitrogen and 4 per cent, pot- 
as'h. This is a complete plant food and should be 
sprinkled lightly around the plants on the surface 
and raked in. This should be done every two or 
three months during the growing season. 

TRIMMING AND PRUNING. 

If the bloom is kept cut off closely and long stems 
cut with the bloom the plants will be kept in good 
condition for almost continuous blooming. Early in 
spring it is advisable to cut out any dead wood that 
may be on the plants or any wood that looks old 
and hide-bound. The object of close trimming and 
pruning is to encourage the growth of the new wood 
and new shoots from the roots. Old wood does not 
produce good bloom. 

In cutting bloom cut in bud. It takes too much 



of the strength of the plant to carry the flower to 
full maturity. 

If you want to keep plants in good condition give 
them personal attention. Don't leave it to servants, 
or if you have them do the actual work, stand over 
them and see that it is done right. It is not safe to 
trust the majority of them without directly supervis- 
ing the work. 

WATERING. 

All sections have dry times and drouths when it 
is advisable to water the plants. Many people do 
more harm than good by giving a light surface wet- 
ting daily. Once or twice a week is better. An inch 
or so of the dry surface should be drawn away from 
the plant leaving a basin-like depression into which 
should be poured from a half to a bucketful of wa- 
ter. .A.fter this has soaked in cover the wet spot 
with the loose earth previously drawn away. This 
prevents baking and crusting of the soil. In cities 
where water works are in use the whole surface of 
the rose bed should be thoroughly saturated once a 
week, the watering being. done late in the afternoon. 
The following morning rake the bed thoroughly to 
prevent crusting and running together of the soil in 
the hot sunshine usually present during times of 
drouth. 

If these few simple instructions are followed there 
will be little or no difficulty experienced in growing 
roses to perfection ; in fact, you will be surprised to 
see how little effort will produce splendid results in 
rose growing. 

It is not advisable in a book of this character to 
give a list of varieties that should be planted always, 
for there are new introductions every year and a list 
of this kind is always changing, new and better va- 
rieties superseding the old. The writer's stand-bys 
in the rose garden at this time, among the ever- 
bloomers is as follows. All these have been grown 
three to four years or more and have given us en- 
tire satisfaction: 

In white varieties, Bride, Kaiserin Augusta Victo- 
ria, Snowflake or JMarie Lambert, White Mamon 
Cochet: in pink varieties, Duchess de Brabant or 
Countess Le Barthe, Bon Silene, Catherine Mermet, 
Bridesmaid, Pink Mamon Cochet, Pink La France; 
in yellow. Mile. Franciska Kruger, Perle des Jardins, 
Eloile de Lyon, Safrano, Marie Van Houtte, Souv, 
De Pierre Notting; in red; Meteor, Papa Gautier, 



Dcn't Fail to Make Arrangements for the Flowsr Yard in the Spring. 



147 



Triomphe de Pernet Fere, Helen Gould or Baldwin, 
Andre Schwartz and Gruss an Teplitz. All of the 
.above are Teas or Hybrid Tea varieties and are 
"everblooming." In Hybrid Perpetuals the "Paul 
Neyron," an immense, free blooming rose is desira- 
ble. In climbers the yellow Marechal Neil is the 
best, followed by Chromatella or Cloth of Gold, J as. 
Sprunt (cherry reel), Lamarque (white with lemon 
-centre), Reine Marie Henrietta (bright red), Solfa- 
terre (deep sulphur yellow) and ^Irs. Robt. Peary 
i(pure white). 
The Crimson Rambler is a good porch or pillar 



rose, covered with a mass of crimson flowers early 
in spring only. The other Rambler roses have little 
value in the South. At least a dozen roses ought to 
be a fixture with every home. There should be more 
if you can afford to buy them. They are fairly per- 
manent, for with fair treatment they last for years, 
getting larger and better every season. You can't 
have too many of them and when times are prosper- 
ous the small amount necessary to buy the necessary 
plants and seed can be taken without any one feeling 
it. The time to .begin beautifying our home sur- 
roundings is now. 




Fig. 33. — Tne Giant Rose— Paul Neyron. 



^ 




•^flhir'-i 



""'y^-^; 






cow PEAS.— UNFERTILIZED ON RIGHT; P^ERTIUZED 
ON LEFT. EXPERIMENT FARM, SOUTHERN 

PINES, N. C. 



14S 



Book V. 
Fertilizer Department, 



EDITED AND EEVISED BY 

PROF. W. F. MASSEY, 

Formerly Professor of Horticulture and Botany IST. C. College of Agri- 
culture and Mechanical Arts; former Editor of ""Ptactical Farmer/' 
Phila. Member of American Association for the Advancement 
of Science, of the American Breeders' Association and the 
iSTational Geographical Society of Washington, Lec- 
turer at Farmers' Institutes in various States, and 
Contributor to the leading farm papers, 
SALISBURY, MD. 



149 



ISO 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Introduction. 



The use of commercial fertilizers has become a ne- 
cessity in modern agriculture with the depletion of 
the natural store of plant food in the soil. This is es- 
pecially the case in the South, where the careless cul- 
tivation of cotton year after year on the same land has 
so reduced the fertility of the soil that the application 
of fertilizer has been deemed essential for every crop 
grown. 

But there is a wise and a wasteful way in whic'h 
fertilizers are used. The prosperity of any coun- 
try- depends largely upon the ])roductivity of the 
soil, and that country which produces the largest 
crops in excess of its home need will always take the 
lead of one which merely supplies its home consump- 
tion. 

What is especially needed in the South is the in- 
creased production per acre rather than a continua- 
tion of the practice of going over a large area for t'he 
crop that should be grown on one-tenth the area. 

Long and exhaustive tillage will reduce the produc- 
tivity of any soil and the problem before the South- 
ern farmers to-day is how most economically to in- 
crease tlie yield of the staple crops per acre. The old 
practice of planting cotton after cotton continuously 
with the aid of a little dribble of fertilizer in the fur- 
rows must give place to a wiser system and a more 
liberal use of the fertilizers in the proper place. The 
fact is that no soil originally fertile and of a good me- 
chanical composition ever is entirely worn out. Na- 
ture all over the South has restored old fields by a 
growth of broomsedge and old field pines, so that 
when cleared of pines the land is found to be fertile 
again through a pumping up of plant food from the 
subsoil by the long tap-roots of t'he pine trees and the 
restoration to the surface of the organic matter that 
the careless cultivation has deprived the soil of. The 
soil was not worn out, but simply made unproductive 
through the shallow scratching of the surface with 
the one-mule plow, while right below was an une.x- 
liausted subsoil from which the pine tree brought fer- 
tility again to the surface. 

We can learn hence from the old field pines les- 
sons regarding the restoration of our soils. Of 
course we cannot afford to wait for nature to do this 



work for us through the agency of the broomsedge 
and the pine. The farmer must learn that his soil is 
a great store of plant food entirely inexhaustible if 
properly treated, and the proper use of fertilizers is one 
of the most efficient aids in its improvement, while 
the improper use of these plant foods has been the 
means of reducing its productiveness till it is common 
to say that the soil is worn out w'hen it still has an 
abundant supply of plant food if properly aided in 
bringing it out. If one simply draws on the land 
without restoring any plant food that may have been 
taken out by the crops, or not using any means for 
getting at its reserve store of plant food the availa- 
ble store of plant food will become exhausted, at least 
that w'hich is available by the methods employed. A 
man having a deposit in bank' can draw checks on it 
so long as he keeps his deposit good, 'but if he draws 
without renewing his deposit he will soon reach the 
time when his drafts are dishonored. It is the same 
wav with t'he soil. The soil is the farmer's bank 
and if he wisely treats it he can continue to draw in- 
creasing drafts without exhaustion of the deposit. 
All crops grown take from the soil in different 
amounts the various materials that are needed for their 
perfection. In some soils, especially such as are de- 
rived from the decomposition of potassic rocks like 
our granite, some of these materials seem to be in in- 
exhaustible quantity and it is said that these soils do 
not need applications of mineral matters except phos- 
phorus. While it is true that in such soils potash 
does exist in very large amounts, it is in the form of 
an insoluble silicate or sand w'hich becomes soluole 
very slowly through action of the carbonic acid 
that is brought to it in the rain water, and it is often 
wiser to use an application of potash in the fertilizer 
then to depend on that in the soil. The plant foods that 
are most commonly deficient in our old cultivated 
soils are phosphorus, nitrogen and potassium. These 
are pure elements, and we cannot use a pure element 
as a fertilizer. Nitrogen is a gas that is mixed in the 
air, and we must get it in combination with some- 
thing else before we can get it in the soil in such a 
shape that the plants can get it. Just how this can be 
done we will explain later. Phosphorus in a pure 
state burns up as soon as exposed to the air, and 



Study to See What Your Land Requires. 



151 



hence we cannot use pure phosphorus. But we can 
get it in combination- with lime in the form of phos- 
phoric acid in our phosphoric rocks, and it is phos- 
phoric acid that we use as a fertilizer. Potash, as I 
have said, exists in all clay soils, and is found in hard 
wood ashes in very availal^le shape. The most readi- 
ly available source for potash, which is the oxide of 
the metal potassium is in the potash salts that are im- 
ported from the salt mines in Germany. These are all 
readily dissolved in the soil. Nearly all of our soils 
are the result of t'he decomposition or breaking down 
of the rocks and the transportation by water of the 
pulverized material and spreading them over the old 
rocks to form our soils of to-day. In soine instances 
the soil is not formed from the rocks that lie below it. 
In Northern sections of the country where the an- 
cient glaciers moved over the surface for untold ages, 
the soil is made up of materials transported by the ice 
from distant regions. And in the South here and 
there there are so-called limestone soils which lie on 
top of the old limestone that was formed under water 
of lakes, and on top of this rock an accumulation of 
vegetable decay has taken place, and a deep and fer- 
tile soil has taken the place of the ancient lake. This 
soil has not any connection with the rock below in 
its composition and is apt to be more deficient in 
lime than a soil made up of the rock decomposition, 
and it has been found that lime has a very great and 
beneficial action on such soils. Lime is one of the es^ 
sential matters for plant growth, but in most soils 
there "is an abundance of lime for all purposes of plant 
food. And yet it 'has been found that lime, even on 
such soils has a special value in sweetening the soil 
and in rendering plant food that is in an unavailable 
state available to the plants. Lime renders a heavy 
clay soil lighter by gathering t'he fine particles togeth- 
er in small lumps, and in a similar manner it makes a 
very sandy soil closer by gathering the sand together 
after the manner of mortar. Lime also acts on. the 
vegetable matter in the soil and releases the ammonia 
so that the minute plant forms called bacteria can 

; carry on their work and bring the ammonia into the 
form of a nitrate, which is the only form in which the 
'plants use nitrogen. 

We have said that soils of a good mechanical make- 
up do not become worn out. But to get at and keep 
up their productivity we must thoroughly plow and 
pulverize them. A mass of phosphate rock may lie 

ji for ages on the soil and have little if any effect on its 
productiveness. But if we pulverize that rock to a 



fine powder and mix it with the soil the action of the 
carbonic acid of the rain water, which is the greatest 
decomposer of nature, has an opportunity to act on 
each small particle and it is dissolved so that plants 
can use it and get the phosphoric acid it contains. In 
manner a hard lump of clayey soil will not give up its 
plant food till pulverized by the implements of cul- 
tivation so the water and air can act upon it and 
make its plant food available. Plants take food from 
the soil by the very fine hairs on the extremity of 
their roots just back of t'he root cap that forces its 
way through the soil. If you will take a few garden 
beans and place them in a saucer on a few thickness- 
es of blotting paper made wet with water, and then 
cover t'he .saucer with a pane of glass and put it in a 
warm place, the beans will soon sprout and throw out 
white rootlets ori the paper. By examining these 
roots you can see that the extreme tip is bare and 
pointed and is called the root cap. This root 
cap is continually renewed so that as the outer 
part is worn in pushing through the soil it is contin- . 
ually renewed from be'hind. Just back of this root 
cap you will see that a portion of the rootlet is cov- 
ered with a velvety coat of very fine hairs. As the 
root pushes forward through the soil new 'hairs are 
continually formed just back of the root cap, and the 
old ones die off. These root hairs are the only part 
of the root engaged in taking food from the soil, and 
as they are all of microscopic size it is evident that all 
the food used by the plants must he completely dis- 
solved, since the root hairs cannot take in anv solid 
substance. It is also easy to see that on t'he perfec- 
tion of these root hairs the ability of the plant to get 
foods depends. Hence if we tear off the tips of the 
roots with the absorbing root hairs by running a plow 
through our corn, we are depriving the corn of the 
power to get the food it needs till it makes new fibres 
and new hairs, for the corn and the cotton plant 
send their roots far and wide through the spaces be- 
tween the rows. 

Deep breaking and thorough pulverization of the 
soil are essential to the dissolving of the plant food in 
the soil, but shallow and frequent cultivation after- 
wards is needed for the perfection of the crop. One 
piece of land may have just as much plant food in it 
as another right alongside of it, and yet through im- 
perfect preparation and improper cultivation it may 
be far less productive than the other piece that is well 
plowed and properly cultivated. No matter 'how much 



152 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE 



plant food a soil may contain, if it is not made availa- 
ble it will not be a productive soil. 

COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 

Soils vary chiefly in their mechanical composition, 
and different terms are used to describe them. When 
sand predominates the soil is called sandy. When 
more clay is mixed with it it becomes a sandy loam, 
and when still more clay, a clay loam, and w'hen there 
is a small proportion of sand to clay it becomes a 
heavy clay soil. In sections where the limestone comes 
to the surface and its decomposition affects the soil, 
the soil will contain a great deal of lime in the form of 
carbonate of lime. The mineral matters other than 
clay and sand consist of various compounds of lime, 
potash, phosphorus and other thing's with sulphuric 
acid, phosphoric acid, carbonic acid and nitric acid, 
wit'h oxides of iron and potassium and chloride of so- 
dium or common salt. 



when the soil is but a few degrees above the freezing 
point, while Indian corn under the same conditions 
will rot. Aside from the clay, sand and mineral matters 
the soil must contain a portion of decayed organic 
matter, that is, matter that has once formed the or- 
gans of plants and animals. This decayed organic 
matter when reduced to a black mass is called hu- 
mus, and it is of great importance in the cultivation 
of the soil and in the supplying of moisture to the 
plants. A soil that abounds in this humus is made 
darker in color, and 'hence absorbs and retains heat 
better, and is therefore a warmer soil. It has been 
found, too, that humus retains moisture longer than 
any other matter in the soil, and that a soil abound- 
ing in humus dries out more slowly than one w'hich 
is destitute of it. A soil newly cleared from the for- 
est has a large percentage of humus, and we all know 
that such a soil stands a drouth better than an old 
soil that 'has become depleted of humus. It does not 
wash into gullies like the old soil either, and not 'till 






h 

















Fig, 1. — Unfertilized. (Eiglit weelcs old.) Fertilized. 



Fig. a. — Untertilizcd. (Twelve weeks old.) Fertilized. 



Water exists in soils in two forms. First, that 
which in any soil adheres to each particle of the soil 
in the form of a film of moisture, and also in the 
form of permanent water. The need for drainage is 
to get the permanent water table in the soil lower 
down from the surface so as to admit the air and the 
film water, for standing water shuts out the air and 
renders the soil cold, and to have plants thrive their 
roots must have the o.xygen of the air, moisture in 
the form of films and a proper degree of heat suited 
to the plant growth, since some plants need less 'heat 
than others. A garden pea will germinate and grow 



long cultivation and a failure to keep up the supply 
of humus has caused the soil to run together does 
the washing begin. This decayed organic matter al- 
so contains the plant food that the plants that made 
it took from the soil, and hence a new soil is always 
a more fertile soil. The humus also forms certain 
humic acids wliich act on other matters in the soil 
and render them available to crops. We see then 
the great importance of keeping up by systematic ro- 
tation of crops the organic matter that makes this 
valuable humus, and thus retaining the cTiaracter that 
made the new ground more productive. 



Deep Plowing is Necessary to Keep Land in a Fertile State. 



153 



The retention of film moisture in the soil by this 
humus is one of its most valuable characteristics. In 
a soil abounding in humus we can use the commer- 
cial fertilizers in much larger quantities than in a soil 
that dries out quickly, simph- because the fertilizer 
will be dissolved, w'liile in the old dry soil a similar 
amount of fertilizer applied would really damage the 
crop in dry weather, burning the roots instead of be- 
ing dissolved. The uniform supply of moisture then 
during the long dry spells we are apt to have in the 
Sotith is one of the greatest arguments in favor of a 
systematic rotation of crops that will keep up the 
supply of humus in the soil. Having lightly touched 
on the various forms of plant food we will now take 
up each of the most important which are apt to be 
deficient in our old cultivated soils. 

NITROGEN. 

As we have said, nitrogen is in its elemental form 
a gas, and in order that plants may get it in the soil 
I it is necessary that it be put into combination with 
; other matters. The air is four-fifths nitrogen in its 
gaseous form. It is mixed in the air, but not com- 
I bined with ox3'gen so that we can breathe it, for we 
I could not breathe pure oxygen, as that would cause 
j every thing to burn up at once. Nitrogen then is to 
dilute the air for animal and plant life. Green plants 
, -use nitrogen only when it has been brought into com- 
il bination in the soil with lime, potash or sodium, 
through first being brought into the form of nitric 
ij acid, which at once seeks one of these bases to form 
a neutral salt. All the decayed organic matter in the 
i soil contains nitrogen in the form of organic matter. 
I Certain minute and invisible forms of plant life (to 
the naked eye) attack all vegetable matter buried in 
the soil and cause it to decay. These release the am- 
monia that the plants contained. Then another form 
of these myriads of microscopi-c plants called bacte- 
ria, which swarm in a soil having an abundance of 
Tiumus live on the ammonia and they change the am- 
monia into a nitrite. Then a third form lives on the 
; nitrite and its work results in the formation of nitric 
acid, and this acid at once combines with lime, potash 
or other mineral base that may be present in the soil, 
and the result is a nitrate which is at once available 
to plants. The immediate effect of nitrogen in the 
form of nitrate of soda when used as a fertilizer, is 
due to the fact that it is already in this nitrate form 
and can be used at once, and must be used at once 



or it will be washed from the soil. Plants use nitro- 
gen in varying percentages' according to the crop 
grown. The value of nitrogen in plants is due to its 
effect in promoting rapid growth. If there is an ex- 
cess of nitrogen in the soil over the due amount of 
phosphorus and potash needed, there will be a rank 
growth but small fruitage, for the mineral elements 
are essential to the ripening of fruit and the perfec- 
tion of sfrain and seed. 



GETTING NITROGEN FROM THE AIR. 

It has long been known to farmers that clover, cow 
peas and other members of the family known as leg- 
umes or pod-bearers did in some way increase the fer- 
tility of the soil. But just how they did it was long 
a matter of conjecture. ;\Iore recent study of these 




Fig. 3. — Tubercles on Clover Roots. 

plants by scientists has demonstrated the way in 
which they do this. On the roots of these legume 
plants were found certain little knots or nodules. It 
was found that when these nodules were on the roots 
that the plants did acquire nitrogen more than they 
could get from the soil, and that when there were no 
nodules the plants did not acquire any surplus nitro- 
gen. It was evident then that in some way these 
nodules were the means for the acquisition of nitro- 



^54 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



gen by the plants. Further study in the microscopic 
laboratory revealed t'he fact that these nodules were 
formed by certain of these soil bacteria that lived as 
parasites on the roots of the legumes. These minute 
plants were of the nature of nitric ferments and they 
oxidize the nitrogen of the air that penetrates the 
soil and nitric acid is the result. This at once seeks a 
base such as lime or potash in the soil and the plants 
take up the nitrate formed just as they take the ni- 
trate formed by the other nitrifying bacteria that live 
on organic decay. We, therefore, can easily see the 
importance of the legumes, especially our cow peas, to 
the farmer, for they not only get for him free from 
the air the nitrogen that costs so much in fertilizer, 
but furnish the organic decay for the other soil bac- 
teria to go to work on and render available to other 
crops the following season. It also shows that these 
legume crops do not need an application of nitrogen 
in a fertilizer, since they can get all they need and 
more from tlie air. In fact, it is worse than useless 
to apply a nitrogenous fertilizer to them, since when 
this is done they will use the fertilizer and will not 
get from the air \^at they would get if compelled to 
do so. None of our cereal crops nor cotton belong to 
this family of plants and hence the importance of put- 
ting some of the legumes into our rotation to avoid 
the purchase of nitrogen for ti.e sale crops. ]\Iuch 
lias been said of late about inoculating the soil for 
the various bactoria that live on the roots of legumes, 
and artificial cultures have been sent out dried in cot- 
ton. It has been found, however, that these artificial 
cultures do not readily grow in the soil. The De- 
partment of Agriculture at ^ .'as'hington is now mak- 
ing and sending out these cultures in sealed glass 
tubes with directions for use, and these will probably 
be more effective than the dried bacteria. But it is 
useless to try to inoculate a sour soil, for t'he bacte- 
ria nor the legumes will thrive on such a soil 'till 
sweetened by an application of lime. Nor is it of any 
use to inoculate a soil that is already ric'h in nitrogen, 
for in such a soil the legumes will use the soil nitro- 
gen and will not make nodules on their roots. By 
far the best way to inoculate a soil for alfalfa or other 
legumes is to get soil from a field where the plants 
have already been successful and have made nodules. 
Scatter 200 pounds per acre of such a soil over the 
field and the results will usually be better than with 
the artificial cultures. It is useless to inoculate a soil 
in which phosphoric acid and potash are wanting, for 
these are very necessary to any plant, but especially 



to the legumes, which, while they get nitrogen from 
the air mvst be abundantly supplied with the mineral 
matters, since th^y are greedy consumers of these. 

The cereal crops are not nitrogen collectors and in 
this respect differ from the legumes. An experiment 
made at the Georgia Station showed that wheat, bar- 
ley, beans and luzerne (alfalfa) were planted on the 
same field without an application of nitrogen, with 
nitrogen at rate of 18 pounds per acre and with 31.5 
pounds and 45 pounds with the following results, 
phosphoric acid and potash being furnished in all 
cases in like quantities. 

No Nitrogen ISl lbs. N. 31.5 lbs. N. 45 lbs. N. 

Barley 100 IGl 220 272. 

Wheat laS 212 270 316 

Beans 935 938 961 883 

Luzerne 970 983 lOOO 994 

Showing that when the legumes, beans and alfalfa, 
received heavy applications of nitrogen they did not 
acquire an extra amount as they did when no nitro* 
gen was applied. 

While it is believed that there is little specific dif- 
ference in the various bacteria that live on the roots 
of legumes, some of them have become so altered in 
Uieir haliits that they prefer certain plants to others 
and the bacteria that inoculate one form of legume 
will usually fail to affect another species. Hence it is 
important to have the forms that live on the special 
I)lant to be grown. But it must be remembered that 
these bacteria themselves have no nitrogen and do 
not add nitrogen directly to the soil, and are hence 
not to be considered in the form of fertilizers, but as 
plants which through their ability to oxidize the free 
nitrogen of the air enable the legumes to get it in a 
form in whic'h they can use it. 

PHOSPHORUS. 

The element phosphorus is one of the most vitally 
important elements in plant life. While, as we have 
said, phosphorus cannot be used as a pure element, 
we can get it in the form of p'hosphoric acid associat- 
ed with lime, forming a phosphate of lime. In its 
natural form in the rocks it is in a form not soluble 
in water. But when finely pulverized and mixed 
with the soil it does finally become, through the ac- 
tion of the carbonic acid in the rain water, available 
to plants. Soils will hold on to phosphoric acid 'till 
called for by plants, and it does not leach away from 



A Great Deal of Plant Food Washes Off the Land. 



155 



e soil like the nitrates do. But as all our cereal 
ops use it in large amounts in the ripening of the 
ain, it has been found that our old cultivated soils 
e more deficient in phosphates than in any other 
rm of plant food except nitrogen. 

We get phosphoric acid from animal bones and 
pm t'he phosphatic rocks. Some manufacturers try 
I make the farmer believe that the phosphoric acid 
pm animal bones is a better article than that from 
ije rock. But this is a mistake. Phosp'horic acid is 
lie and the same thing, no matter from what source, 
d the only thing to consider is its availability. In 
w bone meal it is insoluble, but owing to the speedy 
cay of the bone meal in t'he soil .it becomes availa- 
e more quickly than that in the pulverized rock or 




Fig. 4. — Yield Iroui l-ln acre. No FerUlizer. 
yj From farm of T. J. Adams, Edgefield, S. C. 



pats" as it is called. The phosphatic rock found 
rSouth Carolina, Florida and Tennessee furnishes the 
jeapest source of phosphoric acid on the market, 
render the phosphoric acid immediately available 
l|; pulverized rock is dissolved in sulphuric acid, 
I king what is known on the market as acid phos- 
Ijjate. For immediate effect on the crops this is con- 
^J'ered best. But it has been found that long con- 
t|ued use of acid phosphate brings about an acid 
iljidition in the soil that is detrimental to the growth 
tclover and ot'her legumes. Not that the acid does 
KfS directly, for a well made phosphate has no free 
^;d, and manufacturers avoid an excess of acid, as 
i makes the article sticky and hard to drill. But it 
! tound that when the acid phosphate is applied the 
p^ps take up the phosphoric acid and set free the 



sulphuric acid, which at once unites with- the lime 
carbonate in the soil and forms plaster or the suj- 
phate of lime, which does not sweeten the soil as the 
carbonate does, and this robbing of the soil of lime;, 
brings about acid conditions and a need for fresh ap- 
plications of lime. Practical meix are rapidly coming 
to the conclusion that for the permanent benefit of 
the land it is better to use the pulverized rock in lib- 
eral amounts. Experiments made at the Maryland 
Station show that t'he pulverized rock gave better 
and more permanent results than the acid phosphate. 
The average super phosphate or acid phospliate con- 
tains about 14 per cent, of phosphoric acid, but some 
rock makes an article as high as 16 per cent. It has 
been found too that on a soil deficient in phosphoric 




Fig. 5. — Yield from 1-10 acre, from Fertilizer containing 
per cent. Phosphoric Acid. :; per cent. Nitrogen, 
a per cent. Potash. 
Fom farm of T. J. Adams, Edgefield, S. C. 



acid and potash an application of either alone will 
have little result, and that for the best results both 
are needed. The office of potash in the plant seems 
to be to encourage and promote t'he formation of 
starch, while phosphorus is engaged in the transfer 
of the starch to the points where it is needed. 

POTASH. 

Starch is formed in plants through the assimila- 
tion of carbon from the carbon dioxide in the air by 
the green matter in the leaves. But it has been 
found that this process is checked and little starch is 
formed if potash is deficient, and no growth what- 
ever is made if it is entirely absent. Hence, though 



IS6 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



po'.ai.h contains no starch, it is essential to tlie for- 
mation of starcli and to plant life, and starch is the 
primary form in which all t'he structure of plants is 
made up, the starch being transformed into various 
other substances to make up the tissues of the plant. 
Starch is also a storage form of food for the future 
use of the plant. It is stored by p'hosphoric acid in 
the tubers of the potato, and t'here keeps unchanged 
'till the potato sprouts. As soon as sprouting takes 
place there is a ferment formed that changes the 
starcli into a sort of sugar that the plant can use as 
food. Starch as starch is not digestible by plants or 
animals. We have in our saliva the same ferment 
that changes the starch in food to glucose and ena- 
bles us to digest it. 'Now as starch is so important 
a matter in the plant economy it is important to un- 
derstand t'he means for making and using it in the 
perfection of the crop. If the soil is rich in nitrogen 
but deficient in phosphoric acid and potash, potatoes 
will make rank tops and very small and few tubers. 
Grain will grow rank and have weak straw that will 
fall and lodge. Hence we see the importance of hav- 
ing a due percentage of p'hosphoric acid and potash 
in the soil, and if they are def cient to apply them in 
the fertilizer. An excess of nitrogen makes the cot- 
ton plant long limbed and "weedy" and a small fruit- 
age in proportion to growth. But when this rank 
growth is supplemented with a due percentage of 
phosphoric acid and potash, the rank growth is no 
disadvantage and the plants will fruit heavily. 



Potash is the oxide of the metal potassium. 



Tf 



IS 



one of the component parts of all vegetable matter, 
and in burning wood we find in the ashes a large per- 
centage of potash associated with a still larger per- 
centage of lime and a small percentage of p'hosphoric 
acid. Hence ashes, particularly those from hard 
woods, are a valuable source of potash. The ashes of 
corn cobs are still more valuable, and those made 
from cotton-seed hulls are the most valuable of all. 
Potash exists more plentifully in clay soils than any 
other of the important elements of plant food. But 
it is in the form of an insoluble silicate, which is 
slowly made available to plants by the carbonic acid 
in rain water. Applications of lime will release pot- 
ash mere rapidly, and in some cases it may be found 
cinaper to get at it in this way than to apply potash 
in I'ne fertilizer. But as a rule, even on soils that 
liavt an aSundance of potash in the insoluble form it 
will pay to use some potas'h in the fertilizer, especial- 
ly for those crops like potatoes, legumes and tobacco 



need large percentages of available potash in the soil. 
The most readily available source for potash is the 
potash salts imported from Germany under the names 
of kainit, sylvanite, etc. But since in the crude salts 
there is but a small percentage of potash in propor- 
tion to the salt associated with it, the German com- 
panies have concentrated the potash in the form of 
muriate and sulphate in which there is 50 per cent, 
of actual potash, w'hile in kainit there is but 12 per 
cent. Hence the more concentrated article is usually 
the cheaper since the farmer has to freight but one- 
fourth as much to get what potas'h he needs. It has 
been found, however, that kainit, by reason of the 
large amount of common salt it contains, has a spe- 
cial value on some soils in the South in preventing 
rust in cotton, and it is, therefore, largely used in cot- 
ton fertilizers. Bottom soils and ret aimed swamp 
lands usually need no application of nitrogen, but are 
apt to be very deficient in potas'h. Light sandy soils 
an-e a-lso defic'ien-t in potash, and even on tlie heavy 
clay loams it will usually pay for some crops to use 
a liberal application of potash. 

Potash and phosphoric acid are essential to the 
success of the legume crops, and the deficiency of 
these in the soil is the common cause of the failure 
of peas, clover and other legumes. If well supplied 
with phosphoric acid and potash the legumes will get 
all the nitrogen they need from the air, and will leave 
the soil richer in nitrogen for the following crop. 
Prof. Wagner, one of the best authorities on potash, 
says: 

"On the strength of what is known up to to-day on 
that subject, I can lay down the following general 
principles: 

"I consider it as suited to the purpose to fertilize 
witTi potash (kali) not only all plants intended to be 
used on the farm as food for animals, but also all ce- 
reals, which furnish straw, in quantities not merely 
sufficient for the production of a maximum crop, but 
with enough to induce the plants to take up an ex- 
cess of potash (kali). Animal food rich in potaslil 
(kali) gives manure rich in potash (kali) and the 
potash (kali) of tV? manure is for some plants mosti 
advantageous. 

For potatoes and sugar beets, give the potash (kali); 
in form of stable manure, and apply potash (kali) to 
the crop preceding or else fertilize witli muriate oi 
potash in the fall. 

On loamy soils potatoes stand dik-ect potash (kali)j 
fertilization better than on sandy soils. 



Plants Need Food the Same That Animals Do. 



157 



Among the cereals oats require tlie least, barley the 
argest quantity of potash (kali.) 

To tobacco apply the potas'h (kali) only in form of 
ulphate. 

1. All leguminous plants such as peas, beans, lu- 
ins, clover, seradella, lentils, esparsette should be 
endered nitrogen-hungry, so that they may draw to 

'be utmost extent upon the nitrogen supply of the 
tmosphere, and this is effected by potash (kali) 
hosphate fertilization. 

2. For the nitrogen consumers the requisite amount 
f nitrogen should be secured from the cheapest pos- 
ible source, the atmosphere. Extensive cultivation 
f leguminous plants, fertilized by potash (kali) phos- 
hates, and their use as nitrogen-fertilizers effects 
his. 

3. As far as nitrogen, procured without cost from 
tie air does not suffice, the nitrogen-consumers should 
e supplied with the requisite amount of nitrogen, 
ufficient for the production of a maximum crop. 

4. Whatever nitrogen has been secured from the 
ir by green cattle food, and passes on into their ma- 

jure, should be preserved from losses. This is af- 
'ected by spreading potash (kali) salts, containing 
pagnesia, either in the stable or the dunghill. 
],| 5. Whatever nitrogen has been secured by the soil 
illy way of stubbles, roots, etc., of leguminous plants, 
pould also be protected from loss, which is done by 
hlanting after fruits, or leguminosae, for fertilization 
j'lone, properly fertilized with potash (kali) phos- 
ihates. 

6. All nitrogen furnished to- the crop by the soil, 
jy the stable manure, or by commercial fertilizers, 
iiould be induced to produce the highest effect, which 
gain is affected by liberal fertilization with potash 
kali) phosphates. 

I 7. Wherever lime is deficient, the soil should be 
jpplied with it, so that the potash (kali) salts may 
avelop their whole efficacy." 

I It has been found that certain forms of potash are 
'etter suited to certain crops than other forms. To- 
ipcco grown by the use of the muriate of potash 
chloride) is of inferior quality, and only the highest 
rade of the sulphate should be used on tobacco. 
Irish potatoes too are dryer and more starchy when 
pe sulphate is used. But in the growing of the early 
otato crop in the South for the Northern market, the 
iiuriate is commonly used, since this crop is not ex- 
iccted to be particularly dry and mealy. Crops in 
hich sugar is an important ingredient, are better 



from the use of the sulphate, such as strawberries, 
sweet potatoes and other things of like nature. Ev- 
ery farmer should carefully save and apply all the 
wood ashes of the farm, for they are not only a val- 
uable source of potash, but, as we have said, contain 
a very large pei-centage of lime, which will act in re- 
leasing potash in a clay soil. For the plant food they 
contain hard wood ashes are worth from $8 to $10 
per ton if they have been kept dry. 

What we have said in regard to the various forms 
of plant food in fertilizers shows the importance of 
having a well balanced fertilizer in the soil. It is es- 
sential that the crops shall be supplied with nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid and potash in dnc proportions for the 
best success. A fertilizer containing these is called a 
complete fertilizer and the proportions of each in the 
fertilizer will depend on the nature of the soil and its 
needs and also on the character of, the crop grown. 
But we have found that in all general farming with 
grain or cotton, where a proper rotation of crops is 
used and the legumes are brought in frequently, the 
farmer never needs to buv an ounce of nitrogen- for 
he can get all that he needs through tlie growth of tlje 
legumes, and by applying the mineral elements, ppj:- 
ash and phosphoric acid, liberally to the legumes,, p.^^s 
or clover, he can not only get his nitrogen without 
cost, but can make a profit in the feeding of stock on 
t'he legume hay. Since nitrogen is the most costly 
part of a fertilizer, it is evident that by adopting this 
practice the farmer can use the cheaper forms more 
liberally, and when they are applied to the crops that 
feed the soil in nitrogen and feed the stock at the 
same time he is making the best possible use of this 
fertilizer outlay. Neglecting this rotation and the 
growing of legumes he is cornpelled to use a com- 
plete fertilizer and to buy the costly nitrogen that he 
could get without money and without price. 

Few farmers realize that by far the larger part of 
every plant does not come from the soil at all, but 
from the air. Take a large green stalk of corn and 
cut it up and weigh it. Then dry it thoroughly, driv- 
ing off all the water by heat as a chemist would in 
his dry bath. Weigh it again, and you will find that 
it has lost a great deal. It has lost water. Now 
burn this dried plant 'till every particle is changed to 
a white ash, and you can liold what is left of the corn 
stalk in your hand. These ashes represent what the 
plant got from the soil, except the nitrogen you have 
driven off and the water, and these came originally 



158 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



from the air. You say tliat you have destroyed the 
stalk. No, you have simply resolved it into its original 
elements. The lime, potash and phosphoric acid are 
in the ashes, and the structure of the plant, the car- 
bon di oxide and water have gone back to the air 
from Which they came. 

HOW PLANTS GET FOOD FROM THE AIR. 

Sprout a potato in a dark cellar after weighing it, 
it will make long white sprouts, but will gain noth- 
ing, for the sprouting is only the transfer of matter 
already formed in the potato. But sprout it in the 
sunshine and you will see that the sprout turns green 
and the potato gains weight. This green color in 
vegetation is one of the most important matters in 
plant growth. Tlie leaf of every plant has especially 
on the under side myriads of little openings invisible 
to the naked eye. These openings have the power to 
open and close like a pair of lips and are the mouths 
or breathing pores of the plant. When the sun 
shines, and at no other time, these mouths open. The 
air can then enter into the interior loosely arranged 
cells of the leaf. There is always in the air a minute 
percentage of carbon di oxide or carbonic acid gas. 
This is composed of two parts oxygen and one part 
carbon. The green matter of the leaf has the won- 
derful power to break up this combination and the 
plant takes the carbon and throws off the oxygen and 
thus purifies the air and gets at the same time the 
carbon it needs. Then with this carbon and the wa- 
ter that comes from the soil, the plant makes starch 
and all the compounds known as tarbohydrates, 
which are used by the living matter of the plant to 
build up its stnvcture. Nitrogen is an essential ele- 
ment of the living matter itself, and this it gets from 
the soil except in the case of the legumes when by 
the aid of the bacteria on the roots they get it from 
the air. Plants get from the soil through the fine 
root hairs we have mentioned the mineral elements 
or ash elements as they are called, dissolved in the 
soil water, and these are tak-en to the leaves and there 
all the material for growth is formed and transport- 
ed to where it is needed to make new growth. Tops 
and roots and stem are all formed of materials elab- 
orated in the leaves, and whatever the leaves are that 
will every other part of the plant be. The roots of 
plant.s Have a power to select what they want from 
Jhe iOi\ and in the proportion they want it if it is 



available. The oak tree and the pine will grow ir 
the forest with their roots interlacing in the soil, hul 
manufacture oak material and the pine pine material, 
The so-called sap that rushes up in spring through the 
so-called sap that rushes up in spring through the 
trees is not sap but merely soil water with plant foot 
dissolved in it. Growth comes entirely from thi 
leaves in every direction. As all plant food in thi 
soil must be dissolved before plants can use it, the im 




Fig. C. — Illustrating the formation of starcli. 



portance of a due supply of film moisture is evident 
Plants get all their carbon from the air and neve 
from the soil. They never use ammonia or any othe 
form of nitrogen 'till it has been transformed into i 
nitrate through the action of the soil bacteria. Whil 
all the hig^her forms of plant life get carbon solel; 
from the air, the bacteria that carry on the work o 
changing ammonia into a nitrate have the power t( 
get carbon in another way. It is found that in a soi 
abounding in organic matter containing nitrogen tha 
an application of lime carbonate promoted the activ 
ity of the bacteria, and it was finally discovered tha 
they have the power to get their carbon from the liini 
carbonate, which the higher plants can not do. Thi 
followinsr table will be of interest and value. 



Don't Depend Upon the Other Man's Idea. 



159 





Potash 


Phosphoric 






(Kali) 


Acid 


Nitrogen 




K,0. 


P2O, 


N. 


Wbeat 


58 


45 


Ill 


Rye 


76 


44 


S7 


-Barley 


62 


35 


78 


Oats 


96 


35 


89 


iCorn 


. 174 


G9 


146 


iKice 


45 


24 


39 


■Sorghum 


71 


68 


129 


jBuukwheat 


17 


40 


63 


iPea (pisum sativum) .... 


G9 


39 


153 


Horsepea (Vicia faba) . . . 


. 1G9 


64 


254 




87 


62 


297 


jLupine, green, for fodder . . 


03 


46 


219 










,1 luteus) 


80 


37 


155 




. 192 
. 200 


55 

44 


119 


Bugar beet, beet-root 


95 




. 426 


74 


187 


fcarrots 


. 190 


65 


166 




. 201 


53 


166 


porn, fodder, green 


. 236 


66 


122 




. 29 


18 


37 


Clover, green (trifolium 










. 154 


46 


171 


uUL-erne (medicago sativa) . 


. ISl 


65 


289 


''Clover (trifolium repens) . 


58 


29 


89 


j|fted Clover (trifolium 

I incarnatum) 








57 


17 


95 


Ililsparsette 


. 103 


36 


239 


jperadeila 

j/e-tch (Vicia sativa) 


. 196 


57 


128 


. 113 


35 


149 


;lape 


. 124 


79 


154 


'oppy 


92 


30 


87 


iemp (cannabivs sativa) . . 


54 


34 




jJotton 


35 


32 


110 


Sops 


. 127 


54 


200 


' tobacco 


. 148 


32 


127 


lugar cane 


. 107 


37 


518 


Sorghum (Sorghum saccha- 










. 5C1 


90 


440 


i Vhite cabbage 


. 514 


125 


213 


1 'auliflower 


. 265 


76 


202 


/ettuce (lactuca sativa) . . 


72 


17 


41 


iliucumbers 


. 193 


94 


142 


►nions 


96 


49 


96 



THE SPECIAL VALUE OF BARN-YARD 
MANURE. 

While the commercial fertilizers furnis'h the essen- 
al elements of plant food in a more readily availa- 
le form than barnyard manure and in larger amounts 
cr ton, we have found that barnyard manure has a 
uality that commercial fertilizers lack. The manure 
arries with it a large amount of organic matter. This 



organic matter tends to increase the humus in the 
soil, and to render it more retentive of moisture, and 
hence better able to withstand drouths. It also 
serves to make the soil more mellow and more easily 
worked, and from its slower availability it lasts long- 
er in the soil than fertilizers. 

But if, as we have suggested, the mineral fertiliz- 
ers are used for the encouragement of the growth of 
the legume crops, get'ting nitrogen from the air and 
furnishing the organic matter in the soil and for the 
feeding of stock and the making of more barnyard 
manure, we can through their use accumulate humus 
in the soil more cheaply and rapidly than by depend- 
ing on barnyard manure alone. This does not mean 
that we should neglect the manure, but does mean 
that we should have more of it through the growing 
and feeding of the forage raised by growing the leg- 
ume crops. The organic matter and the nitrogen left' 
in the roots of peas is gotton there more cheaply than 
by hauling and spreading it, but the crop itself should 
always be utilized and the resulting manure carefully 
saved, for no matter what the money crop of the 
farm may be, the keeping and feeding well of live 
stock lies at the very foundation of all successful ag- 
riculture. The following table taken from Bulletin 
No. 22, Special Georgia Experiment Station : 



1,000 POUNDS OF 



CONTAIN POUNDS. 

Lime 



Pot- Nitra 

ash. gen. 

1.00 0.04 4.00 

4.00 1.50 15.00 



Phosphoric 
Acid. 

Crab grass (green) . . . 0.75 

Crab grass (dry) .... 2.50 

Ordinary weeds (aver- 
age approximate) . 1.00 

Oat straw 2.00 

Wheat straw 2.00 

Corn stalks 3.00 

Corn cobs 0.60 

Cotton stalks, bolls and 

leaves 3.00 

Cotton hulls 2. SO 

Oak leaves (dry) .... 2.60 

Pine straw 0.70 

Pine wood (sawdust) . . 0.07 

Oak wood (sawdust) . . 0.50 

Cotton seed 10.00 

Cotton seed meal .... 25.00 

Peavines (green) .... 1.00 

Peavines (dry) 5.20 

Clover (green) l.OO 

Clover (dry) 3.80 

Cowpea roots (green) . 1.50 

Clover roots (green) . . 1.25 

Muck as it exists in swamps is black humus result 



3.00 


0.75 


10.00 


4.00 


12.40 


6.20 


3.00 


5.10 


5.90 


5.00 


6.00 


3.20 


1.00 


O.GO 


5.00 


16.00 


15.00 


14.00 


3.00 


7.80 


7.50 


20.00 


1.70 


10.00 


2.00 


0.3O 


6.00 


1.20 


0.08 


5.00 


2.00 


1.40 


10.00 


2.00 


12.00 


30.00 


6.00 


17.50 


67.50 


3.00 


3.10 


2.70 


15.00 


14.50 


19.50 


4.00 


4.90 


4.30 


17.00 


22.00 


20.70 


4.00 


4.50 


4.10 


4.00 


5.00 


5.20 



i6o 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



ing from vegetable decay. In the condition as dug 
from t'he swamp it is sour and comparatively useless. 
But if piled in layers over winter with lime or ashes 
the resulting compost is a valuable material for ap- 
plying to the land. The dried muck will also make 
a valuable absorbent in the barnyard, but raw, wet 
muck should never be hauled directly on the land, be- 
cause of its acidity which is 'harmful rather than bene- 
ficial. But when sweetened with lime or ashes and 
frosted over winter it is a very different article. 

The value of stable manure is great, both as a me- 
chanical manure, and as containing plant food. It 
consists of the excrement and urine of stock and cat- 
tle mixed vvith straw, leaves, cotton hulls, saw dust, 
etc. Animal matter, such as the excrements, decom- 
pose more rapidly than vegetable matter, and when 
mixed with vegetable matter causes it to decompose 
faster t'han it would do otherwise. It is hard to get 
at the amount of plant food in stable manures, for it 
is so different. The following table represents per- 
haps an average, which is taken from Bulletin No. 22, 
Special, Georgia Experiment Station : 

I CONTAIN POUNDS 



1,000 POUNDS OF I Phosphoric 
I Acid 



Potash 



Nitrogen 



Stable manure 
(fresh) . . 

Stable manure 
(rotted) . . 




5.00 
5.00 



On the basis charged for commercial fertilizers' it 
is estimated that the average value of manure annu- 
ally produced by each horse or mule to be $27.00; by 
each head of cattle, $19.00; by each hog, $12.00. It 
is hardly probable that near as good results are ob- 
tained in practice, and too sad to say it, many farm- 
ers lose the w'hole amount, because they do not take 
care of it. The urine is the most valuable part of 
the excrements of animals as it is especially rich in 
potash and nitrogen. It should be put upon t'he land 
as early as possible, and not allowed to stand in the 
rain and sunshine. It is a good plan to clean out the 
stalls often and place the manure on the land imme- 
diately. If this can not be done, have a shed, and 
place it under there and take care of it. It should 
not be exposed to the sun or rain any more fhan pos- 
sible. However, it does not lose anything when 



spread upon the fields. Before putting it upon th< 
fields, the fields should be plowed immediately be 
fore, as the freshly plowed soil will absorb the es 
caping ammonia. Lime and stable manure shoul 
never be mixed ; as the lime sets the ammonia free an^ 
it goes off into t'he air. 

COTTON SEED. 

Unless farmers are able to get a very high price fc 
their cotton-seed it will not pay them to sell thet 
and buy fertilizers. It is risky because they are li; 
ble to get cheated ; for when you use cotton-seed, yO| 
know w'hat you are using, but when you use a con. 
mercial fertilizer you do not always know what yo 
are using. If you get 1,500 pounds meal for a ton (j 
cotton-seed, you may exchange, but if not, put yoi.i 
seed under your crop. There is about 750 pounds (, 
meal in a ton of cotton-seed. T'he oil in the seed , 
of no value as a fertilizer. The hulls have a litt 
plant food value, and are quite valuable as a mechai 
ical manure. 2 

LIME. 

The action of lime on land is not clearly und^ 
stood by chemists, but it is known that a moder; 
amount of lime on land has a beneficial effect. Li 
is of special value where there is a great deal of v 
etable matter, as suc'h land is inclined to be too ac 
and lime corrects the acid condition. The quantil 
of lime applied depends, of course, upon the charffl! 
ter of the soil. Too much lime is a detriment to tT 
land. As a general rule from 40 to 50 bushels pi' 
acre after being slacked is about the right amou ; 
Where the land contains a great deal of vegetal.f 
matter, such as muck land, and lands where a lar- 
amount of vegetable matter has been turned over, I' 
where lands are not properly drained, and inclined > 
be sour, as much as from 100 to 200 bushels per i 
may be applied. In England many years ago, wIk- 
land was not properly drained a great deal of li: 
was used, but since the land has been drained, v( 
little lime is used. It is not necessary to apply li 
every year ; once in every three or four years is s 
ficient. The effect of lime is different on differ' 
crops. It has proven to be of much help to can 
loupes, where it seemed to be a positive hurt to \ 
termelons on the same land. It will be of help 
wheat, but its effect will not be noticeable on rye. 1 



Plant Cow Peas in Your Corn. 



i6r 



using lime it should be slacked in such a way that 
the air will not get to it any more than possible. 
Some farmers scoop out a hole in the field, and place 
four or five bushels in there and cover it with dirt. 
The dirt slacks the lime if it is moist. If the dirt is 
not moist enough, water is placed on the lime just 
before it is covered up. 

LAND PLASTER. 

Land plaster is a combination of 33 per cent, lime, 
46 per cent, sulphuric acid, and 21 per cent, water. 
' The action of land plaster is not well understood. It 
appears to have an indirect action on the plants, and 
by some is highly recommended. It is of special val- 
ue on peas, vetches and other leguminous plants. Some 
authorities claim that it pays on all crops, but e.xper- 
iments made at some of the stations do not prove 



red clay land, which contains a large amount of po- 
tential potash, than it will on sandy land which con- 
tains a comparatively small amount of this element. 
The sandy soil requires more potash in the fertilizer 
to give the same results. This shows again very 
clearly tlie necessity that the farmer study his soil so 
that he may be in a position to apply his fertilizers 
intelligently. 

Land plaster may seem to sterilize a soil, by help- 
ing to exhaust its supply of potash. An application 
of this element in the shape of kainit, muriate, or sul- 
phate of potash would correct the trouble. 

FISH AS A FERTILIZER. 

On the coast where fish are plentiful, that is, what 
is called, "trash" fish, t'hey have been found to be 
very beneficial as fertilizers. Many fis'h are caught 




JPig. 7.— Cotton Field. No Fertilizer. Yield 740 lbs. Seed 
; ■ Cotton per acre. Phillip l^e, Gilt, N. C. 

|{ 

jfthis assertion to be correct. We see very little rea- 
ison for the Southern farmer to buy land plaster, 

fwhen he can get all he needs of this element with his 

ij^cid phosphate. 

if When it is understood that acid phosphate is one- 

'■]half sulphur of lime, or land plaster, and that it costs 
practically nothing when one is purchasing phosphor- 
'C acid any way, the talk about the use of land plaster 
will, we think, subside. 

The effect of this land plaster in a fertilizer com- 
posed largely of acid phosphate by making potash 
ivailable in the soil accounts in a measure for the 
jact that such a fertilizer will give better results on 






<3^ 



t 
■^ 




T-^}^^:^J'}c4>-^-^^' 



i^mmi 



mi-f 



Fig. a. — Cotton Field. Treated with Fertilizer, containing S 

per cent. Phosphoric Acid, S per cent. Nitrogen, 6 per 

cent. Potash. Yield 1120 lbs. Seed Cotton per 

acre. Phillip L.ee, Gift, N. C. 

that have no value in the markets, and these are used 
to make fertilizers. Dig out a hole say eight or ten 
feet square and two or three feet deep, place in a lay- 
er of fish about eight inches thick, and cover over 
with a layer of sand or dirt, and pack tightly, then 
place another layer of fish and sand as before, and 
keep on until you are about three feet above the 
ground, and then put on a very heavy layer of sand, 
and be sure that it is tight all around. Leave it there 
for six months, and then dig out whatever is needed. 
This fertilizer is of great value on truck farms, and is 
said to do the crops more good than a fertilizer that 

12 



1 62 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



would cost $40.00 per ton, especially for beans. The these materials on hand he must make a fertilizi 

fish that have no sale in t'he market, if properly used that will have 12 pounds of plant food to the hu: 

as above directed,, are said to be worth as much as dred, or 240 pounds to the ton. He figures out th; 

those that are sold. with the material on hand he gets this formula:' 



FERTILIZER FORMULAS. 

It is a very difficult thing for a great many farmers 
to work out fertilizer formulas. An d>-2-2 fertilizer 
is used more for cotton perhaps than any other. But 
many farmers do not know what "8-2-2" means. It 
means that the fertiliser of that formula has 8 per 
cent, phosphoric acid, 2 per cent, potash and 2 per 
cent, nitrogen. But some do not know what we 
mean when we say that the fertilizer contains 8 per 
cent, phosphoric acid. When we say that a fertilizer 
analyzes 8 per cent, phosphoric acid, 2 per cent, pot- 
.ash, and 2 per cent, nitrogen, we mean that one hun- 
dred pounds of this fertilizer has in it 8 pounds phos- 
phoric acid, 2 pounds potash and 2 pounds nitrogen. 
In 100 pounds of fertilizer that analyzes 8-2-2 there 
are only twelve pounds of plant food in it. That 
leaves 88 pounds of matter and the question comes, 
What is this 88 pounds? It is what is known as a 
"filler." A "filler'" is any substance that is put into 
a fertilizer, or exists there naturally, which is not a 
plant food. There are two kinds of fillers, natural 
and artificial. A natural filler is one that is placed 
there by nature. For instance, in cotton-seed meal, 
it is not all nitrogen, indeed only a small part of it is 
nitrogen. There is some phosphoric acid, and some 
potash, and other matters in a small quantity. The 
artificial filler is one placed there by man, for the 
purpose of reducing the total percentage of plant food 
contained in the fertilizer. The material used for ar- 
tificial fillers are numerous, such as sand, powdered 
cinders, slate, marl, gypsum. These fillers have no 
value as plant food, and are only valuable as fillers. 
But why are they used, asks some man. To show 
the use of artificial fillers, suppose a fertilizer factory 
gets an order for a fertilizer that will analyze 8-2-2. 
He does not happen to have on 'hand cotton-seed 
meal, kainit, and South Carolina phosphate, but in- 
stead he only has the highest price goods on the 
market, such as Florida phosp'hate, which contains 
20 per cent, available phosphoric acid ; nitrate of soda 
which contains 16 per cent, nitrogen ; dried blood 
which contains 14 per cent, nitrogen ; sulphate of 
ammonia with 20 per cent, nitrogen ; muriate of pot- 
ash which contains 50 per cent, potash. Now, with 



825 pounds of 20 per cent, acid phosphate will give li 

pounds acid. 
215 pounds of 14 per cent, dried blood will give 30 poum 
Nitrogen. 
75 pounds of 16 per dent, nitrate soda will giv« 12 poum 

Nitrogen. 
S5 pounds of 59 per cent, muriate of potash will give ^ 
pounds Potash. 

If a man wanted an 8-2-2 fertilizer he would wai 
8 pounds of available phosphoric acid in every hui 
dred pounds of the fertilizer, which would mean th; 
he wants 160 pounds in phosphoric acid in a ton. Tl 
analysis given above makes it 165 pounds of plio 
phoric acid, and this is thrown in to be sure that 
will meet the test. He wants two pounds of nitn 
gen in each hundred, or 40 pounds of nitrogen in 
ton of the fertilizer. He wants 2 pounds of pota.- 
in a hundred pounds of fertilizer, or 40 pounds in 
ton of fertilizer. The dried blood and nitrate of soi 
will make 42 pounds of nitrogen as shown above, ar 
the muriate of potash will give 42 pounds of potas 
But when we add up, we find that we have only uS' 
1,200 pounds of acid phosphate, dried blood, nitra 
of soda, and muriate of potash, all together. Now 
this 1,200 pounds of fertilizer he has the 160 poun' 
of phosp'horic acid that the formula called for ai' 
the 40 pounds of nitrogen and the 40 pounds of p( 
ash that the formula called for, but in all he has b'i 
1,200 pounds of fertilizer. In fact, he has given yoi; 
little more than is called for. But he can not sell tlj 
1,200 pounds of fertilizer to you for t'he same pn^ 
that he could if it only analyzed 8-2-2, for it will 2! 
alyze more than that, and these chemicals that we| 
used cost him more than they would had they be 
such that it would had 2,000 pounds-been required 
produce an 8-2-2 fertilizer. In other words, the che 
icals are stronger, and, therefore, more costly. • 
fact, the farmers require a ton of fertilizer that v 
analyze 8-2-2, and instead of taking this 1,200 pour 
of fertilizer and using it over the same ground, 
uses the ton over, he has the factory to haul in { 
pounds of slate, cinders, and other worthless trJ 
and mixes with this 1,200 pounds of fertilizer. WTi 
the fertilizer is analyzed after the cinders are mi? 
with it, it analyzes available phosphoric acid 8:25 1| 



You Should Study the Fertilizer Question. 



163 



cent., nitrogen 2:10 per cent, and potash 2.12 per 
cent. The man who has lost is the farmer, for the 
factory is going to have him pay for hauling those cin- 
ders, and mixing them in, and they must pay the 
railroad freight, so the farmer has lost. Now would 
it not have been better for you to have bought 1,200 
pounds that would analyze 13:75 per cent, available 
phosphoric acid, 3.50 per cent, nitrogen, and 3:54 per 
cent, potash. The only difference between the two is 
that in getting a ton that analyzes 8-2-2 and 1,200 
pounds of 13.75, 3.50 and 3.54 is that you 
save the expense of mining, pulverizing and 
freighting, mixing the artificial filler, such as cin- 
ders, and this, remember, is 800 pounds, and then the 
freight on the 800 pounds of filler from the factory 
to your railroad station, and then the hauling it out 
to your home, and handling it. It would have been 
much better to have bought 1,200 pounds, and mixed 
in the 800 pounds when you got home, say, mix com- 
post, or if nothing better, sand. The analysis of the 
percentages of plant food contained in fertilizer in- 
gredients is figured on the ton basis, 'hence a 16 per 
cent, acid phosphate means 16 pounds of phosphoric 
acid to the 100 pounds, or 320 pounds to the ton. 
Kainit runs 12 1-2 per cent, actual potash and will 
give you 50 pounds potash in 400 pounds of the ma- 
terial. Muriate of potash contains 50 per cent, potash. 

Nitrate of soda contains 20 per cent, of ammonia 
or 20 pounds of ammonia in each 'hundred pounds. 
Cotton-seed meal contains 8 per cent, of ammonia and 
in 500 pounds of meal you have 40 pounds of ammo- 
nia. Now if you want a mixture to contain 2 per 
cent, of ammonia in mixing a ton, use 500 pounds 
cotton-seed meal, whic'h will give you 40 pounds of 
ammonia or 2 per cent, in 2,000 pounds. 

If you want 8 per cent, of phosphoric acid, then use 
in the mixture 1,000 pounds of acid phosphate analyz- 
ing 16 per cent. To get 2 per cent, potash in a ton 
use 320 pounds of kainit or 80 pounds of muriate of 
potash. 

The analysis of fertilizers is so important, and gives 
so many farmers trouble, t'hat we will give another 
example. Suppose for some reason that you want a 
fertilizer that will analyze 4 per cent, nitrogen, 6 per 
cent, potash, and 7 per cent, phosphoric acid. This 
means that every hundred pounds of fertilizer you 
prepare will contain 4 lbs. nitrogen, 6 lbs. potash and 
7 pounds phosphoric acid. In the 200 pounds of fer- 
tilizer you would need double that amount, or 8 



pounds nitrogen, 12 pounds of potas'h and 14 pounds 
of phosphoric acid, 100 pounds 14 per cent, acid phos- 
phate would furnish you the necessary available phos- 
phoric acid, and 24 pounds of muriate of potash will 
supply the 12 pounds of actual potash. This leaves 
76 lbs. to complete your 200 pounds in whic'h you 
must have the 8 pounds of nitrogen, and as cotton- 
seed meal only contains about 7 pounds to the hun- 
dred, you would not be able to get this nitrogen from 
the meal alone ; but must use either high-grade blood 
or nitrate of soda, at least in part; as the blood con- 
tains about 16 per cent, of nitrogen, or 16 pounds to 
the hundred, 50 pounds of it would furnis'h you the 
4 per cent, nitrogen you need to make your fertilizer 
complete. You could then add 26 pounds of dirt to 
complete 200 pounds. If you use cotton-seed meal, 
the 76 pounds will only contain about 5 pounds of 
nitrogen ; so that your fertilizer will only analyze 2 
1-2 per cent, of this element. Nitrate of soda con- 
tains about the same per cent, of nitrogen as blood, 
and can be substituted for blood, but would not be as 
lasting. If you must use meal, acid phosphate and 
kainit, you would not be able to make a fertilizer 
analyzing as iiigh as you desir-^ ; as. these materials 
do not carry the sufficient amount of the necessary 
elements. In using these it will be necessary to re- 
duce the analysis pro rata and use more of the fertil- 
izer per acre. 

You can figure out per cent, very easy when you 
understand that kainit carries 12 pounds or 12 per 
cent, of potash to the hundred ; cotton-seed meal 8 
pounds or 8 per cent, of ammonia equal to about 7 
per cent nitrogen, and acid phosphate 14 per cent, 
carries 14 pounds to the hundred of p'hosphoric acid. 
In making a fertilizer we take the requisite amount 
of the different materials carrying the plant food we 
wish our fertilizer to contain, always remembering 
that the number of pounds of each kind of plant food 
put in must be divided by the total number of pounds 
of fertilizer mixed up to give you the analysis of the 
whole. 

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE SOIL. 

It was at one time t'hought to be of great value to 
a farmer for a chemist to make an analysis of the 
soil, and see in what the soil is deficient. It has been 
demonstrated that this idea is not of so much prac- 
tical importance when it is tested. For instance, it 
was found by chemical analysis that a certain soil 



i64 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



contained about one-tenth of one per cent, phosp'hor- 
ic acid, or calculating to a depth of nine inches about 
3,000 pounds of phosphoric acid per acre, and yet 
the crop on that land was suffering for phosphoric 
acid. The truth of the matter is, that the phosphor- 
ic acid that was on the soil was not available for the plant 
roots. So a chemical analysis may show that the soil 
contains a sufficient quantity of a plant food, when 
actual test by experience proves that the land is in 
need of that very plant food. For a plant food to be 
of any service to the plant it must be soluble in wa- 
ter. You may experiment with your land and deter- 
mine in what manner just what the land needs. The 
following plan has been suggested, and will prove of 
much benefit to the farmer if they will try it: 



[)fffBffla^|«jlHffW|W »ffl p<t[ff*Oy^- -• 






fe 











fertilizer in one plot may not be felt in an adjoining 
plot. It would be well to locate these experimental plots 
on some of your poorest land, or that which stands 
most badly in need of fertilizer. When all is ready, 
carefully number the plots from one to ten so that 
you may keep a record of the nature and amount of 
fertilizer applied on each plot. Let us suppose that 
you decide to plant cotton on the ten prepared plots 
for the purpose of finding our what fertilizing con- 
stituent is most needed by your soil when growing 
cotton. Plant the cotton in your usual manner, after 
a careful preparation of the soil of the plots, thor- 
oughly ploughing and harrowing the plots in order. 
Then apply the fertilizers as follows : 





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Fig. 9. — Cotton Field. No Fertilizer. Yield 5S1 lbs. Seed 
Cotton per acre. J. M. Jones, Bourntiam, Miss. 



Fig. 10. — Cotton Field. Treated with Fertilizer^ containing S 

per cent. Phosphoric Acid, 'i per cent. Nitrogen, 6 per 

cent Potash. Yield, 1,520 lbs. Seed Cotton per acre. 

J. M. Jones, Bournham, Miss. 



METHOD BY WHICH THE FARMER MAY 
ANALYZE HIS OWN SOIL. 

First, select a piece of ground as level as possible, 
so that rain may not wash the fertilizer from one plot 
into an adjoining plot. Secondly, for t'he purpose of 
the experiment, mark off ten plots, each just one- 
tenth of an acre in area. If convenient make the 
plots long and narrow, say one hundred and thirty- 
six feet long by thirty-two feet wide; these dimen- 
sions would enable you to have eight long rows, four 
feet apart, in each plot. Any other shape of plot will 
answer, only be careful to lay off t'he plots so that 
they shall each contain one-tenth of an acre, or 4.356 
square feet. Separate the plots from each other by 
paths at least three feet wide, so that the effect of 



No. 1. — ::o fertilizer. 

No. 2.^143 poi'.r.d3 of cottonseed me;il. 

No. 3.- — 200 pounds of 14 per C3_t. acid phosphate. 

No. 4. — SO pounds of kainit. 

No. 5. — No fertilizer. 

No. G. — 200 pounds cf r.cld i;hoEph;ite and 143 pounds of 
cottonseed meal. 

No. 7. — 113 pounds of cottimseed meal and SO pounds of 
kainit. 

No. S. — 200 pounds of .acid phosphate and SO pounds of 
kainit. 

No. 9. — 200 pounds of .acid phosphate, SO pounds of kainit 
and 143 pounds of tottonseed meal. 

No. 10. — 500 pounds air-slaked lime. 

In many of our Georgia soils lime is sadly lacking, 
and it may be just the thing needed by the soil, in 
conjunction with certain other fertilizers. To discover 



Do You Know What Your Fertilizer Contains: 



165 



if this be the case, after having fertilized plot No. 2, 
mark of a strip 2 1-2 feet in width diagonally across 
the plot, that is, running from one corner to the op- 
posite corner. Apply to this strip 50 pounds of air- 
slacked lime, and work it in well with the soil and 
other fertilizer with a rake. Do the same with each 
of the ofher plots, omitting No. 10. Then when the 
crop begins to grow, if lime was specially needed by 
the soil in any of the plots, you ought to notice a 
marked superiority in the two and a half foot strip 
■which runs diagonally across all the rows in all nine 
plots. 

In the above fertilizers it is presumed that the acid 
phosphate is the kind most usually sold, containing 
14 per cent, of available phosphoric acid, so that 200 
pounds supplies 28 pounds of actual phosphoric acid 
to the plot. 

The cotton-seed meal is presumed to contain 7 per 
cent, of nitrogen so that 143 pounds of it supplies 10 
pounds of nitrogen to the plot, and the kainit to con- 
tain 12 1-2 per cent, of potash, so that 80 pounds yield 
10 pounds of potas'h to the plots the kainit is applied 
to. 

In applying the fertilizers observe the following 
precautions: Sow each fertilizer on the plot to which 
it is to be applied broadcast, using your best care and 
judgment to distribute tlie fertilizer evenly over the . 
entire plot. In order to get an even distriljution it is 
best to sow in such Cjuantity that you will have to go 
over each plot at least twice to get all the fertilizer 
distributed. Take care not to sow while the wind is 
blowing, as it may blow some of the fertilizer on to 
the adjoining plots. After sowing, harrow the ground, 
and then it will be ready for you to plant. 

Plant thick enoug'h to insure a perfect stand. Treat 
all the plots exactly alike, except as to the fertilizers 
applied.' Prepa;re' the ground in each plot the same, 
plant the cotton all at the same time, and always cul- 
tivate the same and at the same time each day. Take 
pains to have the same number of plants in eac'h row. 
It will be well to' keep a notebook with a page for 
each plot in which to record your observations. 

In this book record: 1st. The kind of fertilizer 
applied to each plot and the amount applied, on the 
page set apart for the respective plots from 1 to 10. 
2nd. Note down the date tlie cotton was planted. 
3rd. Note the date the cotton came up in each plot. 
4th. When the cotton is about two inches high on 
fhe plot containing no fertilizer, note the height and 



appearance of the other plots. 5th. After you have 
thinned out to a uniform stand, record the number of 
missing plants, if any, in each plot. Of course, use 
every endeavor to have the same number of plants in 
each plot, but in case of accident to some, be sure 10 
put down t'he number missing in any plot so as to 
make allowances. 6th. Record any other observa- 
tions of interest during the growth of the crop on the 
different plots, such as the comparative dates of 
blooming, number of bolls to the stalk, date of open- 
ing of the bolls, height of the stalks after maturity of 
t'he plant. 7th. Keep the seed cotton from each plot 
to itself, weigh it by itself, and record the weight of 
the seed cotton from plot No. i on page No. i, and 
so on with the others. When you have picked and 
weighed the last pound of cotton, then you will, I 
think, be able to decide for yourself what fertilizer or 
combination of fertilizers your land requires. Of 
course, if you haye a bad season, very dry or very 
wet, you will not be able to decide so well, and in 
that case repeat the experiment another year. In 
this way you can analyze your own soil and do it 
better than the best chemist in the world can do it 
for you, because you have appealed to the soil itself ; 
you have spoken to it in tlie language of nature, and 
it has replied in the same mute, but eloquent tongue, 
demonstrating the truth of her answers before your 
very eyes. The above is taken from Bulletin No. 42 
Georgia Experiment Station. 

You can form some idea of what your soil needs 
by the way your crops grow. If the plants are dark 
green and grow off rapidly it shows that ammonia is 
abundant, and if they are pale or yellowis'h in appear- 
ance ammonia is needed. If the plant seems weak 
and easily affected by disease, potash is needed, also 
when crops do not fill out well, or the lint on cotton- 
seed is light,- potash is lacking. Phosphoric acid 
makes the plant fruit early and heavily, and has a 
general tendency to bring crops to early maturity. 
\\'hite lint cotton contains very little plant food, t'he 
principal element of which it is composed is potash, 
and if we want a heavy yield of lint cotton we must 
be sure this element is well represented in our fertil- 
izer. , 

For the benefit. of the farmer who can not work 
out the formula, we give several here for different 
crops. The average farmer believes in a fertilizer 
that will analyze 8 per cent, phosphoric acid, 2 per 
cent, nitrogen, and 2 per cent, potash. The follow- 
ing formulas will come up to t'hat anal-sis: 



i66 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



No. I. 

Acid I200 lbs. 

Cotton-seed meal 600 lbs. 

Kainit 200 lbs. 

If you wish to substitute cotton seed tor the meal, 
you will use : 

No. 2. 

Cotton Seed 1200 lbs. 

Acid ..600 lbs. 

Kainit 200 lbs. 

No. 3. 

Acid Phosphate, (14 per cent.) 1150 lbs. 

Cotton-seed meal 500 lbs. 

Kainit 320 lbs. 

Total 1970 lbs. 

No. 4. 

Acid Phos. (15 per cent.) 1 100 lbs. 

Cotton-seed meal 500 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 80 lbs. 

Filler of Dry Sand 320 lbs. 

Total 2000 lbs. 

No. 5. 

Acid Phos. ( 16 per cent.) 1000 lbs. 

Dried Blood 250 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 80 lbs. 

Filler of Dry Sand 670 lbs. 

Total 2000 lbs. 

No. 6. 

Acid Phos. ( 16 per cent.) 1000 lbs. 

Nitrate of Soda 200 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 80 lbs. 

Filler of Dry Sand 720 lbs. 

Total 2000 lbs. 

The analysis of the above four last fnrmulas when 
mixed with shovels and hoes would be a^ follows: 

Phosp'horic Acid 8.00 per cent. 

Ammonia 2.00 per cent. 

Potash 2.00 per cent. 

Total 12 .00 per cent. 



Or in other words, a regular S-2-2 complete Com- 
mercial Fertilizer containing 240 pounds of plant 
food to the ton. ' 

Fertilizers that will analyze 9-3-4 are quite popu- 
lar and the following formulas will analyze that pro- 
portion. These formulas are suitable for cotton, as a 
general rule : 

No. 7. 

Acid Phosphate (16 per cent.) iioo lbs. 

Cotton-seed meal 750 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 160 lbs. 

Total 2010 lbs. 

No. 8. 

Acid Phosphate (15 per cent.) 1250 lbs. 

Dried Blood 375 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 160 lbs. 

Filler of Sand 215 lbs. 

Total 2000 lbs. 

No. 9. 

Acid of Phosphate (20 per cent.) 900 lbs. 

Cotton-seed Meal 750 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 160 lbs. 

Filler of Sand 190 lbs. 

Total 2000 lbs. 

The above t'hree formulas when mixe(' will analyze 
as follows: 

Phosphoric Acid 9.00 per cent. 

Ammonia 3.00 per cent. 

Potash .1..00 per cent. 

Total 16.00 per cent. 

We also give another list of formubs which are ex- 
cellent for cotton. No formula can be said to have 
any special value over the others. The farmer should 
use the one that he can get the easiest. Each one 
will analyze 20 pounds nitrogen, 50 pounds of phos- 
phoric acid, and 15 pounds potash in the whole for- 
mula. 

No. ID. 

Muriate of Potash 30 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 334 lbs. 



There is no More Profitable Study Than Plant Growth. 



167 



Nitrate of Soda 125 lbs. 

No. II. 

Muriate of Potash 20 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 281 lbs. 

Cotton-seed meal 286 lbs. 

No. 12. 

Cotton-seed Hull Ashes 45 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 261 lbs. 

Cotton-seed meal 286 lbs. 

No. 13. 

Wood Ashes (unleached) 164 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 261 lbs. 

Cotton-seed meal 286 lbs. 

No. 14. 

Kainit , 64 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 273 lbs. 

Cotton-seed meal 143 lbs. 

Cotton seed 13^ bus. 

No. 13. 

Acid Phosphate 266 lbs. 

Nitrate of Soda 13 lbs. 

Stable Manure 4000 lbs. 

[ No. 16. 

Muriate of Potash 30 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 334 lbs. 

Dried Blood 167 lbs. 

No. 17. 

Muriate of Potash 10 lbs. 

Acid Phos. with Pot. (2 per cent. K 

Cotton-seed meal 286 lbs. 

No. 18. 

Kainit 58 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 300 lbs. 

Nitrate of Soda 70 lbs. 

Stable Manure 2000 lbs. 

No. 19. 

Muriate of Potash 20 lbs. 



Acid Phosphate 300 lbs. 

Nitrate of Soda 64 lbs. 

Cotton seed 13J4 bus. 

No. 20. 

Kainit 45 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 264 lbs. 

Cotton seed 2O 2-3 bus. 

Commercial Fertilizer to analyze as below: 

Available Phosphoric Acid 10.00 per cent. 

Ammonia 4. 85 per cent. 

Use 500 pounds per acre. 

The formulas from 10 to 20 inclusive are intend- 
ed for land tliat is about worn out. 

For cotton on the red hills, and the soil similar to 
red hills, we would advise that you use the following: 

No. 21. 

Acid Phosphate, 16 per cent iioo lbs. 

Cotton-seed meal y-,'. .-.,. 750 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 80 lbs. 

Total 2000 lbs. 

In mixing your fertilizers weigh out the required 
amount of each ingredient necessary to make a gi"en 
part of one ton, say 500 pounds. Mix Vv^ith hoes or 
shovels on a tight floor or on a snioot!;, hard place 
on the ground. 

For gray soil with clay near the top of the ground, 
the following makes a good fertilizer for cotton: 

No. 22. 

Acid Phosphate 1 125 lbs. 

Cotton-seed meal 750 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 125 lbs. 

This formula when mixed, will analyze as follows: 

Phosphoric Acid 9.00 per cent. 

Ammonia 3.00 per cent. 

Potash 3.00 per cent. 

For sandy soils: 

No. 23. 
80 to 120 lbs. cotton-seed neal ptr acre. 



i68 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



i6o to 240 lbs. acid phosphate per acre. 
40 to 60 lbs. kainit per acre. 
280 to 420 lbs. total per care. 

For the level lands of the Southern long leaf pine 
region : 

No. 24. 

60 to 120 lbs. cotton-seed meal per acre. 

120 to 240 lbs. acid phosphate per acre. 

60 to 80 lbs. kainit per acre. 

240 to 440 lbs. total per acre. 

For any well drained soil on which cotion is known 
to be especially liable to black rust: 

No. 25. 

120 to 160 lbs. cotton-seed meal prr acre. 
80 to 120 lbs. acid phosphate per acre. 
80 to 120 lbs. kainit per acre. 
280 to 400 lbs. total per acre. 

For red bottom land, the following makes an ex- 
cellent fertilizer for cotton: 

No. 26. 

Acid Phosphate (iS per cent.) "7 '^s. 

Cotton-seed meal 500 lbs. 

Nitrate of Soda 100 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash '. 75 lbs. 

Total 1452 lbs. 

The above would analyze 10.50 rhosnhate, 3. 51 
nitrate, 3. 10 potash. 

I would apply the whole amount o: ihe above for- 
mula entirely and apply about 250 pounds to the acre 
i;i the furrow, with the planting seei.;, at fhe time of 
planting. All the ingredients, except the nitrate of 
soda, should be applied at least two weeks before 
planting time; but the nitrate of sor'a should not be 
applied so long in advance. 

For worn cut creek bottoms, we recommend the 
following for cotton : 

No. 27. 

Acid Phosphate (14 per cent.) 100 lbs. 

Cotton-seed meal 700 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 75 lbs. 

Use 400 pounds or more per acr'. The fertilizer 



should be applied about two weeks before planting. 

, WHEAT FERTILIZERS. 

The fertilizer anah'ses as given abo\ e are good for 
wheat on the same kind of lands, except that the acid 
phosphate should be decreased to one -half of what is 
given for cotton. Also when using these fertilizer?, 
the nitrate of soda should not be mixed with the oth- 
er ingredients, but it should be reserved and applied 
as a top dressing in the spring. 

The Experiment Station at Boiiregard, France, 
gives the following formula for wheat : 

No. 28. 

Acid Phosphate 350 lbs. 

Sulphate of Ammonia 130 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 90 lbs. 

This should be applied when the wheat is sown, 
and is enough for one acre. Early in the spring 90 
pounds of nitrate of soda should be applied as a top 
dressing. 

The following is a general formula fcr wheat, oats, 
and other small grains, and grasses: 

No. 29. 

Cotton-seed meal 800 lbs. 

Acid Phosp'hate 1000 lbs. 

Kainit 200 lbs. 

Use 200 to 600 lbs. per acre.' 

No. 30. 

Acid Phos. (20 per cent.) 900 lbs. 

Cotton-seed meal 1000 lbs. 

]\Iuriate of Potash 120 lbs. 

Total , . . 2020 lbs. 

9-4-3 Formula. 

No. 31. 

Acid Phos. (16 per cent.) 1125 lbs. 

Dried Blood 500 lbs. 

]\Iuriate of Potash 120 lbs. 

Filler of Sand 255 lbs. 

Total , 2000 lbs. 

These formulas when mixed wi'I j-.na'vze as fol- 
lows : 



Not How Much, But How Well You Cultivate Means Success. 



169 



Phosphoric Acid 9.00 per cent. 

Ammonia 4 .00 per cent. 

Potash 3- 00 per cent. 

Total 16. oc per cent. 

Top dress wheat and oats in the month of March 
with 75 pounds nitrate of soda broadcast per acre. 

CORN FERTILIZERS. 

Most farmers are of the opinion th-it corn does not 
need fertilizers, and hence they use all their money 
to fertilize cotton and buy corn. If they would put 
more fertilizers to corn, and give it better attention 
they will come nearer paying out of debt than some 
of them are doing now. The followmt'' formulas are 
offered as general formulas : 

No. 32. 

Cotton-seed meal 200 lbs. 

Acid Phosphate 1600 lbs. 

Kainit 200 lbs. 

Use 200 up to 1000 lbs. per acre.' 

No. 33. 

Acid Phos. (15 per cent.) 1250 lbs. 

Dried Blood 375 lbs. . 

IMuriate of Potash 80 lbs. 

Filler of Sand 295 lbs. 

Total 2000 lbs. 

9-3-2 formula. 

No. 34. 

Acid Phos. (16 per cent.) 1125 lbs. 

Cotton-seed meal ." 750 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash 80 lbs. 

Total 1955 lbs. 

These formulas when mixed will analyze as fol- 
lows : 

Phosphoric 'Acid ,.....- g . 00 per cent. 

Ammonia 3- 00 per cent. 

Totash 2 . CO per cent. 

Total I.}. 00 per cent. 

For corn on the average worn ar.d so-called "ex- 
liausted" upland soils: 



No. 35. 

Acid Phosphate (14 per cent.) looo lbs. 

Cotton meal (2 1-2:7:1 1-2) 1250 lbs. 

- Muriate of Potash (50 per cent.) 30 lbs. 

(Or Kainit: 12 1-2 per cent., 120 lbs. 

Total 2280 lbs. 

This would analyze as follows : 

Available Phosphate Acid 7-50 per cent. 

Nitrogen, (equal to ammonia 4.65) 3.83 per cent. 
This is relatively the same as 10:5:2. 

1 he mixture would be rendered more prompt in 
effective action by substitution in place of 40 pounds 
of the cotton meal, about 200 pounds of nitrate of 
soda. The practice is to apply about 20 to 30 pounds 
of nitrate per acre at t'he time of planting, scattering 
a small pinch of it not nearer than three to four inches 
of seed corn. 

For corn on well improved upland, or on old bot- 
tom land, or fresh lands : 

No 36. 

Acid Phosphate (14 per cent.) 1000 lbs. 

Cotton meal (2 1-2:7:1 1-2) 870 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash (50 per cent.) 30 lbs. 

(Or Kainit: 12 1-2 per cent., 120 lbs. 

Total . , . : 1900 lbs. 

This would analyze about as follows: 

Available Phosphoric Acid 8.50 per cent. 

Nitrogen (equivalent to ammonia 3.90 3.21 per cent. 
Potash (c2o) , 1 .47 per cent. 

On freshly cleared soil, or well improved old up- 
lands, or cotton, if only a light ^application is intend- 
ed the potash may be left out entirely and the cotton 
meal still further proportionately reduced in quantity. 

In view of the caution against app'ying a large 
quantity of commercial fertilizers to corn, it may be 
stated that 300 pounds of the above formula may be 
considered the maximum amount for one acre of land. 

For water melons and sweet potatoes apply the 
following fertilizers : 
9-3-9 formula. 

No. 37. 
Acid Phosphate (20 per cent.) 900 lbs. 



ijo TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 

Cotton-seed meal 750 lbs. 800 lbs. Acid Phosphate ; 13 per cent. 

Muriate of Potash 360 lbs. 200 lbs. Nitrate of Soda. 

,1 •?oo lbs. Muriate of Potash. 

Total 2010 lbs. -^ . , 

This will give you ammonia 5.9 per cent; phos- 

9-3-9 formula. phoric acid, 0.4 per cent.; potash, 7 pei cent. 

No. 38. No. 44. 

Acid Phos. (16 per cent.) 1125 lbs. 

Dried Blood 375 Ibs- Phosphoric acid, 7 per cent. 

Muriate of Potash 360 lbs. Potash, 8 per cent. 

Filler of S?.nd 140 lbs. Cotton-seed meal, 800 pounds. ■ 

^Q^^j 2000 lbs. ^""^^ Phosphate (high grade,) 900 lbs. 

Muriate of Potash, 300 lbs. 
9-3-9 formula. 

This will make a ton of the above fertilizer. Mix 
No. 39. thoroughly until the whole mass is of an even color 

Acid Phos. (15 per cent.) 1250 lbs. throug'hout, being careful to pound up all lumps. 

Nitrate of Soda 300 l^s. jf you can apply your fertilizer two or three weeks 

Muriate of Potash 360 lbs. i,-, advance of planting, use the fertilizer without the 

-potal 1910 lbs. cotton-seed meal, but if you have to plant and fertil- 

ize at the same time, use the one containing the cot- 
These formulas when mixed will analyze as fol- ton-seed meal. 

lows: 

FRUIT TREES. 
Phosphoric Acid 9.00 per cent. 

Ammonia .S-f^'O per cent. , r •,• r r •. u a ^ 

„ . ^ A gfood fertilizer for fruit trees can be made as 

Potash 9.00 per cent. , ,, 

follows : 

Total 21 .00 per cent. 

No. 45. 

xjq q iooo lbs. cotton-seed meal. 

300 lbs. nitrate of soda. 

Acid Phosphate 800 lbs. ,, • 1 u u * 

^ 700 lbs. acid phosphate. 

Muriate of Potash 200 lbs. 

Nitrate of Soda 400 lbs. TOBACCO FERTILIZER. 

The subject of fertilizers for tobacco is treated un- 

Acid PhosDhate (14 per cent.) 1000 bs. ^^^ ^^^^ j^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^ growing, as it is of so much 

Cotton m.^al 500 bs. importance, it is thought best to treat that subject 

Nitrate of Soda 250 lbs. i ..1 .. 1 j 

, . ,, under that head. 

Sulphate (or muriate of Potash) 250 lbs. 

Total 2000 lbs. FERTILIZERS FOR TRUCK FARMING. 

No. 42. The truck farmer must get his crop in early if he 

Cotton-seed meal 600 lbs. expects to make a success. It is of great importance 

Acid Phosphate 1000 lbs. therefore that he use the very best grade of guano. 

Kainit 400 lbs. The farmer who is dependent upon early crops may 

Use 600 to 2000 lbs. per acre. afford to buy poor fertilizers, but this is doubted, but 

the truck farmer must not be content. When we 

No. 43. speak of a high-grade fertilizer, of course, it is un- 

70 lbs. Cotton-seed meal. derstood that we mean one that is available at once, 



Some Land Requires One Kind of a Fertilizer. Some Another Kind. 



171- 



md not one that will be available next month or next 
/ear. The all round garden fertilizer should have 
ibout 20 per cent, phosphoric acid, from 10 to 14 per 
;ent. nitrogen, and from 40 to 50 per cent, potash. 
The following table gives the amount that should be 
i.ised in an area smaller than an acre, for the average 
Tardener does not want to figure on t'he acre. 



FRUITS. 



Pounds 
per plant 



^.pples 

(3I.Tckberries 
Cherries . . . . 
;_'ranberries . 
liJurrants . . . . 
IJooseberries 

lirapes 

jl'eaches . . . . 

^ears 

^^lums 

j3uinces .... 
,|taspberri«s . 
ijtrawberries 



5.5 

0.4 

4.5 

0.25 

0.25 

0.25 

1.3 

5.0 

5.5 

4.5 

2.25 

0.25 

0.4 



Pounds per 
Square Rod 



3.8 
4.4 
5.G 
3.1 
3.S 
3.8 
5.0 
C.25 
3.8 
5.6 
4.4 
5.0 
10.0 



Pounds per 
acre 



COO 
700 
900 
500 
COO 
COO 
SOO 

1000 
GOO 
900 
700 
SOO 

IGOO 



j The following formulas are said to be excellent for 
I ruck growers : 

j For celery: 7 per cent. Ammonia, 5 per cent. Avail- 
iible Phosphoric Acid, 8 per cent. Potash. 

No. 46. 
300 lbs. Nitrate of soda. 



800 lbs. Fish scrap 

600 lbs. Acid phos. 13 per 

cent. 
300 llis. Muriate potash. 



2000 lbs. 



WILL YIELD 
C.9 per cent. Ammonia 
» 5.5 per cent. Avail. Phos. 
Acid. 
S.O per cent. Potash 



No. 49. 



300 lbs. Nitrate soda 

COO lbs. Fish scrap 

800 lbs. Acid phos. 

300 lbs. Muriate potash 



2000 lbs. 



WILL YIELD 
5.S per cent. Ammonia 
^ G.8 per cent. Avail, phos. 
acid 
7.9 per cent. Potash 



No. 50. 



200 lbs. Nitrate soda 
900 lbs. Fish scrap 
600 lbs. Dissolved bone 

black 
300 lbs. Muriate Potash 



2000 lbs. 



WILL YIELD 
G.4 per cent Ammonia 
^ 6.G per cent. Avail, phos. 
acid 
7.8 per cent. Potash 



No. 51 
220 lbs. Nitrate soda 
500 lbs. Dried Blood 
970 lbs. Acid phos. 14 per 

cent. 
310 lbs. Muriate potash 



2000 lbs. 



WILL YIELD 
6.1 per cent. Ammonia 
^ G.8 per cent. Avail, phos. 
acid 
S.O per cent. Potash 



No. 52. 
300 lbs. Nitrate soda 
GOO lbs. Tankage 
SOO lbs. Acid phos., 13 per 

cent. 
300 lbs. Muriate potash 



2000 lbs. 



WILL YIELD 
5.4 per cent. Ammonia 
> CO per cent. Avail phos. 
acid 
S.3 per cent. Potash 



No. 47 

, 250 lbs. Nitrate of soda 
i GOO lbs. Dried blood 

850 lbs. Acid phosphate, 13 
per cent. 

300 lbs. Muriate potash 



2000 lbs. 



WILL YIELD 
7.2 per cent. Ammonia 
> 5.5 per cent. Avail, phos. 
acid 
7.8 per cent. Potash 



No. 53. 

300 lbs. Nitrate soda 

600 lbs. Tankage 

SOO lbs. Acid phos.. 13 per 

cent. 
300 lbs. Sulph. pot. H. G. 



2000 lbs. 



WILL YIELD 
5.5 per cent. Ammonia 
^ G.4 per cent. Avail, phos. 
acid 
7.8 per cent. Potash 



For Irish potatoes: 6 per cent. Ammonia, 7 per 
pent. Available Phosphoric Acid, 8 per cent. Potash. 

No. 48. 



300 lbs. Nitrate of soda 
600 lbs. cotton seed meal 
800 lbs. Acid phos. 
300 lbs. Muriate potash 

2000 lbs. 



WILL YIELD 
5.4 per cent. Ammonia 
>■ 7.2 per cent. Avail, phos. 
acid 
8.1 per cent. Potash 



For beets and lettuce: 6 per cent Ammonia, 5 per 
cent. Available Phosp'horic Acid, 8 per cent. Potash. 



No. 54, 

300 lbs. Nitrate soda •> 

SOO lbs. Cottonseed meal 
600 lbs. Acid phos., 13 per 

cent. 
300 lbs. Muriate potash 



2000 lbs. 



WILL YIELD 
C.2 per cent. Ammonia 
► 4.9 per cent. Avail, phos. 
acid 
S.5 per cent. Potash 



172 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



No. 55. 

200 lbs. Nitrate soda 

8U0 lbs. Fish scrap 

700 lbs. Acid phos., 11 per 

cent. 
3no lbs. Muriate potash 



2U00 lbs. 



WILL YIELD 

5.9 per cent. Ammonia 
> 5.4 per cent. Avail, phos. 
acid 
8.5 per cent. Potash 



For cabbage, cauliflower, cucumbers and melons: 
6 per cent. Ammonia, 5 per cent. Available Phos- 
phoric acid, 6 per cent. Potash. 



No. 56 

300 lbs. Nitrate soda 
750 lbs. Cottonseed meal 
700 lbs. Acid phos., 11 per 

cent. 
250 lbs. Muriate potash 



2000 lbs. 



WILL YIELD 
CO per cent. Ammonia 
,■ 4.8 per cent. Avail, phos. 
acid 
7.1 per cent. Potash 



For Spinach : 5 per cent. Ammonia, 8 per cent. Availa- 
ble Phosphoric Arid, 6 per cent. Potasli. 



No. 57. 

200 lbs. Nitrate soda 

650 lbs. Fish scrap 

920 lbs. Acid' phos.,' 14 per 

cent. 
230 lbs. Muriate Potash 



2000 lbs. 



WILL YIELD 
5.2 per cent. Ammonia 



» 7.7 per cent. Avail, phos. 
acid 
6.0 per cent. Potash 



No. 58. 



300 lbs. Nitrate of soda 
500 liis. Cottonseed meal 
1000 lbs. Acid phos., 14 ]]er 
.\ cent. 
200 lbs. Muriate potash 

2000 lbs. 



WILL YIELD 
5.0 per cent. Ammonia 
, 7.6 per cent. Avail phos. 
, acid 
5.6 per cent. Potash 



For radishes and turnips: 5 per cent. Ammonia, 7 
per cent. Available Phosphoric Acid. 8 per cent. Pot- 
ash. 



No. 59. 



250 lbs. Nitrate soda 
550 lbs. Cottonseed meal 
900 lbs. . Acid" .phos. 13 per. 

cent. 
300 lbs. Muriate potash 



2000 lbs. 



WILL YIELD 
4.6 per cent. Ammonia 
, 6.5 per cent. Avail, phos. 
acid 
S.3 per cent. Potash 



For asparagus: 5 per cent. Ammonia, 7 per cent. 
Available Phosphoric Acid, 8 per cent. Potash. 



No. 60. 



200 lbs. Nitrate soda 
700 lbs. Cottonseed meal 
800 lbs. Acid phos., 13 per 

cent. 
300 lbs. Muriate potash 



■^ 



2000 lbs. 



WILL YIELD 

4.0 per cent. Ammonia 
^ 6.1 per cent. Avail, phos. 
acid 
8.4 per cent. Potash 



For eggplant and tomatoes : 5 per cent. Aminonia, 
6 per cent. Available Phosphoric Acid, 7 per cent. 
Potash. 

No. 61. 
200 lbs. Nitrate soda > 



700 lbs. Cottonseed meal 
840 lbs. Acid phos., 13 per 

cent. 
260 lbs. Muriate potash 



2000 lbs. 



WILL YIELD 
4.9 per cent. Ammonia 
^ 6.3 per cent. Avail, phos. 
acid 
7.4 per cent. Potash 



For onions: 5 per cent. Ammonia, 5 per cent. Avail- 
able Phosphoric Acid, 8 per cent. Potash. 

No. 62. 
200 lbs. Nitrate soda 

WILL YIELD 



750 lbs. Cotton seed meal 
750 lbs. Acid Phos., 11 per 

cent. 
300 lbs. Muriate Potash 



2000 lbs. 



5.1 per cent. Ammonia 

> 5.1 per cent. Avail, phos. 
acid 

8.5 per cent. Potash 



For sweet potatoes: 3 per cent. Ammonia. 7 per 
cent. Available Phosphoric Acid, 8 per cent. Potash. 

No. 63. 

100 lbs. Nitrate soda - 

400 lbs. Fish scrap WILL YIELD 
1180 lbs. Acid phos., 11 per 3.5 per cent. Ammonia 

cent. s. 7.8 per cent. Avail, phos. 

320 lbs. Muriate potash acid 

8.3 per cent. Potash 

2000 lbs. ■ 



No. 64. 
100 lbs. Nitrate soda 
."^no lbs. Cottonseed meal 
1100 lbs. Acid phos., 13 per 
cent. 
300 lbs. Muriate potash 



2000 lbs. 



WILL YIELD 
3.5 per cent. Ammonia 
> 7.S per cent. Avail, phos. 
acid 
8.3 ijer cent. Potash 



No Farm is Complete in the South Without a Part of it Sown in Cow Peas. 



173 



For beans and peas: 3 per cent. Ammonia, 7 per up 'his fertilizers. That it will pay him there can be 

no doubt. He can mi.x it at times wlien he can not 
do other work, and then he knows exactly what he 



cent. Available Phosphoric Acid, 7 per cent. Potash 
No. 65 



100 lbs. Nitrate sod.i 
450 lbs. Cotton.seed meal 
1200 Jbs. Acid phos., 11 per 
cent. 
250 lbs. Muriate potash 



2000 lbs. 



WILL YIELD 
2.9 per cent. Ammonia 
> 7.1 per cent. Avail, phos. 
acid 
6.9 per cent. Potash 



HOME-MADE FERTILIZER. 

The formulas for the different fertilizers have been 
given in detail. It seems that any farmer with com- 
mon sense ousfht with tliese formulas be able to mix 



is using if he mixes it himself. A man by mixing his 
own fertilizers can save about one-third of the cost. 
Figuring at that rate it will not take many tons to 
run away up yonder in the saving. Sometimes it will 
be necessary for farmers to buy the cTiemicals togeth- 
er, so that they can get it in car load lots, but it will 
beat paying the fertilizer man all the profits. 

COMPOSTING. 

That composting is important there can be no 
doubt. It will pay every farmer to compost. It is 
very simple, and every farmer can make a compost 
if he desires. 




Tobacco Fertilized. 



Tobacco Unfertilized. 



-.-■3-^ ■,. 










^■-;. 












Tree Sprayed wltti Bordeaux Mixture. 



Tree not riprayed. 



Book VI. 
Insect Department, 



EDITED AND REVISED BY 

R. I. SMITH, 

Formerly State Entomologist for Georgia, Formerly Assistant Entomologist 

Maryland Agricultural College. Entomologist for the North- 

Carolina Experiment Station, Raleigh, N. C. 



176 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Scale Insects Affecting the Peach 



THE SAN JOSE SCALE. 

This is by far our most destructive scale insect, and 
one that every fruit grower should learn to recognize, as 
it mav attack pear, plum, apple, apricot, quince, persim- 
mon, currant and other tree and bush fruits as well as 
the peach. It has been demonstrated without a doubt 
that this scale can be controlled in infested orchards, and 
it therefore behooves every fruit grower to learn to rec- 
ognize this pest and be prepared to fight it from its 
first appearance. By doing so much damage and loss 
will be avoided. 

Historical. — The exact origin of the San Jose scale 
was for a long time in doubt, though up to the year 1901 
it was generally supposed to be a native of Japan or 
some Eastern country. During that year. Prof. C. L. 
jMarlatt made an extensive trip through Japan and after 
making a careful investigation, came to the conc'.usioni 
that its native home must be elsewhere. His investiga- 
tion extended into China and there in the Northern por^ 
tion was found the native home of the San Jose scale. 

In the United States the San Jose scale was first dis- 
covered at San Jose, Cal., in the early seventies and 
soon spread to several orchards in that vicinity. In l88o 
the insect was studied and described by Prof. Comstock, 
then Entomologist of the United States Department ofi 
Agriculture. Several years later, in 1893, this insect was' 
discovered in an orchard at Charlottesville, Va. This dis- 
covery lead to an investigation revealing the fact that 
the San Jose Scale had been imported into some Eas- 
tern nurseries, probably in New Jersey, five of six years 
previous to 1893, and from those nurseries it had been 
widely distributed over the eastern fruit growing States. 
When discovered at Charlottesville, many other points 
of infestation occurred and it soon became apparent that 
extermination would be impossible. Hence every ef- 
fort was directed towards finding a method of killing 
the scale in the infested orchards. These efforts have 
been crowned with success, so that now in the South as 
well as elsewhere, scale infested orchards are sprayed 
each year with every assurance of success. 

Description. — The San Jose scale is so small that 
any description must be largely general in its nature. 
The full grown individuals are only about 1-16 inch in 



diameter, hardly the size of a small pin head. Its char- 
acteristics, shape and coloring can only be detected ac- 
curately by the use of a good hand lens, and when exam- 
ined closely much variation will be noticeable between 
individuals. 

A full grown female San Jose scale is ashy-gray in col- 
or, almost round in outline, and in the center of the up- 




Flg. 1. — Twig with Sau Jose scale of all ages; magnified 

five times. (After Alwood, Vir. Crop. Pest. 

Comm., Spec. Bull., No. 45.) 

per surface of the scale there is a small dark colored ring 
surrounding the nipple. This nipple is characteristic of 
all scale insects belonging to this same family, its lo- 
cation and color often being a help in determining the 
exact species. The nipple is formed in part by the first 
molt or cast skin of the young insect while the subse- 
quent scale formation is due largely to secretions from 
the body of the insect, these secretions gradually hard- 
ening when exposed to the air. Close examination will 
reveal two or more quite distinct rings around the nip- 
ple. These rings are developed when the insect under- 
goes its second, third or fourth molt. The resulting 
scale is slightly conical, sloping evenly in all directions. 
The above is a description of the outward appearance 



Insects are the greatest enemies to the fruits of the South. 



177 



►f a full 
itions. 
;idely d 



grown female scale formed under perfect con- 
When crowded on a branch they often assume 
iffering shapes. 




Fig. 2. — Old San Jose scale with true insect exposed, to 

right. (After Alwood, Vir. Crop Pest Comm., 

Spec. Bull., No. 45.) 

II This mature scale as described above conceals the 
:ody of the true insect underneath. By using a pin or 
,|nife point the hard scale may be lifted revealing the 
range-yellow body of the female insect. Fig. 2 
;The male San Jose scale differs from the female by 
kving an elongated growth to one side. In size the, 
I'jiales are smaller and often darker in color and the cen- 
tal nipple and first ring will be noticed at the anterior 
lid of the elongated scale. Fig. i represents the com- 
arative size and shape of the male and female scales as 
iiey appear on an mfested twig. 

i Life History. — Speaking specifically cf the life his- 
>ry of the San Jose scale, the females, when from 33 to 
IjiO days old, begin to give birth to living young. Eggs 
||"e never deposited by this species. The young scale 
isects are almost microscopical in size, having oval 
jiaped bodies of a bright yellow color. Soon after birth 
|iey commence moving about looking for a place to set- 
le and commence feeding. Often from 12 to 24 liours 
re resumed before they settle down and insert the mi- 
ute beak with which the juices of the plant are sucked 
p for the nourishment of the young insects. After these 
:oung scale insects once settle and commence feeding 
neir position is never changed, e.Kcept in the case of 



the male which changes to a winged form. At the end 
of twelve days, according to Dr. L. O. Howard, Foot 
note (U. S. Dept. of Agr.", Bureau of Ent., n. s. Bull, No. 
3.) the first molt occurs, going to make up the nipple of 
the subsequent scale as already described. Up to this 
period the two se.xes are exactly alike. When this first 
molt occurs the insect under the scale changes in ap- 
pearance, the legs disappear, and the little insects look 
like yellow flattened balls. At from 18 to 20 days the 
second molt takes place, and from then on the males and 
females differ widely in appearance. The males begin 
the development of the elongated scale covering while 
the true insect underneath changes to a pupa from which 
there emerges at the e.xpiration of 24 to 26 days the 
adult winged male as shown in the illustration. (Fig. 3.) 
The female insects take longer to become fully mature. 




Fig. 3. — San Jose scale, adult male — greatly enlarged, (Af- 
ter Howard, Yearbook, 1S94, U. S. Dept. of Agr.) 

Dr.- Howard places the time at thirty days. At this age 
the body of the female contains quite well developed em- 
bryonic young which begin to make their appearance 
from the 33rd to the 40th day. These minute young 
insects seek a feeding place as already described. 

Examination for a scale infested tree during summer 
will show insects of all sizes, from newly born larvae to 
full developed males and females. Each adult female 
may give birth to from 300 to 400 young, covering a pe- 
riod of possibly two weeks; hence the first born may 
be past the first molt when the later ones appear. There 
are at least five generations each season in the South. 

It should have been stated that the males and fe- 
males are nearly jet black except for the central nipple, 
until about one-half grown, the ashy-gray color appear- 
ing later. These perfectly round, nearly black scales, 
having a prominent nipple surrounded by a slightly 
grayish ring, are very characteristic and easily distin- 
guished from nearly all other scale insects. 



13 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



How the Insect Passes the Winter and How to De- 
tect it. 

The winter stage is passed by the San Jose scale as 
hah' grown or nearly mature individuals. Most of the 
mature females perish from cold and exposure to the 
weather. During winter a badly infested tree will pre- 
sent a gray appearance, described by some as looking 
as though coated with wet ashes. The old dead scales 
may be packed closely together and piled on top of 
one another. This color will be relieved in places by 
the black, circular, half-grown scales as described above. 
The greater number of young scales will be found on 
the less thickly coated portion of the infested limbs and 
around the base of young shoots and branches. By 
drawing a knife blade or thumb nail along an infested 
branch an oily, yellowish fluid will exude, caused by 
crushing the soft-bodied insects under the scales. An- 
other characteristic feature of th.e San Jose scale is that 
it causes the bark to turn red at the point of attack. 
This is especially noticeable on the young wood of the 
peach. The bark turns red nearly or quite to the wood, 
as determined by shaving ofif a thin section. Isolated 
scales may cause a red blotch, in diameter several times 
the size of the scale itself. The bark of infested peach- 
trees often shows a marked depressed or pitted appear- 
ance, explained by the fact that the bark nearly ceases 
growth at the e.xact point of attack, while the surround- 
ing tissue continues to increase in volume. Peach trees 
badly infested w^ith scale often commence to die the sec- 
ond year, though sometimes when irfested at the age of 
two or three years they will survive for several years 
afterwards. Wherever orchards are watched closelv, this 
dying may be prevented by proper remedial treatment 
as described in the next paragraph. 

Remedies. 

During the many years that remedies have been test- 
ed against the San Jose scale, almost everything having 
an insecticidal value has been tested. The whale oil 
soap treatment has been given a thorough test in Geor- 
gia and other States, and, while giving more or less 
satisfaction, it has proved to be too expensive for gen- 
eral use. Kerosene and crude petroleum in mechanical 
mixture and as emulsions were used in Georgia quite 
extensively during the early fight against the San Jose 
scale. Both were tested thoroughly by Prof. W. M. 
Scott, first Entomologist for Georgia. He found that 
the use of either kerosene or petroleum was attended 
with some danger of killing the sprayed trees — largely 



on account of careless labor — hence, their applicatioi 
has been practically abandoned except in the case o 
kerosene which is still recommended for summer treat 
nient as mentioned farther on. Caustic soda has beei 
carefully tested, as well as many patent scale washes cal 
culated to kill scale, but proving to be of very littl 
value. 

Results obtained from the use of Lime-Sulphur- Sal 
washes have demonstrated without any doubt that ii 
them a safe and reliable remedy for the scale has beei 
found. I 

:i 

Winter Treatment.— For winter treatment of scali 
mfested trees, the following wash is recommended to b'i 
used as a spray, applying it with a spray pump to ever' 
tree in infested orchards. This recommendation is base j 
on the experience of large orchardists who have teste,' 
this wash on thousands of trees with most excellent n 
suits. 

Lime-Sulphur-Galt Wash. 

Formula — 

Lime 20 pounds. 

Sulphur 16 pounds. 

Salt 5 pounds. 

Water to make 50 gals. 

Mix the sulphur into a thin paste with a small amour 
of water and then add it to about 15 gallons of boilin 
water in a kettle (or in the boiling tank if steam is usee 
and stir thoroughly. While this mixture is at the boi 
ing point, add the stone lime, which will immediate] 
commence to slake, causing violent ebullition. Whi 
the lime is slaking, much of the sulphur will be dissolvei 
as will be evident from the rich amber color resultinj 
The lime should be stirred frequently while slaking an 
water added as necessary to prevent burning or to 
violent boiling. After the lime is through slaking, ad 
the salt and continue the boiling for at least 35 mil 
utes or longer, if it seems necessary, to dissolve all tl 
sulphur. 

This wash, when properly prepared, should be a dirl 
yellowish green color when agitated, but if allowed ( 
settle, a clear amber colored liquid will appear on tl 
surface. There is always a residue which settles qui 
readily, necessitating frequent stirring, or better, co 
stant agitation while in the spray tank. A wash of th 
kind should be strained through a wire screen or heai 
burlap to remove all large particles of lime or other fc 
eign matter that would tend to clog the spray pum 
It is essential to have a large per cent, of what may 1 



There are very few plants that do not have insect enemies. 



179 



termed the residue, forced through the pump and onto 
the trees as it plays an important part toward kiUing 
the scale. 

Lime-Sulphur Wash. 
Formula — 

Lime 20 pounds. 

Sulphur 16 pounds. 

Water to make 50 gals. 

This wash is made in the same way as the one just 
mentioned, simply lea ^ out the salt. The lime and 
sulphur wash proved .1 our experiments practically 
as effective as the wash, including salt. Some reliable 



are perfectly dormant. They can not safely be used af- 
ter the trees bud out in spring or at any time during 
summer. Badly infested trees should be sprayed twice 
during winter and when this is done, once in December 
and again in January or February, San Jose scale may 
be practically exterminated. Trees only slightly in- 
fested are usually sufficiently protected by one thorough 
spraying during January or February of each year. 

Equipment for Boiling and Spraying. 

For small orchards the lime-sulphur washes can be 
prepared in iron kettles, arranged over a brick arch. 




Pig. 4. — A simple steam boiling outfit for preparing lime-sulplmr washes: B. boiler; ss, steam pipes; gg, globe valves; 
1, 2, 3, and 4, 50-gallon barrels; xx, pipes for drawing off mixture after boiling; F, large pipe carrying liquid from 
pipes XX to wagon tank or spray-barrel; a, lower end or steam pipe with cross-arms and one-eighth inch openings 
for escape of steam; P, platform G feet above ground; j, pipe supplying water from elevated tank or steam jet; h, 
water hose for carrying clear water to 1, 2, 3, and 4. (After Newell, Ga. St. Bd. of Ent., Bui. 21.) 



authorities, however, still insist that the salt is essential, 
so it is deemed best at this time to offer both formulas 
and let individual preference decide which to use. 
Either one has proved thoroughly effective during the 
past two seasons. 

The lime-sulphur washes as recommended are intend- 
ed primarily for winter spraying work while the trees 



For convenience, where there are many trees to be 
.sprayed, these kettles should be of not less than 60 gal- 
lons capacity. While it is possible with two such ket- 
tles, or even one, to prepare the wash for a good sized 
orchard, still the use of steam for boiling is so mucn 
more rapid and economical that the average orchard- 
ist will find it profitable in the end to equip himself 



i8o 



TILLING THE 30IL FOR PZ^OFIT AND PLEASURE. 



wiili a steam boiiing plant. The size and capacity of 
mis plant will depend mainly upon the size of the 
orchard. A Ijoiling outfit of this kind is shown in fig- 
ure 4, to give an illustration of the general plan followed 
in arranging tanks, pipes, etc. The individual will read- 
ily modify this plan to suit his own conditions and fa- 
cilities. 

In the first place, it is important that this plant be lo 
cated in or near the orchard, or at some central point 
which is accessible to the orchards to be sprayed. It is 
equally important that the outfit be located at a suitable 
water supply. If water from an elevated tank or from 
town waterworks can bo utilized, so much the better. 
Failing in this, the plant should be located at a spring, 
well or stream of clear water, in order that the water 
may be delivered to the boiling tanks by a steam jet, 
thus saving the time and labor necessary to handle it 
with buckets. An equally important point is to have the 
elevated platform, upon which the boiling tanks are lo- 
cated, at least six feet above the ground, so that the 
mixture after being boiled, can be drawn off directly 
into the spraying tanks or barrels. Almost any boiler 
of sufficient steaming capacity can be utilized for fur- 
nishing the steam. Boilers located at cotton gins, saw 
mills, etc., are often made use of by placing this boiling 
outfit near them and making the necessary connections. 
Portable boilers, such as are used for sawing wood, or 
as traction ene'ines, can be utilized to good advantasfe. 
For a small boiling outfit a good steam feed cooker will 
answer the purpose very well. For boiling the mixture, 
either barrels or tanks can be used. If tanks are decid- 
ed upon, these should not exceed 150 gallons capacity 
under any circumstances. The larger the boiling recep- 
tacle the more stirring will be necessary. Upon the 
whole it is usually better to use a large number of 100 
gallon tanks or of 50 gallon barrels than to use fewer 
and larger tanks. Added convenience in preparing 
small amounts of the wash is also secured where bar- 
rels are utilized. A separate globe valve should control 
the steam supply to each barrel or tank. Particular at- 
tention is called to the cross-arms "A" in the figure. 
These cross-arms deliver the steam at several points 
near the bottom of the barrel and this assists very mate- 
rially in keeping the mixture stirred up. The cross- 
arms have one-eighth inch holes bored in them for the 
escape of steam. Each barrel should have its outlet pipe 
controlled with a gate valve. It is convenient to have 
all the outlets open into a common discharge pipe as 
shown in the figure. In this way, the material can be 
drawn off from any one, or from all of the tanks at one 
time. 



Tlie spraying outfit to be used will depend largely 
upon tlie size of the orchard to be sprayed. In the case 
of very large commercial orchards, wagon tanks, hold- 
ing from 200 to 250 gallons, should be used. These 
tanks can be purchased from one of the manufacturers 
of good spraying apparatus at prices ranging from $10.00 
to $20.00, and these tanks can be used upon any ordi- 
nary farm wagons. For winter work, wagons with 
broad tires are preferable. The necessary pump, hose, 
extension pipes and nozzles to go with such a wagon 
tank, will cost from $12.00 to $20.00, depending upon 
make, etc. 

For small orchards of 10,000 trees, or less, barrel 
pumps answer well. Good pumps of this style, mount- 
ed in barrels of 50 gallons capacity, complete with hose, 
agitator, extension pipes, and nozzles, can be purchased 
at from $14.00 to $20.00 each. It is only necessary to 
place such a pump in a light wagon and it is ready for 
use. For winter spraying every pump should be equip- 
ped with two leads of hose, each not less than twenty 
feet in length. Where the trees are planted far apart, 
30-foot lengths of hose are even better, enabling the 
men to get around the trees readily and to good advan- 
tage. Each line of hose should have fitted to it a 6-foot 
extension rod, at the end of which is the Vermorel or 
Mistry nozzle. These extension rods are readily made 
by any blacksmith from quarter-inch gas pipe. A stop- 
cock at the lower end of this extension rod (at its junc- 
tion with the hose), is also a great convenience, in or- 
der that the operator may turn off the flow without hav- 
ing to reach or handle the nozzle. We have heard some 
complaints about the difficulty of spraying with the 
lime-sulphur washes on account of the hands and face 
becoming sore as a result of the caustic properties of 
the wash. If extension pipes, long leads of hose, and 
reasonable care are used, there will be but a minimum of 
difficulty from this source. . Where extension pipes, or 
suitable substitutes therefor, are not used and the oper- 
ator must work with his hands actually holding the 
nozzle itself, sore hands will result as a matter of course. 
The long leads of hose enalile the operator to work at 
some distance from the wagon, so that the spray is not 
blown upon the team or upon the man working, the 
pump. If the hose connections are kept tight there is 
no reason why the workmen should continually have 
their gloves and clothes saturated with the mixture. 
The cheapest leather gloves obtainable, thoroughlv sat- 
urated before use with lubricating oil, will be found the 
cheapest and most serviceable. The faces of the work- 
men can be protected by canvas masks if necessary, and 
the caustic action of the wash may be lessened by lib- 



Quails are worth more to gather insects than for the market. 



ISI 



eral applications of vaseline or petroleum to the skin. 
Precautions of this kind are almost an absolute neces- 
sity when colored laborers are efnployed, as they will 
■usually persist in spraying against the wind anyhow, in 
spite of all advice that may be given them. 

Suitable strainers must be provided for all pumps, and 
the wash as it comes from the boiling tanks, thoroughly 
strained before being placed in the spray ,tank. Copper 
strainers can not be used for this purpose. The strain- 
ers must be of iron or brass. 



nary copper knapsack pump can not be used, as it will 
be eaten up in a few days' time. Iron vessels and ap- 
paratus should be used as far as possible. The wash 
acts slowly upon brass, but its action upon the better 
makes of barrel pumps will not be appreciable if these 
latter are thoroughly rinsed out with clear water each 
night. At the close of the spraying season, of course 
the entire pump should be thoroughly cleaned, all parts 
well oiled and the pump kept under suitable cover until 
a<7ain needed. 




' Fig. 5. — A Suitable Spraying Outfit for a Medium-Sized Orcliard. (Eclipse pump mounted in b.irrel, two leads of 20-foot 
hose, 6-tt. iron extension rods and single Vei-morel nozzles). (From Ga. St. Board of Ent., Bull. 14.) 



I For small or family orchards a bucket pump and a 
two gallon pail will answer the purpose. Such a buck- 
jet pump should always be ecptipped with not less than 
ten feet of hose if anything larger than small shrubs are 
to be sprayed. With the short 3-foot piece of hose us- 
ually 'furnished by the manufacturers with these pumps, 
it is impossible to properly spray an average sized peach 
of plum tree. These bucket pumps can be bought at 
I prices ranging from $6.00 to $9.00. 
' In handling the lime-sulphur mixtures, copper vessels 
tand apparatus must be entirely avoided, as the wash has 
|a marked corrosive action upon the copper. The ordi- 



Summer Spraying for San Jose Scale. 

Orchards properly treated during winter will seldom 
require summer spraying so far as the San Jose scale is 
concerned. Sometimes, however, a new infestation 
may be discovered in late' spring or summer, and in or- 
der to prevent the scale from multiplying so rapidly 
through the sunmier months, the trunk and main limbs 
of the infested trees may be treated with the lime-sulphur 
wash prepared as for winter spraying. It can be applied 
with a mop or large brush or a spray pump may be used 
if care is observed to prevent the spray from being 
thrown on the foliage. A wash of the strength recom- 



l82 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



mended will burn peach foliage severely and often kill 
back young, tender shoots. 

Kerosene Emulsion as Summer Treatment. 

In view of the results obtained by various experiments 
it is deemed safe to recommend the use of kerosene 
emulsion as a summer treatment for San Jose scale; 
provided, however, that the work be done strictly ac- 
cording to direction with emulsion properly made, so 
that the kerosene will not separate in the spray tanks. 

Stock solution — 

Kerosene Emulsion. 

Kerosene 8 gallons. 

Hard Soap 2 pounds. 

or Whale Oil Soap 4 pounds. 

Water 4 gallons. 

Place 4 gallons of water in a 15 or 20 gallon kettle, 
bring this to a boil and in it dissolve the soap. Remove 
this soap solution — while boiling hot — from the fire and 
add 8 gallons of kerosene, after which the mixture must 
be violently agitated for about ten minutes. As the 
kerosene and soap solution combine a smooth, creamy 
emulsion will result, the bulk will increase somewhat, 
and when properly prepared the resulting emulsion will 
remain without separating for several weeks. This 
emulsion is most readily made by using a small force 
pump, having a direct discharge and throwing a one- 
eighth inch stream, pumping the solution back into it- 
self with considerable force. After ten minutes pump- 
ing, the emulsion will be perfect. Soft water should be 
used for making emulsions, but if such water is not 
readily obtainable, hard water may be broken by the 
addition of a little lye and can then be used with safety. 
Persons making emulsions for the first time should be 
sure to agit.Ve the mixture as directed, otherwise while 
it may look thoroughly mixed it may soon separate when 
allowed to stand. 

The stock solution riiay be diluted to any required 
strength. For summer treatment, I would recommend 
using an emulsion containing 20 per cent, of kerosene. 
In the experiments referred to above, 25 per cent, emul- 
sion was employed without injury to the trees, but the 
20 per cent, strength was almost equally effective; 20 
per cent, emulsion kills nearly all the scale when applied 
during the summer months; 15 per cent, emulsion has 
often been recommended, but it does not always give 
satisfactory results. It is not advisable to spray trees 
with nearly ripe fruit, as the fruit absorbs the kerosene 



and may taste so strong when ripe, as to render it un- 
salable and unfit for home use. 

PUTNAM'S SCALE INSECT. 

Of the scale insects occurring in the South, this is 
perhaps the species most closely resembling the San 
Jose. Fortunately, this scale is by no means as destruc- 
tive and not at present one to be seriously feared. It is 
well, however, to know what scale insects may occur in 
the peach orchards, as by watching constantly for all 
species the more destructive forms will be discovered. 
In New York State, Dr. E. P. Felt records this scale as 
being the most common species of AspiJiotus on fruit 
trees and shrubs in that State. In Massachusetts, it 
has been reported as being particularly destructive in 
an apple orchard. In Virginia, this scale is quite com- 
monly mistaken for the San Jose. 

Description and Life History. — Putnam's scale in- 
sect is in many respects similar to the San Jose scale, 
and hence a comparative description only will be given. 

The adult female scale is slightly larger than the San 
Jose, being about 1-12 inch in diameter. In color they 
are dark gray, and the nipple is reddish colored and 
slightly to one side of the center. The male scales are 
dark gray with the reddish nipple showing prominent- 
ly. Like the San Jose scale, this species passes the win- 
ter as partly grown individuals, but according to Dr. E. 
I'. Felt, (Bull, N. Y., State Museum, Xo. 46), they are 
usually more nearly mature than the over-working San 
Jose scales. In Spring, the males and females com- 
plete their growth, the former emerging as small wing- 
ed individuals and the latter depositing eggs under the 
protecting scale. Dr. Felt states that only one brood 
develops in New York, but in the South there are prob- 
ably at least two. The rate of reproduction of the Put- 
nam's scale is slow compared to the San Jose scale, 
which is fortunate, as otherwise it might be a very de- 
structive insect. 

Remedies. 

The over-wintering, partly grown scales may be killed 
by an application of the lime-sulphur wash as recom- 
mended for the San Jose scale. If the infested trees are 
sprayed during winter, no summer treatment will ordi- 
narily be necessary. But if numbers of young crawling 
insects are observed during summer, they may be de- 
stroyed by the kerosene emulsion treatment as recom- 
mended on this page. 



The State pays men to look after insects. 



183 



CHERRY SCALE. 

Historical. — This scale insect was first described by 
rof. W. G. Johnson, in 1896, it having been discov- 
■ed by him in Illinois in 1894. It frequently occurs on 
ild cherry and was for that reason given the name, 
herry Scale. Prof. Johnson, writing in 1896* (*U. S. 
•ept. of Agr., Bur. of Ent., Bull. No. 6, p. 75), stated 
lat it was not an uncommon thing to find 7 or 8 year 
Id cherry trees in Illinois literally covered with this 




be considered at present, as a particularly destructive 
scale insect. In the majority of orchards, where it has 
been discovered, parasites have apparently succeeded in 
holding it in check sufficiently to avoid the necessity of 
spraying, as must always be done to control the San 
Jose scale. 

Description and Habits. — The Cherry scale,, like 
Putnam's scale insect, is closely allied to the San Jose, 
and to the novice it is not easily distinguishable. The 





ilFig. 6.— Cherry scale: 1, two male scales, very much enlargea; 2, twig infested with grown scales, natural size; 3, por- 
I *ion of 2, enlarged; 4, full grown female, much enlarged; 5, half grown scale, greatly enlarged. ( (After E. P. Felt 
t ■ N. Y. State Bull. No. 46.) 



destructive scale insect. At the same time, he stated 
that many parasites were known to attack this species, 
and his fact may explain why the cherry scale is no 
:iniore destructive in Georgia at present. 
I In the South, the cherry scale is found in greater or 
'less numbers in nearly every old peach orchard, but in 
connection with this wide distribution, it should be 
jstated that the cherry scale has not been, and can not 



full grown female scale, as well shown in the illustra- 
tion, (Fig. 6,) is nearly round; natural color yellowish 
gray; scales rather flat and about -1-12 inch, in diameter. 
Near the center of the scale, but always somewhat to 
one side, is the reddish nipple or exuvia. The male 
scales are elongated, smaller than the fernales, and the 
nipple at the anterior end is bright orange red. This 
bright color is especially prominent when the scales 



1 84 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



have been handled, ruljbing off the thin outer surface 
covering. 

The Cherry scales spend the winter as partially grown 
individuals, completing their growth in early spring, 
and unlike the San Jose scale, the females deposit eggs 
from which little lice hatch, similar in appearance to 
the young of the San Jose. Just the date when the first 
young appear in from the eggs of the first brood is not 
definitely established. There are probably as many as 
three generations each season in the South. On scale 
infested trees, young crawling lice may be found dur- 
ing almost all of the summer months. 

Remedies. 

The remedies recommended for the San Jose scale are 
equally effective against the Cherry scale. While spray- 
ing is not generally practiced against this insect, the 
writer has observed orchards where spraying would be 
advisable. The winter spraying should suffice if thor- 
oughly done, and in that event summer treatment will 
not become necessary. 

WEST INDIAN PEACH SCALE. 

This scale insect deserves more than passing atten- 
tion, as it is capable of doing great damage, its import- 
ance in the South being second only to the San Jose 
scale. 

Historical. — The West Indian Peach Scale is known 
to occur in many countries among which may be men- 
tioned England, Italy, Australia, Japan, China, South 




Africa, Panama and the West Indies. It is supposed 
that the native home of this insect was either Japan or 
the West Indies, and from the latter place it has derived 
the common name, West Indian Peach scale. In the 
United States this scale is known to exist in Massachu- 
setts, Washington, D. C, Ohio, Florida, Alabama and 
California, as well as in Georgia. In 1899, Prof. W. M. 
Scott reported that about 10,000 trees were utterly de- 
stroyed at Irby, Ga. With our present knowledge of 
the destructive powers of this insect, it is well to keep a 
sharp lookout for fear it may increase to destructive 
numbers. All fruit growers should be prepared to rec- 
ognize this scale at a glance. By exterminating any 
newly discovered infestation, the possibility of a recur- 
rence of the calamity at Irby will be reduced to a mini- 
mum. 

Description and Life History. — A glance at Fitr. 7 
will show the reader that this is an insect quite differ- 
ent in appearance from the preceding forms mentioned 




ng. 7. — West Indian Peach Scale: a, branch covered with 
male and female-scales — natural size; b, female scale; 
c, male scale; d, group of male scaies — enlarged. (After 
Howard. Yearbook, 1894. U. S. "Oest. of Agr.) 



Fig. S. — West Indian Peach scale: Adult male — greatly en- 
larged. (After Howard, Yearbook, 1894, U. S. 
Dept. of Agr.) 

above, the chief difference noticeable being the wide 
variation between the male and female scales, and the 
shape and color of the former. The adult female scales 
are gray and not readily noticeable. The nipple i-s al- 
ways to one side of the center and characterized by be- 
ing ridged and comparatively large. The females us- 
ually cluster on the trunks of infested trees. The males 
are most prominent, being white in color, elongated, 
parallel sided and having the exuvia or nipple situated 
at the anterior end. They prefer to cluster near the base 
of large limLs and when abundant, give the tree a 
white-washed appearance. 

Concerning the life history, Dr. L. O. Howard writes 
as follows* (* Yearbook, Dept. of Agr., 1894, p. 267:) 
"During the winter this insect is found in Washington, 
D. C, only in the condition of the mature female. The 



Farmers should protect their birds by all means. 



185 



eggs are developed early in May, and the young larvae 
hatch by the middle of the month. The males (see Fig. 
8), begin to issue the middle of June and impregnate the 
females, and the latter begin egg-laying by the end of 
the month. The second generation is full grown by 
the middle of August, and the third egg-laying begins 
at this time. In this latitude the development is com- 
paratively regular." 

Remedies. 

Winter spraying with the lime-sulphur wash will be 
found effective, and this is probably the best remedy, 
though summer treatment with kerosene emulsion or 
whale oil soap solution, just after the young have hatch- 
ed, may at times become necessary. Whenever a fruit- 



insect itself forms the scale and when examined closely 
it will be observed that the outer body wall is hardened, 
but not separate from the insect within. 

The nearly mature female lecanium (Fig. 9,) is hemi- 
spherical, somewhat elongated, brown in color and 
quite hard in texture. The nearly grown scales may be 
found clustered on small twigs and branches during 
winter when they are readily seen. When spring ar- 
rives these insects commence to grow and soon the 
females deposit eggs. The male scales change to a 
winged insect, but on account of being so small and liv- 
ing only a short time, the adult males are seldom ob- 
served. The eggs may be found in the hard scale, 
which, when crushed, appears to contain only a powdery 
substance. The female insect shrivels up in the shell 




Fig. 9.— Peach Lecanium: Newly liatched larva on rigbt; un impregnated female next; full grown females on twig- 
natural size. (After Howard, Yearbook, 1S94, U. S. Dept. of Agr.) 



grower discovers any infested trees, they should be im- 
mediately dug up and burned, while the surrounding 
trees should be given a thorough winter spraying. 

PEACH LECANIUM. 

This scale insect, quite unlike the forms just men- 
tioned, is a native European species. It has become es- 
tablished in some Southern orchards and in certain in- 
stances quite severe infestations have been reported. 

, Description and Life History.— Unlike the San 
Jose scale and closely allied species, this scale insect 
does not develop a specific hard, scaly covering. The 
lecaniums are known as itakcd scale insects, often called 
"soft scales." "Turtle-back scale" is also a common ap- 
pellation and one quite suggestive of the appearance of 
the peach lecanium and other closely allied species. The 



and practically disappears when the eggs are developed. 
From these eggs, young lice appear, probably for the 
most part during June. A youn^ lecanium larva is 
shown in the figure. 

When the insects are abundant on peach twigs, a per- 
ceptible amount of honey dew is frequently secreted. 
This sweet substance gives rise to a smut fungus which 
often covers the bodies of the scales, destroying many 
of tliem. 

Remedies. 

It has usually been considered that the best time to 
destroy the peach lecanium and other lecaniums is Just 
after all the eggs are hatched in early summer. This 
may be done provided the orchardist will observe the 
date of hatching and prepare to spray the trees soon 
thereafter. The unprotected young will succumb to a 



1 86 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



treatment of 15 per cent, kerosene emulsion or to whale 
oil soap, one-half pound to one gallon of water. Gener- 
ally speaking, such spraying should be done in the 
South about the middle of June. Such work will sel- 
dom be necessary, however, wherever orchards are 
sprayed thoroughly with lime-sulphur wash during win- 
ter. 

PLUM PULVINaRIA. 

The Plum Pulvinaria belongs to the class of scale in- 
sects known as "soft scales." While somewhat closely 



insects commence to grow and develop the white cot- 
tony growth which constitutes the egg sac, and is a 
very conspicuous object. As the females near maturity 
a close examination of an individual would reveal a 
small brown, hardish bodied insect at one end of the 
cottony sac. In the sac would be found numerous mi- 
nute eggs. These eggs hatch in early summer and the 
young crawl out on the foliage and there develop into 
the adult form as described above. (Fig. 10.) Before 
the foliage falls, the partly grown females have fastened 
themselves to the limbs and branches, there to pass t':e 
winter. 




Fig. 10. — Plum Pulvinaria: Un foliage as found during summer. (From Photo.) 



related to the Lecanium scale, just mentioned, it differs 
much in appearance from the lecaniums proper. 

Description and Habits. — The winter is passed by 
the half grown female scales on the branches and twigs 
of infested trees. In the winter stage, they are not par- 
ticularly conspicuous. In spring, these ever-wintering 



Remedies. 

The winter spraying measures advocated for San Jose 
scale are effective against this pest also. 

BORING INSECTS ATTACKING THE PEACH. 
General Remarks. — Peach trees in the South are 



It is a great loss not to spray your trees in the proper time. 



187 



attacked annually by boring insects causing considera- 
Ible damage, much of which could generally be avoided 
Iwere these insects more familiar to the fruit growers. 
The common peach-tree borer, which works at the base 
'of the trees, is known by nearly all fruit-growers, but 
|many do not know the life history of the insect and 
itherefore do not know how to fight it intelligently. The 
following description with remedial suggestions, is in- 
tended to be of value by causing greater familiarity with 
'this insect. The fruit-tree bark-beetle should also be 
imade the object of study and watched for each year, and 
lalso the peach-twig borer with which many fruit grow- 
•ers are familiar. In general, it may be said that the 
ipeach-tree borer is one of the worst enemies of the 
I'peach in the South, though the other boring insects 
imentioned herewith cause considerable damage in cer- 
tain years. 

THE PEACH-TREE BORER. 

Nearly one hundred years ago the peach-tree borer 

was described, and since that time it has been more or 

less familiar to fruit growers in the Eastern and Middle 

jStates. Before the introduction of the peach into the 

'I United States this insect probably lived in wild cherry 

Sor plum. It has been determined that the peach-tree 

borer is a native of the Eastern States and has followed 

I the peach wherever it has been planted in the Middle 

'and Western States, until now peach growers in all 

I parts of our country east of the Rocky Mountains are 

''generally familiar with the work of this important peach- 

Itree pest. 

General Description. — The gummy discharges about 
the base of peach-trees, caused by the larvae of the 
peach-tree borer, is a well-known sight to every fruit- 
grower. All stone fruits, such as peach, plum and cher- 
ry, throw out this copious mass of gum when injured 
in any way, and the peach more particularly. Discharges 
of a brownish gummy mass, more or less mixed with 
borings, earth and larval excrement, when occurring at 
the base of peach or plum trees, indicate the presence 
of borers underneath. These masses of gum often ex- 
tend entirely around the base of badly infested trees, 
but being close to, or beneath the surface of the soil, 
they may be overlooked for some time unless the earth 
IS scraped away from the trees. 

The adult peach-tree borers resemble wasps in size 
and shape, being sometimes mistaken for them. The 
sexes differ so much in aDpearance that one would 
hardly take them to be the same species. The adult 



moths are shown in Figure 11, a and b, where the dif- 
ference in size can be noted. The female moths have 
the fore wings blue, covered with scales, while the hind 




Fig. 11.— Peach-tree Borer: a, adult female; b, adult male; 
c, full grown Irava; d, female pupa; e, male pupa; f, 
pupal skin partially extruded from cocoon — all natural 
size. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. of Ent.. 
Circ. 54.) 

wings are transparent, resembling those of the males. 
Both sexes are steel-blue in general body color, but the 
abdomen of the female is marked with a broad orange 
band which is absent on the body of the male. 

The adult moths appear mainly during the last 
part of August and the first half of September, as 
stated farther on, and the females soon commence 
to deposit eggs. From these eggs minute worms 
hatch and soon begin to bore into the bark near the 
ground, causing an exudation of gum as mentioned 
above. When full grown the worms or borers are 
about one inch in length, yellowish white in color 
with the head and first body segment brown. (Fig. 
II, c.) When full grown the larvae leave their chan- 
nels in the trees and construct a cocoon at the sur- 
face of the ground, near the base of the tree from 
which they emerged, and change to a chrysalis, or 
])upa, in the cocoon. From the cocoon the adult 
moths issue, escaping from the pupal skin, which is 
usually left attached to the cocoon as shown at Fig. 
II. 

The above is a very general description of the 

peach-tree borer and its work. A more specific dis- 

I'cussion of the life history follows, as it has a direct 

bearing on the method of treatment and should be 

well understood. 

Life History. — Starting with partially grown lar- 
vae (borers) as found during winter in infested 
peach trees, we will follow out the entire life his- 
tory of the peach borer. The writer is indebted to 
Prof. H. N. Starnes, of the Georgia Experiment Sta- 



i88 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



t^on, for the facts pertaining to the life history of 
this insect. Prof. Starnes' observations show that 
the larvae are about one-half or two-thirds grown 
at the approach of spring, having fed until late in 
fall and probably remained in a hibernating state 
during a portion of the winter. During the spring 
and early summer the larvae complete growth, and 
it is during this feeding period that a great part of 
the injury is inflicted on the infested trees. When 
full grown the larvae leave their channels in the 
wood and proceed to construct cocoons near the sur- 
face of the ground at the base of the trees. These 
cocoons are dirty brown in color, depending some- 
what on t'he color of the soil. They are about one 
inch in length. (Fig. ii.) 

By far the largest number of larvae leave their 
channels during the latter part of July and the first 
part of August, though some individuals come out 
earlier and some later. Immediately after construct- 
ing their cocoons the larvae pupate, c'hanging to the 
pupa or chrysalis, which is a shiny brown object of 
the shape illustrated at d and e in I'ig. ii. The 
pupa stage lasts from three to four weeks, when the 
cliangc to the adult takes place, and there emerges 
the adult moth as already described. The cocoons 
with the pupal skin extruded (Fig. ii) are easily 
found about the base of infested trees. 

Considering that the great majority of larvae spin 
cocoons and pupate during the month of August and 
that the adult mot'hs emerge in at least four weeks 
thereafter, it is evident that most of the adult moths 
will be found during September. Prof. Starnes states 
that the majority of moths — in the latitude of Grif- 
fin, Ga.— emerge between August 26th and Septem- 
ber 15th. Soon after emergence mating takes place 
and oviposition soon follows. 

Tlie eggs are very small, oval and light brown in 
color. They are deposited by the females on the 
trunk, mainly close to the level of the ground, but 
at titnes high up on the trunk and even on the lat- 
eral limbs. Quoting Prof. Starnes: "The eggs are 
practically all hatched by October iStli, and the 
young larvae, which are at first very minute, drop 
to the surface of the ground and begin to channel 
into the interior of the tree, where they remain 
througliout the winter, dormant a small part of the 
time, but feeding vigorously throughout fall and 
spring and well into the summer." 

This point about the egg-laying and hatching, and 
the manner in which the young larvae bore into t'he 



trees is of great importance, as on it hinges the best 
methods of treatment. 

Remedial Measures. 

Now that we are familiar with the true history of 
the peach tree borer it is evident that some of the 
time-honored recommendations for preventing the 
borer must be modified or changed somewhat. The 
life history, as stated above, is based On work done 
near Griffin, Ga., and there is a probability that the 
exact dates may vary in different parts of the South. 
However, this variation will not be sufficient to in- 
terfere with general recommendations regarding the 
proper treatment for this insect. Any suggestion 
made in this article must of necessity be somewhat 
general in its nature to admit of being applied in all 
parts of the South. 

The principal valuable preventive and remedial 
measures will be discussed under separate heads, 
based largely on the life history of the insect as al- 
ready described. 

(i) Wrapping. — Trees may be wrapped about the 
trunk wil'h brown paper or newspaper, to a height 
of eighteen inches. This wrapping should be fas- 
tened about the top with small wire or stout twine, 
to prevent larvae from entering under the paper 
from above. The wrapping should be put in place 
by August 1st, at the latest, as it is intended t» hjii- 
der the first born larvae from reaching the trunks 
of the trees. Tarred paper might be employed, but 
as it is only intended to remain for three months 
some cheaper paper will answer about as well. 

(2) Mounding. — After the paper covering is in 
place the soil should be immediately mounded about 
the base of each tree, ten inches hig'h, covering the 
lower portion of the paper. Where trees are treat- 
ed in this way the larvae hatching from eggs high 
up on t'he trunk and main limbs, after dropping to 
the top of the mound, will be forced to reach the 
trees through the paper wrapping, and at a point ten 
inches above the level of the ground. Before the lit- 
tle larvae succeed in affecting an entrance, many 
will be devoured by ants and birds. Ants are often 
our best friends by capturing many little borers soon 
after hatc'hing and before they have been able to 
tunnel under the bark, where they would be pro- 
tected. 



See to it that the weevils 

(3) Worming. — After the above treatment, wrap- 
ping and mounding, has been attended to by Aug- 
ust 1st, as recommended, it might seem that tlie 
trees would be thoroughly protected. That is not 
always true, however, as som.e larvae may get down 
under the paper wrapping from above, and some 
rr.ay succeed in forcing an entrance throu-h the pa- 
per at the surface of the mound. I'or these reasons 
alone, worming should begin the last week in Octo- 
ber, for it has been shown that nearly all the eggs " 
are hatched by October 15th. The reason for worm- 
ing at this time is to get as many young larvae as 
possible before they have injured the trees. Worm- 
ijing at this time will necessitate removal of the paper 
iwrappings, and leveling of the mounds. In fact, to 
Ijjleave the paper on longer in any event, would be to 
! offer protection to the young borers underneath. A 
[jknife will not be required for worming, as a great 
jper cent, of the larvae present will be on the surface 
Ipf the bark feeding on tender spots and covered with 
I la mass of gum mingled with excrement and borings. 
I [This gummy mass together with the worms beneath, 
|may be scraped off with a curved bill-hook arrange- 
J-nent, bluntly pointed at one end and provided with a 
jjdouble edge which should not be sharp— about like a 
hill table knife. This hook may be heavy enough 
o serve for digging and cutting if desired, and 
hould be provided with a substantial handle about 
welve inches long. With such a hook trees can be 
vormed rapidly. The majority of the young borers 
vill be found on the tree trunks several inches above 
rnnnd and being for the most part on the surface, 
Ikv may be easily scraped off. 
Ihe hook mentioned above is one recommended 
y Mr. C. M. Porter, of Douglas, Ga., and the writer 
leheves that no better implement has been devised 
jr this work. 

(4) Caustic and Deterrent Washes.— After worm- 
ig in fall some form of caustic wash should be ap- 
hed to the tree trunks to kill the larvae which have 

en exposed, but remain on the trunk, and to pre- 
■nt the dislodged larvae from re-entering the trees. 

appears to be somewhat doubtful about a wasli 
^plied earlier in the fall preventing the adults from 

positing eggs. Prof. Starnes reports that eggs are 
id on the lateral branches; this habit has also been 
>served by the writsr. I have seen moths deposit 
:gs on the leaves of nurserj stock at least three 
ct above the ground. Washes of a deterrent na- 



do not get into^j^SJi, ^Jrn. 



189 



ture 'a"pprfeid'TtQ. peach tree trunks before the moths 
appear would probably cause more eggs to be laid 
higher ui), and unlejs the wash applied is capable of 
repelling the little larvae wh^ katc'hed, it would be 
of little value. 

Lime-Sulphur-Tar Mixture. — A wash that has 
[.rovLH fairly satisfactory, having both deterrent and 
caustic properties, is one first recommended by Prof. 
W. M. Scott. It is made as follows: Slake one bush- 
el of lime with a small amount of warm water. 
While the lime is slaking add ten pounds of sulphur, 
previously stirred into a paste. To this mixture add 
one-half gallon of gas tar and then dilute with water 
to about 50 gallons. This wash carries sufficient 
lime to form a good coating over the bark, while not 
being thick enough to flake ofif badly when dry. By 
adding two pounds of Paris green to the above we 
have a deterrent, caustic and poison wash. 

Hale's Borer Wash.— Mr. J. H. Hale, President of 
tlie Hale Georgia Orchard Co., recommends the fol- 
lowing wash : Two quarts of strong soap and a half 
pint of crude carbolic acid, with two ounces of Paris 
green, are thoroughly incorporated in a bucketful of 
water, and enough lime and clay added to make a 
thin paste.* A wash of this description, if applied 
about July 15th, would act as a deterrent and poison. 
To be most thoroughly effective it should be applied 
to the trunk and main limbs and be replaced when 
loosened by rain. 

Prof. Starnes reports that he cannot recommend 
any one wash in view of his experience with many 
different formulas. For applying to trees just after 
fall Worming he recommends the following: 

Lime and Potash Wash. — A simple mixture of thick 
whitewash and ball potash — i 1-2 pounds lime, 2 1-4 
ounces caustic potash to the gallon of water. 

It is quite probable that the lime-sulphur mixtures 
recommended for San Jose scale treatment may be 
used with good success. They certainly possess the 
caustic property necessary to kill young borer lar- 
vae and by adding a little more lime than the scale 
formula calls for, it would cover tree trunks suffi- 
ciently to act as a deterrent to both the adult moths 
and the larvae. 

Summarizing the remarks regarding borer washes, 
none are worthy of unrestricted recommendation. 
The best time to apply any wash is just after the 

*Formula from Cir. 54, p. 4, Bur. of Ent., U. S. D. A. 



190 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



fall worming. If washes are applied earlier and be- 
fore the trees are wormed they should be sufficient- 
ly thick and caustic to repel larvae which attempt 
to enter the trunks of the trees. 

(5) Spring Worming. — In view of the informa- 
tion now at hand regarding the life history of the 
peach-tree borer it does not appear advisable to de- 
pend on spring worming. The borers are all under 
the bark in spring and must then be removed with 
a sharp knife or killed in their burrows with a wire 
probe. Where other measures have not been prop- 
erly attended to, spring worming may be necessary 
and beneficial. It would at least tend to reduce the 
numbers of adults appearing in fall, and prevent 
much injury during summer months. In general it 
would seem preferable to devote considerable tune 
and work to the fall treatment as already described, 
and if some borers have escaped they should be dug 
out in early spring. A caustic wash may be applied 
after the spring worming, but it will only destroy 
larvae which have been exposed but not actually 
killed. 

Best rcFults in controlling peach borers will be ob- 
tained only when the various remedial measures — as 
suggested — are combined, and each feature of the 
work given careful attention. 

THE FRUIT-TREE BARK-BEETLE. 

(Known also as shot-hole borer.) 

Historical.— This insect is a native European spe- 
cies. In the United States it was first noticed in 
1877 in New York, where it was attacking the peach. 
No doubt many other localities were infested at the 
same period though not then discovered. It has now 
been found in all the Eastern States and at least as 
. far west as Kansas. This insect has been known to 
injure the following fruits: Plum, cherry, apricot, 
nectarine, apple, pear and quince, as well as the 
peach. 

Habits and Nature of Injury. — Early writers usu- 
ally held to the opinion that t'he fruit-tree bark-bee- 
tle would not attack perfectly healthy trees, and 
some who will still assert that the first writers were 
correct. 

The weight of evidence is conclusive, however, 
that t'he bark-beetles first attack weakened and dy- 
ing trees, but often when numerous, turn their at- 



tack to trees which are apparently in good health. 
As appropriately stated by J. M. Stedman* : "It is 
very largely a matter of opinion when one pro- 
nounces a tree perfectly healthy that has become 
infested with this pest, but no doubt one should re- 
gard a tree as healthy when there is absolutely no 
reason to suspect anything different except that it 
has now become attacked by this insect." 

The fruit-tree bark-beetle works for the greater 
part of its lifetime under the bark of the infested 
tree. A tree in wliich this insect has been breeding; 




F'ig. 12. 



-Work of Fruit-tree Barkbeetle in twig- 
size. (After Cliit., U. S. Dept. of Agr., 
Bur. of Ent, Cir. No. 29.) 



-natural 



Will show many branches like Fig. 12, illustratin! 
the nature of the work under the bark, as well a 
the outward appearance, showing the holes madi- ^ 
the adult beetle. Young peach trees often cl 
mence to wither and dry up towards the end of tli 
limbs before any other sign of borers is discovi • 
When that occurs the insects will often be founil .- 
neath the bark as described farther on. 



Description. — The adult fruit-tree bark-beetle i^ 
small cylindrical beetle, about one-eighth inch 
lengt'h and only about one-third as broad. They n 
uniformly black in color except the tips of the elyt 
or wing covers and a portion of the legs, which a 
dull red. Fig. ■13-a illustrates the peculiar punctv 
tion on the thorax and wings, and the peculiar bin 
shaped abdomen is well shown in Fig. 13-b. T 



''Missouri Agri. Expt. Sta. Bull. No. 44. 



It is a great crime to waste anything after it is safely housed. 



191 



young borer or grub is w'hite except for the brown 
head, as illustrated at d. The pupa — the form as- 
sumed by the larva just before changing to the adult 
beetle — is pictured in the figure at c. 

Winter Stage and Life History. — The winter is 
passed by this insect in the larval or grub stage in 
their channels under the bark. In spring about the 
middle or latter part of March, the parent beetles 
eat their way out from under tlie bark, making lit- 
tle holes scarcely 1-16 inch in diameter. These pa- 
rent beetles soon commence to bore into the trees, 
and begin the construction of an egg chamber which 
is nearly always formed in the direction of the long 
axis of the limb, or nearly so. They seem to prefer 
to enter at the base of the limbs, or at the forks 





Fig. 13. — Fruit-tree Bark-beetle; a. adult beetle; b, same in 

profile; c. pupa; d, larva; all magnified about ten 

times. (After Chit., U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. 

Bur. of Ent., Circ. No. 29.) 



made by lateral spurs, and often at the base of buds 
near the extremities of the small branches. The 
beetles are frequently found, on badly infested trees, 
entering the trunk nearly to the base of the trees. 
The egg chamber is formed partly in the cambium 
layer and partly in the wood directly beneath. An 
egg chamber varies from one inch or less to an inch 
and a half in length, and as it is formed minute side 
pockets are constructed to each side, in which eggs 
are deposited. It is supposed that each female lays 
about eighty eggs. The minute grubs hatc'hing from 
*hese eegs burrow at right angles to the egg cham- 
ber. When a limb is badly infested these channels 
"'■ncs and re-rrns^ one another, rntil the cambium 
l^ver of bark, and t'he wood iu=t beneath, is reduced 
almost to powder. The typical ege chambers and 
side galleries are well illustrated in Fiar. I4- The 
vnnng grubs continue to feed as described until full 
grown when they make a slightly deeper burrow 



and there change to the pupae from which emerge 
the adult beetles as already described. These bee- 
tles escape by simply eating their way out through 
the bark, making the characteristic round hole. As 
each beetle must make a hole through wliich to es- 
cape and another when entering to construct the egg 
chamber, the great numbers of holes found in an in- 
fested limb are easily accounted for. 




Fig. 14. — Bark removed from twig, showing egg chambers 

and galleries of Fruit-tree Bark-beetle; a, a, main 

gallery; b, b, side or larval galleries; c, 

c, pupal cells — natural size. 

(From U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. of Ent, Circ. 29.) 

Generations Each Year. — Concerning the number 
of broods each year, no definite observations have 
been made. In Missouri, Prof. Stedman found three 
and sometimes a fourth. Considering the fact that 
many adults were observed this year during the ear- 
ly part of July, and as these must have been the 
third brood, it is reasonable to predict that we have 
four generations to contend with in the peach or- 
chards of the South. 

Remedies. 

Clean Culture. — As heretofore stated the bark 
beetles seem to prefer to breed in dying trees. Here- 
in will be found tlie clew to a remedy, or more prop- 
erly speaking, prevention. All dead and dying trees 
should be destroyed by burning during winter. This 
work must be done at least before the first of March 



192 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



in order to destroy all the young borer larvae hiber- 
nating under t'he bark. All adult beetles — it is gen- 
erally supposed — die during winter, hence if all wood 
containing young borers is destroyed there will be 
practically no borers left to re-infest the orchard the 
following spring. Of course, there will always be a 
few slightly infested trees left, and from them some 
adult borers will develop. A small number of adults 
in March may increase to considerable numbers by 
the time the second and third broods appccLV. In addition 
to burning all brush and dead trees during winter, the 
orchards should be closely watched during summer, 
and Avhen infested trees are discovered or even sin- 
gle infested limbs, they sl:ouId be removed and burn- 
ed. 

Fertilizing and Cultivating. — Slightly infested trees 
will sometimes recover, after the attacked portions 
have been removed. To aid this recovery t'he or- 
chardist should cultivate and fertilize as appears 
necessary to keep the trees in a healthy, vigorous 
state of growth. Very healthy trees are more able 
to withstand an attack from the fruit-tree l-.ark-bee- 
tle, t'han are poorly nourished, slow-growing trees. 

Washes. — Understanding the life history of the 
bark-beetle as already described, one will readily 
perceive that the application of washes either poison 
or deterrent, cannot be expected to prove of certain 
value. The larvae working beneath the bark cannot 
be killed by any exterior application, and the adult 
beetles do not feed over a sufficient area of t'he bark 
to insure successful poisoning. A deterrent wash, 
one that will repel tlie beetles, is therefore t'-.e most 
promising. By adding po'son to whatever wash is 
used some beetles may be killed if they attempt to 
reach the bark through t'he wash. 

The writer has not been enabled to test the value 
uf the washes that haVe been recommended by va- 
rious writess. One that 'h?.s given fairly good suc- 
cess in Missouri, recommended by J. M. Stedman, 
is as follows: 



gallons of water and filtered so as to remove all dirt 
and small lumps; this is now added to the above and 
mixed ; while to all is added one-half pound of Paris 
green or ^'one-fourth pound of white arsenic, and 
thoroughly mi.xed. 

The above wash will act as a repellent to keep the 
adult beetles from boring into the trees to deposit 
eggs. It will not kill tl.e young grubs under the 
bark^ It may poison a few beetles if they attempt 
to eat through. The trunk and large limbs of trees 
to be protected must be kept thoroughly covered 
with this or any other wash which should be applied 
about the first of March and as often thereafter as 
necessary to keep the trees well protected. The first 
application may be made with a spray pump and 
then every portion of the tree should be covered. 
'Later applications cannot well be applied to ,the 
smaller branches and twigs and for that reason it 
cannot be thoroughly effective. 

WTierever orchards are sprayed with lime-sulp'hur 
wash for the San Jose scale it is probable that no 
o'.her wash will be necessary, or at least would not 
be practical in view of the additional expense. 




Fig. 13. — Peach Twig Borer: a, moth with wings spread; b 
and c, tame with wings closed, i.lustrating normal po- 
sition. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. 
of Ent.. Bull. No. 10.) 



Deterrent and Poison Wash. 



THE PEACH TWIG BORER. 



Dissolve as much common washing soda as possi- Early in spring the orchardist may be looking 

ble in six gallons of soft water, and then dissolve throug'h his peach orchards and notice that many of 

one gallon of ordinary soft soap in the above and the young shoots of the new growth are dying back 

add one pint of crude carbolic acid and mix thor- a few inches at the tips. He will wonder what the 

oughly. Two pounds of lime is tlion slaked in two cause of this trouble may be. Upon examining the 



See to it that the weevils do not get into your wheat. 



193- 



dying twigs a slender brownish worm may be 
found in the little twig just about at the point where 
the twig commenced to die. This will usually prove 
to be the larvae of the peach twig borer. This in- 
sect is quite common in many parts of the South 
tliough many peach growers are not aware of its 
identity. 

The peach twig borer is evidently a native of Eu- 
rope and was probably brought to this country on 
some shipment of nursery stock. It was first re- 
garded as an important peach pest about the year 
1872, according to Marlatt,* when it was reported 
as causing excessive damage in young peach or- 
chards in Maryland. It has since been reported 
from many of the peach growing States, and will, in 
time, if not already so, become cosmopolitan in its 
distribution. 

Description and Life History. — The adult moth is 
shown in Fig 15 in the natural position, as when 
resting on a branch, and with the wings spread to 




Fig. 16. — ^Peach Twig Borer: a, new shoot of peach dying 
from attaclv of larva ; b, larva enlarged ; c, .pupa en- 
larged. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. 
of Ent, Bull. No. 10.) 

show the characteristic markings. These moths ap- 
pear in early summer from, the worms or larvae caus- 
ing the first dead twigs as mentioned above. The 
first brood of moths soon commence to deposit eggs 
around the base of the new leaves as described by 
Prof. C. L. Marlatt, and from these eggs minute lar- 
vae hatch, at first very small, pale yellow in color, 
witTi black extremities. These larvae proceed at 



once to bore into the shoot on which they are locat- 
ed. Sometimes they enter the shoot and burrow for 
a short distance in the center; these burrows being 
from one-fourth to one and one-'half inches in length. 
Or they may simply bore to the center of the shoot, 
and, apparently dissatisfied with the location, wan- 
der away to another shoot. Thus a single larva may 
bore into and injure several new twigs in the course' 
of its wandering life. The writer 'has observed many 
such cases ; a twig often showing only a small hole 
with no sign of the intruder, though the twig was. 
found in a dying condition. In California it is claim- 
ed that the summer broods attack the growing 
peac'hes, but this injury has not been noticed in the 
South, so far as the writer is aware. 

The larva or worm attains a length when full 
grown of nearly one-half inch ; color dull reddish 
brown, with the head and posterior end dark brown 
or black. The body tapers toward either end and is 
sparsely clothed with long hairs. (Fig. 16, b.) When 
grown the larvae spin a scanty web in the leaves or 
rubbish about the trees or even in the dried leaves 
of the injured shoot. In this web the larvae change 
to the pupae (Fig. 16, c), from which the adult 
moths emerge. 

Winter Stage. — It has been determined that there 
are probably four broods. The larvae of the last 
brood seek t'heir winter quarters, and this point in 
their life history is of great importance as it offers 
a chance for easily destroying most of these insects 
during winter. It has been found by Prof. Marlatt 
that the larvae of the last brood construct small 
silken cells in the spongy bark at the crotches of the 
brancTies of the peach, and there pass the winter. 
In these quarters they are only poorly protected and 
often fall prey to birds and predaceous insects, and 
they are also frequently killed by a parasitic mite. 

Remedies. 

It would at first thought be supposed that the lar- 
vae could be trapped when the first dying twigs ap- 
pear in summer by simply cutting off the injured 
shoots, and by burning, destroy the larvae within. 
This is in fact a possible remedy, but as stated 
above, a single larva may injure several twigs; hence 
many twigs might be removed to capture only a few 
of the insects. Furthermore the larvae attain full 



*U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. of Ent., Bull. No. 10. growth in about two weeks, so that the time during 



14 



194 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



which the worms could be trapped is comparatively 
short. 

The larvae passing the winter in the crotches of 
the trees are easily killed by a spray of lime-sulphur 
wash as advocated for the San Jose scale. In Cali- 
fornia this insect is effectually controlled by the 
winter treatment. Wherever trees must be sprayed 
for the San Jose scale or other scale insects, the 
■peach twig borer will be so reduced by the treat- 
ment that they will not cause serious trouble. Young 
peach trees could be washed or painted with the 
lime-sulphur was'h where it is not necessary to spray 
the entire orchard. 



grower though the worms occurring in the fruit and 
the marks on the skin are familiar objects. 

Description. — The curculio, or weevil, as it is some- 
times called, is a small, dark brown, rough backed 
beetle, looking like a dried bud when shaken from 
the trees, which resemblance, is increased by its 
habit of drawing up its legs and remaining 
for a time without motion, seemingly lifeless. 
In other words, this beetle when disturbed will 
play "possum," and when in that position it is 
indeed hard to distinguish from a small dried bud. 
The color is dark brown variegated with white, 
ochre-yellow and black. The wing covers have short 




Fig. IT.^Tenninal twig of peach tree killed b.v larva of 
peach twig-borer. (Photo by A. C. Lewis.) 



THE CURCULIO. 

Wormy peaches are nearly always found in every 
peach orchard each year, and much fruit is ruined 
and thrown away on this account. By far the ma- 
jority of the worms occurring in peac'hes in the 
South are the larvae of the Curculio, usually named 
"plum curculio." 

The adult curculio or beetle is commonly called 
"The little Turk." Owing to its small size this in- 
sect is not generally observed by the average fruit 



ridges, those in the middle of the back forming two 
humps which are shiny black; just behind the humps 
there is a wide band of ochre-yellow and white. The 
beetles vary in size but average nearly one-fifth inch 
in length. They are provided with membraneous 
wings — under the visible wing covers as described 
above — with w'hich they fly easily for considerable 
distances. 

Habits and Life History.— The beetles pass the 
winter under protection of weeds, rubbish, etc., in 



Don't trust your spraying to the Children And To The Hired Boy. 



195 



the orchard, under and around peach trees, and also 
in the leaves and brush in the edge of forests, whic'h 
frequently adjoin the peach orchards. In spring 
when peac'h trees are just pushing out the tender 
buds, the curculio emerge from their winter quar- 
ters and commence to feed on the opening buds. 
Mating soon takes place and by the time the first 
fruit is set the females are ready to deposit eggs. 

The egg puncture made by the female curculio is 
very characteristic on plums but not as distinct on 
the fuzzy skin of the peac'h. (Fig. 18.) Before de- 
positing an egg the beetle first makes a small cres- 
cent-shaped incision with the snout, which she also 
employs to force the egg under the skin. Only one 
egg is deposited in a place, and as long as plenty of 





Fig. IS. — The Curculio: Egg punctures on peach — natural 

size; adult beetle, on right — enlarged. (From U. S. 

Dept. ot Agr., Farmer's Bull., No. 33.) 

peaches remain unstung only a few will be found 
with more than one egg puncture. If fruit is scarce 
several eggs may be found in a single peach. 

The eggs thus deposited soon hatch into white, 
footless grubs which commence to bore toward the 
center of the fruit, finally lodging near the seed. 
Such infested fruit often drops when about the size 
of a grape. Oftentimes a peach may attain a size 
of fiearly one inch in diameter before being stung, 
and may then develop and ripen prematurely even 
with a worm within, constituting the common 
"wormy" fruit. The irritation arising from the egg 
punctures and the gnawing of the young grubs 
causes the fruit to became gummy, diseased, and 
either ripen prematurelv or form imperfect fruit. 
Frequently small holes are eaten in the peaches sim- 
ply for the purpose of feeding, and from the wounds 
thus inflicted the gum often exudes, and rot fre- 
quently sets in at the injured spot, thus causing 
much additional injury. 

In fallen, wormy fruit fhe grubs complete their 



growth and after leaving the fruit enter the ground 
and pupate. In about three or four weeks the adult 
beetles develop from the pupate. It is generally 
supposed that there is only one brood each year, 
though this fact has not been definitely established. 
The egg laying period of a single female may extend 
over eighty days, which accounts for the fact that 
small worms are found in nearly mature peaches. It 
is also possible that a partial second brood occurs in 
some sections of the South. 

Remedies. 

Jarring. — This is one of the oldest recommenda- 
tions and possibly the best even at the present time. 
Taking advantage of the fact that the adult curculio 
will curl up and drop when disturbed, it is possible 
to capture large numbers by jarring trees over a 
sheet, from which the beetles can be collected and 
destroyed. Many devices have been suggested for 
. capturing the curculio in this way. One is a patent- 
ed affair, shaped like an inverted umbrella with a 
slit in one side in which the trunk fits w'hen the ar- 
rangement is pushed under the tree. This device is 
fitted with one wheel and handles like a wheel-bar- 
row. After this arrangement is pushed under a tree 
the trunk is hit a couple of sharp raps with the pad- 
ded end of a pole. The curculio thus disturbed, drop 
to the slanting sheet from which they slide to the 
center and drop into a can containing a little kero- 
sene. The worst objection to such an outfit is that 
all insects, including many beneficial lady-bugs, are 
often destroyed along with t'he curculio. 

The Hale Orchard Co., Fort V'alley, Ga., have a 
simple arrangement, which has been used with suc- 
cess. Two light wooden frames are made, each 
about 6x12 feet, and in the side of one frame a cut 
is made, large enough to accommodate a tree "trunk. 
These frames are covered with stout cotton cloth 
and w'hen placed under a tree, with two of the long 
edges together, a broad surface is secured, which 
will catch every insect dropping from the tree above. 
A padded pole is used for jarring the tree. It re- 
quires five men for each outfit, two for each frame 
and one to jar the trees. By having several double 
frames and a large force of negroes a large orchard 
can be covered in a few hours. Jarring should com- 
mence early — at first break of day — and be vigor- 
ously performed until about half-past eight in t'he 



196 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



morning. Later than this hour many of the ciircu- 
lio will be hiding in the rubbish under the trees and 
thus escape. An orchard can be quite thoroughly 
protected by jarring every morning after the fruit is 
first beginning to set, continuing the work as long 
as the beetles are numerous. After the first few 
days, where the work is thoroughly done, the beetles 
will become quite scarce. 

The advantage of this jarring method over the 
patent device is that it is cheaper, and the curculio 
can be collected from the sheets without destroying 
the beneficial insects. 

Spraying. — Authorities differ regarding the value 
of poison sprays for killing curculio. It is an un- 



use Paris green in connection with Bordeaux mix- 
ture, 4 ounces of Paris green to each barrel. Or ar- 
senate of lead may be used, 2 pounds to 50 gallons 
of water, or in the same proportion with Bordeaux 
mixture. 

Gathering Fallen Fruit. — This should properly be 
called prevention, as it tends to reduce the number 
of adult curculio developing each season. It is of 
great importance to prevent curculio from increas- 
ing from year to year. All fallen fruit s'hould be 
gathered and destroyed by burying or feeding to 
hogs. This practice is of considerable value by de- 
stroying rotten fruit as well as the curculio. Even 
in orchards where spraying and jarring have been 




Fig. 19. — iJarring for Curculio. Method emijioyecl by Hale 
Orchard Co., Fort Valley, Ga. 



questionable fact that the curculio feed to some ex- 
tent on the opening buds and also on the fruit ; but 
experiments have not demonstrated that many bee- 
tles can be poisoned by spraying. The new buds de- 
velop so rapidly that it is almost impossible to keep 
them covered with poison spray, and by the time 
the foliage is fully' formed the peaches are also large 
enough to offer food to the adult curculio. Thor- 
ough spraying will, however, poison a certain num- 
ber of beetles, and for this work it would be well to 



practiced it would be advisable to gather all fallen 
fruit. This must be picked up every few days to 
prevent the larvae from leaving and entering the 
ground. 

Clean Cultivation. — This hinges closely on to the 
foregoing paragraph as gathering fallen fruit is real- 
ly a part of clean cultivation. The adult beetles 
hide during winter in rubbish, weeds, etc., hence all 
such harboring places should be prevented by keep- 



Consult your State entomologist in regard to insects. 



197 



ing orchards clean and free from weeds and brush. 
Forests immediately surrounding orchards offer 
abundant winter protection to the curculio, and 
where the damage would not be too great a portion 
of these forests adjoining the orchards should be 
burned over each winter, which would result in de- 
stroying hundreds of over-wintering curculio. 

PLANT LICE INJURIOUS TO THE PEACH. 

Under this head we have several species, all close- 
ly resembling each other in size and shape, though 
often differing in color. Some species differ quite 
widely in habits and life-history, and also in appear- 
ance if submitted to close scrutiny. As t'he treat- 
ment recommended for this family of insects is 
about the same for one and all, the description of 
one or two species will serve to illustrate the varia- 



first knowledge of this particular species dates back 
to 1898 when it was discovered by Prof. W. M. 
Scott in a plum orchard at Fort Valley, Ga. Dur- 
ing that year and the one following it was observed 
on plum and peach, causing considerable injury to 
the growing tips of young trees, and particularly to 
nursery stock — June-budded peach. In 1899 Prof. 
Scott determined the life history in general and since 
then it has been considered as an important peach 
insect. 

Life History. — The winter is passed in t'he egg 
stage, these eggs being found scattered over the ter- 
minal shoots. From these eggs, which are dark 
brown in color, and very small, small wingless lice 
hatch, appearing just about as the buds commence 
to open in spring. Within a short time these young 
lice reach maturity and become "stem mothers." 




Fig. 20.— Winged form of New Plum Aphis. (After Scott, 
V. S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. of Ent., Bull. No. 31.) 



tion in life history, so it is not deemed necessary to 
mention all the different species that might attack 
the peach. 

Indication of Aphis. — When peach trees in early 
spring or summer are discovered with the tips pre- 
senting a dwarfed growth, and with the leaves curl- 
ed and twisted, aphis may be looked for. These will 
be found on the underside of the curled leaves and 
often clustered in great numbers around the tender 
shoot and terminal bud. Hundreds of individuals 
may occur on a single leaf as a single aphis is less 
than i-io inch in length. 

THE NEW PLUM APHIS. 
Although this species has been named "Plum 
Aphis," it is by no means confined to the plum. Our 



Each individual is an agamic female capable of giv- 
ing birth to living j^oung without the intervention 
of the male. Each stem mother gives birth to sev- 
eral young, which in turn reach maturity and bring 
forth more young in a like manner. The majority 
of these develop into agamic females resembling the 
stem mother, though some individuals develop wings 
and fly to other localities where they establish new 
colonies. These winged agamic females (Fig. 20) 
give birth to young resembling those from the stem 
mother. During the season there may be ten or 
more generations, as described above. From the 
last generation each season true males and females 
develop, which mate, thus providing for the winter 
eggs. 

It is no uncommon sight to see a s'tem mother 
surrounded by a hundred or more aphis of all sizes. 



198 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



By sucking the plant juices the leaves are made to 
curl and twist, always toward the side on which the 
lice are located. When the leaves become badly 
curled it will be readily understood that the lice are 
well protected and hard to reach with any insecticide. 
This characteristic curling of leaves should be care- 
fully noted, as it is closely connected with the sub- 
ject of remedies which will be considered after men- 
tion has been made of one more species of aphis. 

THE BLACK PEACH APHIS. 

Description and Life History. — This species, as its 
name implies, is shining black or deep brown in color. 
Winged and wingless forms both occur, new colo- 
nies being established by means of the former. The 
young aphis are faint greenish-brown, becoming dark- 
er as they near maturity. All these forms will be 
found on the growing tips of infested peach trees in 
early spring causing the leaves to curl in the char> 
acteristic manner. 

Unlike the plum aphis this species does not' win- 
ter in the egg stage. About mid-summer many of 
the aphis on the leaves and branches make t'heir way 
to the ground and to the roots where the winter is 
passed. Dr.. John B. Smith* states that no males 
have been observed and no eggs have been discov- 
ered ; hence it is assumed that the black peach aphis 
breeds agamically all the year round. Early in spring 
the root form make their way to the surface and to 
the branches, and there colonies are formed on the 
opening buds, later living on the fully developed 
leaves and tender stems. 

Remedies. 

Plant lice live by sucking the plant juices, and for 
that reason they cannot be poisoned with arsenicals. 
Contact poisons must be employed for these insects, 
l-'or the forms which occur above ground we have a 
simple remedy, as kerosene emulsion at 15 per cent, 
strength or a strong soap solution will kill all the 
aphis with which it comes in contact. Now it will 
be seen why the matter of the curled leaves becomes 
significant. It is almost impossible to spray a tree 
with emulsion, or any solution, so as to reach all 
the aphis inside the curled leaves. This can only be 
affected by dipping, which is out of the question 



*N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 72. 



with orchard trees of any size, though it may be 
practiced with nursery stock. By watching closely 
^or the first appearance of aphis in spring the first 
colonies may be discovered and destroyed by spray- 
ing before the leaves become curled. If many leaves 
are curled when the infestation is first discovered, 
it may become necessary, to gather the badly curled 
leaves by hand, and follow with the emulsion to de- 
stroy all remaining aphis. (For preparing kerosene 
emulsion see directions on page 182) 

Whale oil soap solution, i pound to 3 gallons of 
water, will be found as effective as the emulsion ; or 
tobacco decoction may be prepared by boiling 3 
pounds of tobacco leaves or stems, in 5 gallons of 
water for about three hours. This decoction may be 
used without dilution and will prove very effective. 

The black peach aphis occurring on the roots of 
peach trees will seldom become serious if the form 
appearing above ground is properly destroyed each 
year, at least enough to reduce them to insignificant 
numbers. The greatest danger is that this insect 
may be spread on nursery stock, but even that dan- 
ger is mitigated by fumigation which is required of 
all nurserymen in some States. Liberal applications 
of tobacco dust about the roots of nursery stock is 
valuable for destroying the root form of peach 
aphis. 

Any plant lice occurring on leaves or branches 
may be killed by spraying with the contact insecti- 
cides mentioned above, and no one need fear this 
form of insect if the first colonies appearing in spring 
are properly destroyed. 

ROOT KNOT OR NEMATODE GALL. 

While not an insect, strictly speaking, the nema- 
tode worm, which is the cause of root knot on peach 
trees, should be mentioned in connection with other 
peach insects. These knots are caused by a small 
"eel-worm" or nematode, an individual being almost 
microscopical in size; but the knots resulting from 
their attack are readily noticed. (Fig. 21.) A close 
examination of fresh knots will usually reveal the 
little cavities containing eel worms in all stages of 
development. 

Usually it has been observed that the root knot is 
most prevalent on trees in sandy soils, such as are 
found in some parts of South Georgia, while in the 
stiff clay lands this trouble is seldom noticeable. 



Birds are great insect gatherers. 



199 



The symptom of root knot, which can be seen 
above ground, is usually a scanty yellow growth. 
Young trees often die from the effect of root knot 
during the second or third' year, but w'here older 
trees are attacked they may survive fpr several years 
or almost indefinitely, although making a poor 
growth. 

No good remedy for this trouble is known though 




Fig. 21. — Root Knot on peach root caused by "eel worms" or 

nematodes. (From U. S. Dept. of Agr., Farmers' 

Bull. No. 33.) 

much damage therefrom may be avoided by adher- 
ing to certain rules. 

In the first place, orc'hardists should not plant trees 
bearing roots which show root knot; or if only a 
very little is present it should be carefully prune'd 
off before planting. Another thing that should be 
understood is that the nematode worms live on sev- 
eral common garden and field crops, such as cab- 
bage, okra, turnip, egg-plant, cotton and cow-peas. 
In the case of the cow-pea we have an exception in 
the variety of pea known as the "Iron" cow-pea. 
This variety is practically resistant to the nematode 
worm and can be planted with safety in the peach 
orchard, and in view of the fact that so many cow- 
peas are grown in the peach orchards, it is fortunate 



that wf have tliis resistant variety. All plants which 
arc susceptible to attack from the nematode worm 
should be kept out of peach orchards where the 
worms are known to occur. This practically results 
in a starving out process. 

Insecticides are of little if any value against the 
nematode worms. In Florida it was found that 
heavy applications of potash fertilizer, either sul- 
phate or muriate, 3,000 lbs. per acre, were of some 
value, but the large amounts necessary make the'r use 
prohibitive. 

It has been suggested that nematode worms may 
be destroyed by heat, and this may be practical over 
small areas, especially where only an occasional tree 
is infested. Under such conditions each infested tree 
should be dug up by the roots leaving a fair sized 
hole, above which a pile of brush and wood could 
be burned. Afterward by filling the hole with fresh 
earth from an uninfested field, another tree could be 
planted in place of the old one. This tree would be 
able to develop a strong, vigorous root system before 
the nematodes again became abundant. 

As a general thing it will not be profitable to plant 
a peach orchard in land where the nematode worms 
are abundant, as long as uninfested land can be se- 
• lected. Land once infested will remain so for sev- 
eral years, but the worms will die out gradually if 
the land is planted in corn, or some such resistant 
crop. 

CATERPILLARS 

Caterpillars are not as a rule a serious enemy of 
peach trees. Every year, however, a few outbreaks 
occur, but the damage in the past few years has been 
almost of no consequence. A few words, however^ 
in this connection may be of interest. 

THE AMERICAN TENT-CATERPILLAR 

Every one is familiar with the white webs of the 
tent-caterpillar, which are found on wild cherries and 
apples in spring, and which increase in size at an 
alarming rate. This tent-caterpillar sometimes at- 
tacks peach trees, and although easily destroyed are 
often allowed to work unmolested. (For remedies 
see discussion of Apple Insects.) 

OTHER CATERPILLARS. 

The tent-caterpillar is easily controlled without 



200 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



spraying, but some leaf-eating worms are not so eas- 
ily captured. Whenever the foliage of fruit trees 
is being destroyed by caterpillars it may be readily 
protected by spraying with some arsenical poison. 
Peach foliage is very easily injured by arsenical 
sprays; hence the following dilute formula is recom- 
mended to be employed against any leaf-eating cat- 
erpillars. 

Formula : — 

Paris Green or Green Arsenoid ...I pound 

Quick Lime 3 pounds 

Water I75 gallons 

Paris green may also be used in connection with 
weak Bordeaux mixture, at the rate of 4 ounces of 
the former to 50 gallons of the latter. One spraying 
with either of the above mixtures will usually kill 
enough caterpillars, when present, to prevent their 
causing any considerable injury. 



Apple Insects 

WOOLLY APHIS. 

This little insect belongs to the same family as the 
plant lice which infest the buds and leaves of the ap- 
ple during the early summer, and differs from the 




Fig. 22. — Woolly aphis (Schizoneura lanigera). a, Agamic fe- 
male; b, larva louse; c, pupa; d, winged female with 
antenna enlarged above; all greatly enlarged 
and with waxy excretion removed. (Mar- 
latt, Cic. No. 20, sec. s., Div. of Ent., 
L. S. Dept. of Agr.) 



latter mainly in that it secretes a white cottony sub- 
stance about its body and infests, as a rule, the roots 
of the trees. Where trees are infested when they 
come from the nursery they are likely to be found 
seriously injured in from two to four years after 
planting. Its presence on the root is indicated by 
cottony masses under which, by a close examination, 
may be detected the brownish-pink bodies of the lice. 
By feeding upon the roots these lice cause abnormal 
swellings or galls, the tissue of which soon dies, and 




Fig. 23. — Woolly aphis (Schizoneura lanigera). a. Root of 
young tree illustrating deformation; b, section of root 
with aphids clusteed over it; c, root louse, female — a and 
b, natural size; c, much enlarged. (Marlatt, Giro. No. 
20, sec. s.. Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of Ag.) 



the roots are destroyed. The main support of the 
tree being thus impaired, a high wind soon topples i' 
over. The root-infestiug form of the woolly aphis i» 
shown in Figure 23. 

Besides the root-infesting form, there is an "aeri- 
al" form (see Figure 22) which attacks the trunk 
and limbs but the injury from this form is not great. 
This form feeds mostly in cracks, old cuts or bruised 
places in the bark and its presence is readily detect- 
ed by the white cottony appearance of the colonies. 
The damage done by this form is little more than a 
killing of the bark at the point of attack. The aeri- 



Don't fail to spray your fruit trees. 



20I 



il form is readily killed by spraying thoroughly with 
1 whale oil soap solution made of one pound of 
A^hale oil soap to each gallon of water; with kero- 
sene emulsion, or with some tobaoco solution such 
lis diluted Rose Leaf Tohacco Extract. A home- 
'iiade tobacco decoction is easily prepared by boiling 
i|;hree pounds of tobacco stems in five gallons of wa- 
ter for three hours, adding water from time to time 
;o make up for evaporation. These colonies on trunk 
md limbs must be thoroughly drenched with what- 
ever insecticide is used, as the cottony covering pro- 
tects them effectually from, any light application. 
We consider the aerial form more of an advantage 
!han otherwise, as it serves to give the orchardist 
.varning of the more serious injury that is likely 
occurring on the roots of the trees at the same time. 

An apple tree having its roots infested with wool- 
y aphis usually presents a sickly appearance, with a 
yellowish foliage and a noticeable scarcity of 
jiealthy leaves. Examination of the roots will usual- 
y disclose the "aphis galls'' in such cases. 

As the root-infesting form of this insect is the 
nost injurious, it is important that the main meas- 
ires should be directed against it. The remedy is 
jiasy to apply, but its efficiency depends upon its use 
jvhen the aphis first appears and while the trees are 
jj'oung. Tobacco dust is an effective remedy and has 
i)een used with most gratifying success in Ohio. 
; In applying this to four or five-year-old apple 
Jrees, remove the soil for about two or three feet on 
pach side of the tree, and to a depth of three or four 
jnches. Into this opening sprinkle about five 
||)Ounds of tobacco dust and replace the dirt. Larger 
[uantities should of course be used upon older and 
,arger trees. Other remedies, such as boiling water, 
botash soap, ashes, etc., have been tried, but always 
vith little or no success. The tobacco dust remedy 
hould be applied in the spring as soon as the 
[ground is "settled," and its thorough success will de- 
send upon its application before the trees get old and 
ecome badly infested. 

APPLE TREE BORERS 

A common injury to apple trees is that caused by 
|)Orers in the main trunk near or just above the sur- 
iace of the ground. There are two borers which 
nay cause damage, known as the round-headed and 
lie flat-headed. These names are descriptive of 
ijjlie larvae of these two different insects, and, as they 



imply, the one is nearly cyclindrical in form, with a 
head about the same size as the body, while the oth- 
er has a flattened head, which is very broad as com- 
pared with the width of the body. There is also a 
marked difference in the life-history of the two in- 
sects. 

ROUND-HEADED BORER. 

The adult round-headed borer is a beautiful beetle, 
about three-fourths of an inch in length, of a pale, 
brownish-yellow color and having two broad, 
creamy-white stripes running the entire length of the 
body. These beetles appear 'during May and June 
and the females soon thereafter commence to depos- 
it their eggs in cracks or crevices in the bark near 
the base of the tree. The egg hatches in about two 
weeks into a minute worm which immediately bores 
through the bark and begins to feed on the sap- 
wood. For the first year, the larvae confine their 
attacks to the sap-wood, making a disc-shaped bur- 
row about the size of a silver dollar. Unless several 
are present the injury is not likely to be very notice- 
able the first season. At the close of the first sea- 
son the larva or borer, which is as yet but partly 
grown, goes to the lowest part of the burrow and 
remains there quietly through the winter. The sec- 
ond year of the borer's Ifie is also passed in the sap- 
wood but it no longer confines itself to a small area, 
but may work around a small tree, completely gird- 
ling it. When more than one borer is present in a 
small tree this is often the case. The second winter 
is also passed in the lowest part of the burrow. 
The third season of the borer's life finds him boring 
into the heart of the tree, and in the case of a small 
tree the channel may extend nearly or quite to the 
opposite side of the trunk. 

The borer attains its full development the third 
summer and after boring into the heart of the tree 
the channel through which it entered is closed with 
sawdust-like castings and another opening is made 
through which the adult beetle may escape the fol- 
lowing spring. In this latter channel the larva pas- 
ses the third and last winter of its life, and in spring 
the complete change to the adult takes place, and 
there emerges the beautiful beetle already described. 

When a borer is discovered in a tree, the only 
remedy is to dig him out with a sharp knife. This 
can be done in August and September. Knowing 
the life-history, it is evident that borers should be 



202 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



removed every year, in order to get them while still 
in their first season's development. If a borer has 
gone into the heart of the tree a sharp w^ire may be 
t'hrust into the opening and twisted about to kill the 
borer, even though he may not be entirely removed. 

When looking for borers, a sharp lookout should 
be kept for discolored patches of bark, which, when 
pressed with the finger give way and indicate the 
hollow underneath. Oftentimes t'he presence of a 
borer is indicated by an exudation of sap together 
with some of the sawdust intermingled. The sap, 
or gum, however, does not often come out in great 
quantities as it does upon peach trees which are at- 
tacked by the peach tree borer. 

In addition to apple trees, the round-headed borer 
may attack quince, Juneberry, native crab apple, ash 
and possibly other trees. 

FLAT-HEADED BORER. 

The adult flat-headed borer is a beetle about one- 
half inch in length, with a flattened, oblong body, 
tapering toward the posterior end. The color is 
greenish-black, with bronzy reflections, while the 
legs shine like burnished gold. The feet are shin- 
ing green in color. As to the life-history of the flat- 
headed borer, but little need be said except that it is 
supposed to complete its transformation — from egg 
to adult — in a single year. From eggs that are laid 
this summer, adult beetles will develop next sum- 
mer. The remedy is the same as for the round-head- 
ed borer and should be attended to at the same time, 
namely, during August and September. 

REMEDY FOR BORERS. 

Aside from t'he knife remedy, the trees may be 
protected by a coat of whitewash or a thick alkali 
soap solution. A still better ' plan is to wrap the 
trees, to a height of about eighteen inches, with 
thick brown paper tied firmly and pressed into t'he 
cracks so that no insect can crawl underneath it. 
Dirt should be piled around the lower end of this 
band. W'hitewash or the soap solution may be ap- 
plied above the band, but whatever is used for a 
protection should be applied as early as May 1st to 
be thoroughly effective. It is also advisable to re- 
peat this application about June ist, especially if 
there have been heavy rains. When paper is used 
this latter should be removed about the first of Au- 



gust. All these exterior coverings and applications 
of whitewash only serve to discourage the adult 
beetles from depositing eggs, and have no effect 
whatever upon borers that may have entered the 
tree. 

THE CODLING MOTH. 

This is one of the insect enemies that have sup- 
posedly come to us from the Old World, and it has 
now spread to nearly all parts of the United States 
where apples are grown. The annual damage to t'he 




Fig. 24. — Codling moths, natural size. (After Slingerland, 
Bui. 142, Cornell university Exp. Station.) 

apple crop of the country by this insect is enormous, ■ 
being estimated by Prof. C. B. Simpson at 12,000,- 
000 barrels, worth about $11,400,000.* The great 
majority of the "worms" found in apples are the 
larvae of this insect. It is evident that the codling 
moth is at present working more injury to the apple 
crop of the South than any other pest, the San Jose 
scale not excepted. 




'Fig. 25. — ^Codling moth larva or "apple worm," enlarged 

about 4 times. (After Simpson, Bui. 41, Div. of 

Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



The adult codling moth is a small but beautiful in- 
sect, but on account of its diminutive size it is sel- 
dom noticed by the average apple grower. The adult 
moths are well illustrated in Figure 24. 



''Bulletin 41, Division of Entomolog}% page 18. 



Don't Neglect The Fruit Trees. 



203 



The moths appear in the spring at about the time 
the apple trees are in bloom and eggs are deposited 
on both the young apples and on the foliage. There 
are many opinions as to how and where the young 
[larvae first enter the apple, but it is well established 
that a great majority of the spring generation crawl 
linto the blossom end of the small apples and there 
Iburrow into the flesh of the latter. The larva, when 
jpartially grown, is of a delicate pink color, and 
!when matured may attain a length of one-half inch 
|)r over. (See Figure 25). 

I Many of the wormy apples drop before attaining 
j.heir full size, but the larvae within them continue 
Id feed until grown, when they burrow out of the 
jipple and select a protected place in which to spin 
fheir cocoons. Loose bark and rubbish offer favor- 
llble inducements to these larvae, and it is' in such 
Material in the apple orchard that many cocoons 
Will be found. A knowledge of this habit is of im- 
;>ortance as bearing upon the control of this insect. 

I 

Remedies. 

j'l Spraying with arsenical poison has been found 

jiighly profitable, but this spraying must be done at 

he proper time or it will be of little yalue. The 

ij|ight time is just after the petals have fallen, and 

LVhile the calyx end of the apple is still open. At 

[jhis time it also will be noticed that the apples all 

itand erect in such "a way that a drop of water or 

Lipray mixture will be 'held by the apple as in a cup. 

.(See Fig. 26.) Thus the meal that awaits the cod- 

jpg moth larva is a poisoned one, and as most of 

Ijhe larvae enter the blossom end of the fruit, they 

ilfill not live to reach the interior of the fruit. This 

pison spray is best applied in the form of Bordeaux 

iixture 4-6-50 to which either six ounces of Paris 

Ireen or two and a half pounds of arsenate of lead 
added. The poison should be mixed with a very 
nail amount of water, intoa'paste, before it is add- 
1 to the Bordeaux mixture. 

■^ee directions for preparing Bordeaux Mixture on 
-. 183. 

The arsenate of lead is preferable to Paris green, 
; the former is not so readily was'hed off by rains. 
aris green, if used slightly in excess, is likely to 
tni the foliage severely, but with arsenate of lead, 
ere is not this danger. This spraying should be 
peated two weeks later, using the same formula 
r Bordeaux mixture and the same amount of pois- 



on. No danger may be apprehended from these 
early sprayings with poisoned Bordeaux, as by the 
time the apples are edible — even for cooking pur- 
poses — all of t'he poison will have been washed off 
by the rains. When it is also desired to control the 
apple scab, or where the apples are ordinarily at- 
tacked by the bitter rot fungus, a third spraying 
should :be given the trees about three weeks after 
the second. It may be well to emphasize the point 
that by spraying, we do not mean "sprinkling." 




Fig. 26.— ;Showing the right time to spray for codling motB. 
The bunch on the left is at proper stage for spaying, 
while the apples on the right are too f.nr developed for 
spraying to insure ibest results. (After a photo by A.. L. 
Quaintance). 

Spraying means a thorougli but thin amplication of 
the spray mixture to all parts of the tree and foli- 
age, as well as fruit, and this application can be made 
only with a good force-pump which is equipped 
with a good, fine Vermorel, Mistry, or Bordeaux 
nozzle. He who "sprinkles" may expect failure. 



204 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Mention was made of the fact that apples falling 
prematurely, contain the larvae in various stages o'f 
development. For this reason all wind-falls should 
be kept cleaned up during the entire season and eith- 
er burned or fed to stock, in order that the larvae 
within them may be destroyed before they have a 
c'hance to escape. In this way the future generations 
of the insect may be considerably reduced. Where 
apples are stored in cellars, bins or out-houses, th^ 
latter should be carefully and thoroughly screened 
to prevent the escape of adult moths which may de- 
velop from any apples which are placed in storage. 
Serious infestations by the codling moths have of- 
ten been traced directly to the carelessness in not 
properly screening storage cellars. 




Fig. 3T. — A ■wormy apple showing the mass of brown material 
thrown out at the blossom end by the codling moth lar- 
vae. (After Slingerland, Bui. 142, Cornell University 
Experiment Station.) 

By taking advantage of the habit of the larvae, af- 
ter leaving infested apples upon the tree, of crawling 
down the trunk to find a sheltered place in which to 
spin cocoons, we have also a. simple method of 
trapping them by putting bands about the tree. For 
tills purpose strips of burlap, old sacks or brown pa- 
per may be used. These bands should be four or 
five inches wide and held in place by stout twine. 
One band should be placed about the trunk of the 
tree and another around each principal limb. These 
bands should be put in place within three weeks af- 
ter the blooming period and examined every week or 
ten days and all larvae, pupae or cocoons found un- 
der them destroyed. Although the cocoons are not 
over one-half inc'h in length, they are white in color 
and readily found. The bands must be examined at 
least once every ten days to prevent the adults from 
escaping. To place bands upon the trees anil neglect 



tTiem. furni&lTg^s the codling moth larvae with the 
most favorable conditions for successfully reaching 
maturi'^y. 

THE AMERICAN TENT-CATERPILLAR 

Everyone is familiar with the white webs of t'he 
tent-caterpillar so that no extended discussion will be 
necessary. Certain points in the life history of this 
insect should be known. 

During winter the eggs may be seen on the small 
twigs where they occur in a mass, encircling t'he 
twig. Each mass contains over 200 eggs which 
are glued tightly together and covered with a glu- 
tinous matter which gives the mass a glistening 
brown color. The mass of eggs is visually about three- 
fourths of an inch in length and a little thicker than 
a plain gold ring. 

In spring the little caterpillrrs hatching from these 
eggs commence at once to form a web in the near- 
est crotch. As the caterpillars increase in size the 
nest is enlarged until it becomes a very conspicuous 
object. The caterpillars feed during the daytime, 
leaving the nest for this purpose. During rainy 
or cloudy days they seldom wander from the nest. 

When full grown these caterpillars attain the 
'ength of about two inches ; body quite hairy, and 
ornamented with a continuous white stripe along 
the back, while on either side short yellow stripes oc-, 
cur somewhat irregularly. Each caterpillar chang- 
es to a pupa in a yellow, loosely constructed cocoon 
which is usually located in some protected place, 
such as a fence corner. 

Remedies. 

The egg masses may be found during the winter 
While the trees are bare. In spring if trees are- 
closely watched, the little webs may be found' 
while their inmates are still very small. Thesft 
nests should be cut out and burned or crushed by 
hand. Such work, however, must be done in early 
morning, or about sundown, or on dark, cloudy 
days, as at other times many of the caterpillars wiU 
be feeding away from the nest and thus escape. 

APPLE CURCULIO. 

This pest is somew'hat smaller than the plum cur 



Don't Kill Toad Frogs. 



205 



culio, and is dark brown in color. Upon the hinder 
part of its body, it has four brownish humps. The 
adults drill holes into the young apples in order to 
obtain food, and to secure a place to deposit eggs. 
As soon as the eggs are hatched the young grubs 
burrow into the core where they feed and grow. 
One important feature of the work of this insect is 
that the affected apples do not fall to the ground, 
|thus making it difficult to combat the pest. The 
ibest remedy is to gather the affected apples, and de- 
Istrop them by feeding to the 'hogs. Great numbers 
•jof the adults may be captured by shaking the trees 
iand catching them on a sheet which is placed be- 
Ineatli, after which they may be destroyed by drop- 
ping in a pail of water which is covered with kero- 
sene oil. 

CANKER WORMS. 

The parents of the canker worm are moths, and 

-there are two species, one appearing in the spring 

!ind the other in the fall. The males have wings. 

While the females are wingless and only about a half 

ijin inch long. The caterpillars are greenish brown 

m color and are called measuring worms. Full 

iVrown worms are about one inch long. They feed 

(iipon the leaves of the apples, pears and peaches, and 

'|)ther fruit trees. The best treatment is to prevent 

I'ihe female moths from laying eggs on the trees, and 

I :his can be done by smearing the trunk of the tree 

iWvith a band of tar and printers' ink mixed with lin- 

I'leed oil, which will prevent the females from crawl- 

, JBg up the trunks of the trees to deposit their eggs. 

iphese bands should be renewed as long as the 

I ather is warm. However, this treatment is liable 

' injure the bark of young trees, unless a band of 

aper is first tied around t'hem, on which the mix- 

ure is placed, instead of on the bark of the tree. 

In using a paper band care must be taken to have 

fit close against the bark, as the insects may crawl 

nder it. Another remedy is to allow tlie worms to 

atch and then spray the trees with Paris green, us- 

ig a quarter of a pound to fifty gallons of water 

1 addition to one pound of stone lime, or with Bor- 

eaux mixture. Arsenate of lead is also valuable 

nd has the advantage of adhering better than Paris 

reen. Use at the rate of 2 lbs. to 50 gallons of wa- 

r. The first application of poison should be made 

1st as soon as the first worms appear and a second 

^plication should be made after a week or ten days, 



i 



if the worms are not all killed. This remedy is of- 
ten more suitable than the use of repellent bands of 
tar, or other sticky substances. 

SEVENTEEN YEAR LOCUST OR CICADA. 

This insect is wedge-shaped and is brownish black 
in color. The seventeen-year locust is not as large 
as the common dog-day locust, and the latter is 
greenish in color They are called seventeen-year 
locusts because of the length of time they spend in 
the ground in an immature stage. Some of the South- 
ern broods only live thirteen years in the immature 
stage, while in the North the life of the insect 
is seventeen years The adults are present 

about a month and cause a great deal of trouble 
by depositing their eggs on twigs of the apple, 
oak, and many other trees. The eggs are de- 
posited in a double row in a slit made in the wood. 
When the insects are present in large numbers they 
seriously injure and sometimes kill the trees. When 
the young hatch, they fall to the ground, and live 
there the remaining thirteen or seventeen years. 
Kerosene emulsion will destroy the lo'custs when 
they first come out of the ground, but after the 
swarm has begun flying about there is no remedy. 
Hogs root out and destroy immature locusts in the 
ground, while domesticated fowls, sparrows and oth- 
er birds feed upon them when the_y appear. 

THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 

Introduction. 

No insect in the history of our country has be- 
come more widely known in a few years than the 
cotton boll weevil, and to-day there is no insect Of 
other enemy of the cotton plant that deserves more 
attention or careful study. In 1903 the loss to the 
cotton crop in Texas alone was estimated by the 
Government Entomologist, Dr. L. O. Howard, at 
$15,000,000.00 while in 1904 the loss was estimated 
at 400,000 bales of cotton, which at the price of only 
$50.00 a bale would represent $20,000,000.00. The 
cotton crop of 1904 was the largest that has ever 
been known in the history of our country and some 
may say that the boll weevil could not have liad 
much to do toward lessening the yield. Those who 
have studied the matter, however, assert that such 
a crop cannot again be produced for many years 



2o6 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



and while all conditions were favorable to the pro- 
duction of a large cotton crop, the conditions for 
boll weevil increase were not as good as might rea- 
sonably be expected in ordinary years. Thus we 
must consider the boll weevil as an important ques- 
tion which must not be overlooked. 

The boll weevil first appeared in Texas near 
Brownsville about 1892, having probably crossed the 
Rio Grande river in unginned cotton or in cotton- 
seed. Since that time the boll weevil has traveled 
at the rate of about 50 miles a year, until now, as 
mentioned farther on, it is within about 75 miles of 
the Mississippi river. Mexico is undoubtedly tl-ie 
native home of the boll weevil, and it is also known 
to occur in Cuba. The earliest record we have of 
injury to cotton by the boll weevil is in 1848 in the 
State of Coahuila in Mexico. 




Pig. 28. — Bucket Spray Pump. Should be equipped with at 
least 15 foot length of hose. 

Every farmer living in the cotton growing States 
should learn to recognize the weevil in order to detect 
its first appearance in the cotton fields. To enable 
those persons living in sections where the boll wee- 
vil has not yet appeared, to gain a knowledge of t'he 
boll weevil the following description and illustra- 
tions are presented. The description of the boll 
weevil and also the insects frequently mistaken 
for the boll weevil is taken from bulletin No. 12 of 
the Georgia State Board of Entomology. The writ- 
er of that bulletin, Prof. Wilmon Newell, has had 
wide experience with the boll weevil, both in Texas 
and Louisiana. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE BOLL WEEVIL. 

The Adult Weevil. — The adult boll weevil is a 



brownish beetle varying in length from one-eighth 
to five-sixteenths of an inch, and measuring usual- 
ly slig'htly over one-sixteenth of an inch across the 
body at the widest part. The weevil is provided 
with a long "snout" or proboscis and is not unlike the 
common acorn weevil in appearance. It is not by 
any means a far distant relative of the chestnut wee- 
vil, the plum curculio and a number of other com- 
mon weevils with which almost everyone is familiar. 
Weevils shown natural size in Fig. 30. 

In color the boll weevils vary from a slight gray 
to a dark chocolate brown or black. As a usual 
thing, the older the weevil the darker in color it be- , 
comes, owing to the minute hairs or scales wearing 
off the body surface. Under an ordinary magnify- 
ing glass the weevil is seen to be covered with mi- 
nute scales, closely resembling hairs. These hair-j 
like scales are clearlv shown in Figure 29. The j 
wing-covers are seen to be finely lined, the fine lines j 
or ridges running lengthwise of the body. By far 1 
the most reliable character in distinguishing a boll j 
weevil from other similar weevils is the presence of - 
two small spines upon the interior of the femur j 
("upper joint") of the fore-leg. One of these spines !l 




Fig. 29. — ^Cotton boll weevil: a, beetle from above; b, samft 
from side — about five times natural size (original.) 

is considerably larger than t'he other. These tw( 
spines are not found upon the fore-legs of any othei 
of our common weevils although the occurrence O 
a single spine is common to many different weevils 
The adult boll weevils pass the winter in trash 
rubbish, grass, old cotton bolls, and similar materia 
about the infested fields, and also in the leaves an< 
trash of timber lands. These hibernating weevil 
leave such quarters in t'he spring, at about the tiiii' 
the first cotton is above ground and beginning ti 
form squares, and having fasted since the previou 



You Should Know Something of The Life History Of Insects. 



207 



utumn, begin to feed to a considerable extent upon 
le tender buds and stems of the young cotton 
lants. As noted above, the weevil has a long beak, 
: the end of which is a pair of small but very strong 
andibles. With these mandibles the outer layer of 
lie cotton bud or square is torn off, the beak insert- 
il into the softer tissue beneath and this latter ac- 
lally consumed. A square showing a feeding punc- 
|re made by the weevil is seen in Fig. 31. Punc- 
ires are made in a similar way by the females in 
iihich to deposit eggs, as well as for feeding, but 
jcording to Prof. W. D. Hunter, the punctures 
jjide for feeding are usually much larger and deep- 
Ij than those made for receiving the eggs. 

The Egg. — The egg of the boll weevil is describ- 



ties of observation, it is 'hard to say just what is the 
general average number of eggs deposited by each 
female, but Professor W. E. Hinds made careful and 
accurate observations upon several females, all of 
which deposited over 225 eggs each. 

The Larva. — The larva which hatches from the 
egg within the square or boll, is a white footless 
"grub"' with a brownish colored 'head and a pair of 
very substantial mandibles, with which it proceeds 
to feed upon the tissue surrounding it. The entire 
larval stage is passed within the square, form or boll 
in which the egg is deposited, as is also the next or 
pupal stage. The larva enlarges rapidly after hatch- 
ing from the egg and by the time it has reached 
maturity has eaten the greater part of the contents 




Fig. 30.— Boll Weevils on Cotton Boll. 

by Prof. W. E. Hinds as being pearly white in 
iOr, oval in form, and about one-thirtieth of an 
|h in length by a little over. 1-2 as wide. The 
ij is deposited by the female weevil in punctures 
de m squares or bolls for that purpose. Within 
I square or brU the egg is well protected from 
Ijasites and jther enemies. An egg is shown 
Kbng the anthers in an unopened square in Fig. 
pi the position of the egg being indicated by the 
pw. The eggs hatch in from 2 1-2 to 4 days. 
p a rule the females deposit only one egg in a 
lare or form and more than one is rarely deposit- 
in the same square unless as is the case during 
[die and late summer, squares are not produced 
n the plants fast enough to accommodate the 
Jiy females then in the fields. In such cases the 
s are frequently deposited in the young bolls and 
ietimes more than one egg is deposited in a sin- 
! square. As long as there are plenty of uninfest- 
t( Squares in the cotton field there is little or no 
**' deposition in the bolls. Owing to the difficul- 




Fig. 31. — Cotton square flared, showing egg puncture of boll 
weevil — natural size (original.) 

of the average-sized square. During mid-summer 
the larval stage varies from 6 to 8 days, while in 
early summer and in autumn it is longer. It has 
been found that during November and December the 
larval stage averaged from 20 to 30 days. 

One of the first indications of infestation by boll 
weevil is the flaring of the involucre or "shuck" sur- 
rounding the square. This opening of the involucre 
takes place usually a sTiort time after the larva 



2o8 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



hatches from the egg and a few days later the in- 
fested square is shed by the plant. A characteristic 
flared square is shown in Fig. 33. The presence of 
boll weevils in any considerable numbers in a cot- 
ton field is always accompanied by a profuse shed- 
ding of squares. However, the latter are often shed 
on account of certain weather conditions, but in this 
case no insects or larvae are lik€ly to be found with- 




Fig. 32. — Unopened Oottou Bloom, Showing Egg of Boll Wee- 
vil among the Antners, Much Enlarged. (After San^ 
derson, 1-roc. Sec. An. Ses. Tex. Cot. Conv.) 

in them if t'hey are examined soon after falling. In- 
jury from almost any cause will result in the shed- 
ding of squares, and squares which have been eaten 
into by the boll worm (not boll weevil) are of course 
shed by the plants. The presence of white larva 
within shed squares or forms should be regarded 
with suspicion and all such s'hould be carefully ex- 
amined. In cotton fields badly infested by the boll 
weevil the feeding punctures and the punctures 
made for egg deposition cause the squares to shed 
as fast as formed and before they have any oppor- 
tunity to develop into bolls. 

The Pupa. — When the larva has completed its 
growth it ceases to feed, becomes shorter and broad- 
er and enters the "pupal stage," during which it 
takes no food. 

The future proboscis, legs and other parts now 



begin to appear. The pupae are well illustrated in 
Fig. 33. This stage lasts from three to six days in mid- 
summer and is longer at the approach of cold weath- 
er. The pupa changes into the adult boll weevil, 
which emerges from the square or boll (See Fig. 33) 
and although lig'ht in color and soft-bodied upon 
emergence from the square, it soon becomes darker, 
the body-covering hardens and the weevil takes its 
first meal as a fitting celebration of its safe arrival 
at maturity. 

Rate of Increase and Destructiveness. 

From the foregoing it will be seen that during 
mid-summer the time elapsing between egg deposi- 
tion and the arrival of the weevils at the adult stage* 
may vary from 12 to 18 days. If an average allow- j 
ance of 6 days be made for the time elapsing be- 
tween emergence and the beginning of egg deposi- 
tion by the adult, a generation may be produced! 





Fig. 3o. — Cotton boll weevil: larva at left, pupa at right-, 
about five times natural size (original.) 

every 18 to 30 days. During late autumn the pericx 
of development is of course muc'h lengthened. Upon 
facts obtained by actual observation in the infestej 
cotton fields of Texas, Prof. W. D. Hunter estimate | 
that the progeny of a single pair of boll weevil | 
may in a season reach 134 millions of individuals, 

As each female during her lifetime deposits egg 
in each of from 1,00 to 200 squares, all of which ai 
prevented from ihaki'rg Tjolls, the magnitude of tb 
destruction will be readily understood. 

At the approach of frost m the autumn, the adu 
weevils seek suitable quarters in which to pass tf 
winter. For the most part rubbish about the cottc 
fields, leaves in timber lands, grass, partially opene 
bolls, etc., are selected. In the case of baled cottc 
which is lying on the ground about gin houses du 
ing the autumn, boll weevils are likely to enter til 
bagging, and if the bale is sitbsequently moved 
other localities the hibernating weevils may be ca 
ried with it. During- autumn t'here is also a poss 



Many Cabbage Plants Are Eaten Up Because Ot i^ack Ot Attention. 



209 



ity of weevils, which are seeking hibernating 
larters, entering bales of hay, straw, etc., in the in- 
ted region. During the hibernating period the 
!1 weevil is in a semi-dormant condition in which 
can survive for several months without any food, 
1 during this time it is possible for it to be trans- 
rted many miles to new or uninfested localities, 
the weevil-infested sections of Texas, boll weevils 
: found abundant in the cotton seed at gin 'houses, 
well as in cotton-seed hulls. As would naturally 
expected, the shipment of these cotton products 
often found to be the means of distributing the 
1 weevil to new localities. 

since the first appearance of the boll weevil in 
xas it has spread eastward at the rate of about 50 
les a year until at this time it is within about 75 
100 miles of the Mississippi river. At the pres- 
: rate of spread it will only be a matter of 12 or 
years when the boll weevil will be over the en- 
; cotton producing sections of the South. Indeed, 
a much shorter time it will spread over the great- 
part of the area, and the territory which it is 
DUt to invade is the richest cotton country east of 
; 'Mississippi river." When the cotton boll weevil 
; spread over the entire cotton belt it is estimat- 
that it will cost the South $2.50,000,000.00 per 
ir. Many States are enforcing a quarantine 
iiinst articles that are likely to carry the boll wee- 
It and it is confidently hoped that the measures 
II retard the progress of the weevil, though it is 
I'Jown that the natural spread of 50 to 60 miles a 
ir cannot be prevented unless something appears 
,t is not now known. 

Remedies. 



since the boll weevil was first studied by the ex- 
rts of the United States Department of Agricul- 
,fe, there have been hundreds, and we might truly 
1/ thousands, of remedies suggested for the con- 
i)l of the boll weevil. In spite of all this work no 
i>e remedy has been devised, but it has been de- 
'HStrated many times over that a system of grow- 
ls cotton under what is known as the cultural 
sfhod, makes it possible to grow profitable crops 
j cotton in sections infested by the boll weevil. It 
5uld require too much space to go into all the de- 
lls and explanations of why the cultural method is 
P best way to fight the weevil. For the sake of 

levity the following recommendations are given. 
i 

15 



The reader should note that particular importance is 
placed on fall destruction of cotton plants to destroy 
the food of the weevil and thereby cause many of 
them to starve before winter begins. 

From Farmers Bulletin No. 216 by W. D. Hunter 
in charge of the Cotton Boll Weevil in Texas and 
Louisiana, we take the following recommendations: 

"Although the very large yields of cotton of form- 
er times may no longer be possible in the region 
now infested by the boll weevil, it is entirely feasi- 
ble to produce cotton at a margin of profit that will 
compare favorably with that resulting from the pro- 
duction of most of the staple crops of the United 
States, by following what has become generally 
known as the cultural method. This method consists 
of the following changes and modifications of the 
system of cotton raising, made necessary by the boll 
weevil. It was originally suggested by a careful 
study of the life history and habits of the pest, and 
naturally any improvements that may eventually be 
made will be the result of the continuation of that 
study. It has now been tested successfully on a 
large scale by the Bureau of Entomology, as well as 
by many planters during three seasons. Of greatest 
advantage is the reducing of the numbers of the 
weevils by the destruction of the plants in the fall. 
The advantage thus gained is followed up by bend- 
ing every effort toward producing an early crop at 
the next season. 

"(i) Plant early. If possible, plant seed of the 
varieties known to mature early, or obtain seed from 
as far North as possible. This recommendation is 
made as a suggestion for the benefit of those planters 
who have not taken care in the selection of the cot- 
ton seed for planting on their plantation. By far the 
best method for obtaining early seed is by selection 
in the field. 

"It is much better to run the risk of re-planting, 
which is not expensive, than to have the crop delay- 
ed. The practice of some planters of making two 
plantings to avoid having all the work of chopping 
thrown into a short period is very bad policy from 
the boll weevil standpoint. 

"Early cotton of improved varieties has yielded 
from two to three times as much as native cotton 
under the same conditions, and in many cases 
much more. Planted at the same time, the early 
varieties begin to bloom much earlier than native 
cotton. 

"The early varieties, in general having a small 



2IO 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



stalk and short tap-root, are adapted only for rich 
soil. They also fail to grow well in the very light, 
drifting sandy loams of many of the river valleys of 
Texas, which, in long seasons before the advent of 
the boll weevil, often produced the largest yields. In 
these situations early varieties will yield but little 
more than native cotton. 

"(2) Cultivate the fields thoroughly. The princi- 
pal benefit in this comes from the influence that such 
a practice has upon the constant growth and conse- 
quent early maturity of the crop. Very few weevils 
are killed by cultivation. Much of the benefit of 
early planting is lost unless it is followed by thorough 
cultivation. In case of unavoidably delayed plant- 
ing, the best course for the planter to pursue is to 
cultivate t'he fields in the most thorough manner 



the weevils become so numerous that practically al' 
the fruit is being punctured. This will generall) 
not be later than the first week in October. Merel), 
cutting off the stalks, by means of t'he triangular irti' 
plement used for that purpose throughout the South 
is by no means as effective as plowing, because th( 
stumps remaining give rise to sprouts which furnish 
food until late in the season to many weevils thai 
would otherwise starve. The plowing, moreover! 
serves to place the ground in better condition fo:j 
early planting the following spring. In some case:' 
turning cattle into t'he fields is advisable. Asiddi 
from amounting to a practical destruction of thu 
plants, grazing of the cotton fields furnishes consid 
erable forage at a time when it is generally much ii 
demand. Nevertheless, cattle should never be turnJ 





^-S,. 



Fig. 'Si. — Boll Weevil Larvae witliin Cotton Bolls. (After a 
photo by E. Dwigbt Sanderson.) 



possible. Three choppings and numerous plowings 
constitute the thorough system of cultivation that is 
made necessary by the boll weevil. The old planta- 
tion rule for the cultivation of cotton, ''Once a week 
and once in the row," is an excellent one. 

"(3) Plant t'he rows as far apart as experience 
with the land indicates is feasible, and thin out the 
plants in the rows thoroughly. On land which in 
normal seasons will produce from 35 to 40 bushels 
of corn the rows should be 5 feet apart. Even on 
poor soil it is doubtful if the distance should ever be 
less than 4 feet. 

"(4) Destroy, by plowing up, windrowing, and 
burning, all the cotton stalks in the fields as soon as 



ed into cotton fields in which Johnson grass has be 
come started. 

"Recommendations i, 2, and 3 are all aimed tO' 
ward avoiding damage by hastening the maturity 
the plants and do not involve the actual destructior 
of the weevils. Recommendation 4, 'however, re' 
duces the numbers of the pests by destroying th' 
very great proportion developing late in the fall, am 
is consequently directly remedial. 

"(5) It is known that at present fertilizers ar 
not used to any considerable extent in cotton pro 
ducing in Texas. There is, nevertheless, no doub 
that they should be — not that the land is poor, bu 
that earlier crops may be procured. At present 1 



If The Birds Are Killed Out, This Country Will Be A Prey To Insects. 



211 



is sufficient to call attention to the fact that it has 
been the uniform experience of experiment stations 
and planters in the eastern part of the belt that cer- 
tain fertilizers, especially those involving a large per- 
centage of phosphoric acid, have a strong tendency 
toward hastening the maturity of the plants. 

Insects Frequently Mistaken for the Boll Weevil. 

Many cotton planters, with commendable zeal, 
have closely observed the insects occurring in their 
cotton fields within the past year, and as a result 
have discovered many kinds of insects the existence 
of which was previously unknown to them. Many 
of these have been mistaken for boll weevils. In or- 
der to assist the farmer in recognizing the more com- 
mon of these, a number of species are illustrated on 



Where cotton follows cowpeas the adult cowpea- 
pod weevils sometimes attack the young cotton 
plants soon after they come up, and do considerable 
damage. 





Fig 



36. — Cowpea-pod Weevil. (After Chittenden, Bui. 45, 
Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agr.) 




Fig. iJ5. — Adult Boll Weevil Emerging from Square withia 
which it developed. (After a photo by E. Dwight 
Sanderson.) 



the following pages, and the differences by which 
' they are distinguished from the boll weevil, pointed 
out. In most cases the illustrations will make this 
difference clear, without any added description. 

The Cowpea-pod Weevil, (Chalcodermus aeneus 
!| Boh) — This little beetle, which is supposed to breed 
'( in the pods of cowpeas, is about the same size as the 
boll weevil, but is a jet black color. The body-sur- 
face is smooth shining black, and instead of the wing- 
! covers being finely lined as in the case of the boll 
weevil, both elytra and thorax are covered with mi- 
nute impressions. 

The use of an ordinary hand magnifying glass will 
readily distinguish this weevil from this boll weevil. 



The Acorn and Chestnut Weevils. — The acorn wee- 




'^^^ 



Fig. 



37. — Acorn Weevil, 
Chittenden, Bui. 



Balanmus victoriensis Chit. 
44, Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. 
of Agr.) 



(After 



212 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



vil, the chestnut weevil, and otlier nut-feeding wee- 
vils, all of which closely resemble each other, are 
discovered from time to time upon cotton plants. It 
is extremely likely that their occurrence upon cot- 
ton is purely accidental, as when cotton is growing 
near or under chestnut or oak trees. In any event, 
no damage to cotton need be apprehended from 
them. A weevil which is typical of the appearance 
of this group of insects is shown in Fig. 37. 

The Blood-weed Weevils. — During the winter a 
careful examination of the stems of ragweed or blood- 




iFig. 3S. — Blood-weed Weevil. Lixns sp. (After Hunter, Bui. 
45, Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agr.) 

weed about almost any field will reveal the presence 
of long slim weevils in the pith or interior of the 
stalks. These are the blood-weed weevils, of which 
there are several species. They are readily distin- 
guished from the boll weevil by the fact that they 
are long and slim, as shown in the illustration (Fig. 
38.) The majority of these blood-weed weevils are 
one-half inch or more in length, while the boll weevil 
is ordinarily about one-fourth inch in length and of 
an entirely different shape. 

Other Snout Beetles. — The plum gouger. Fuller's 




rose beetle, the imbricated snout beetle and even so 
common an insect as the plum curculio have been 
mistaken for boll weevils. None of these feed upon, 
cotton and when found upon cotton plants or among 
cotton seed their occurrence in such places must be 
considered as accidental. The imbricated snout bee- 
tle is shown in Fig. 39. 

Click Beetles. — Every country schoolboy is ac- 
quainted with the long, flattened snapping beetles, 
which when laid upon their backs, "snap" violently 
into the air. During mid-summer these snapping 
beetles are occasionally found in cotton bolls which 
have been injured by the boll worm. They seem to 
be presen*- for the purpose of feeding on the decay- 
ing tissue and exudations following the attacks of 
the boll worm. We think it extremely improbable 
that they are responsible for any damage to cotton, 




Fig. 39. — Imbricated Snout Beetle, Epioaerus imbricatus Say. 

(After Cliittenden, Bui. 45, Div. of Elnt., U. S. Dept. 

of Agr. 



Fig. 40. — Click Beetle. Monocrepidius vespertinus. (From 
Ciiittenden. Bui. 45, Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agr.) 

as we have never learned of their attacking healthy 
bolls or squares. Their shape, as well as their habit 
of "snapping," when laid upon their backs upon a 
level surface, will readily enable anyone to distin- 
guish them from the boll weevil. 

The Cotton Sharpshooter. — It seems strange that 
an insect which is not a weevil at all or wliich is not 
even a beetle, should be mistaken for a boll weevil. 

The cotton sharp shooter, shown in Fig. 41, is 
about one-half inch in length and is not infrequent- 
ly found upon cotton, which it injures by punctur- 
ing both the young growth and the squares and 
forms. The insect is very agile, running to the op- 
posite side of the cotton stem when approached, and 
flies readily. It is not easily captured, and this fact 
alone will always relieve the planter's mind of any 
fear that it may be a boll weevil. Ordinarily the • 
real boll weevils can be picked from the plants or 



You Can Often Amuse The Children By Showing Them The Insects. 



213 



squares without any precaution being taken to avoid 
their escape. 




Fig. 41. — Cotton bharpshooter, Honuilodisen triquetra. 
ter Riley & Howard in Insect I^ite.) 



(Ar- 



j The Cotton Boll Worm. (Heliothis armiger.) — 
! There is a tendency on tlie part of some persons, 

I not familiar with insects, to confuse the names "boll 

II weevil" and "boll worm," believing that these terms 
' apply to one and the same insect. As a matter of 

fact they are entirely distinct and separate insects 
jl belonging to two widely separated Orders or groups. 

The parent of the boll worm is a moth, not likely 
to be taken for a boll weevil by even the most un- 
observing. The attacks of the boll worm larvae up- 
on the cotton squares or bolls often give rise to re- 
ported occurrences of the boll weevil. The attack 
of the nearh^-grown boll worm upon the bolls, takes 
the form of distinct holes, which are about one- 
fourth of an inch in diameter, made usually in the 
base or side of the boll. No such injury as this is 
ever made by a boll weevil. The holes eaten into 
squares by the very young boll worms may, how- 
ever, be confused with t'he holes made in squares by 
adult boll weevils when tlie latter emerge. 'In the 
case of injury of this kind, a careful search will 
usually reveal the young boll worm in the act of 
eating into the square, or even eating within it. The 
boll worm larva is readily separated from the boll 
weevil larva. The young boll worm is supplied with 
legs, whereas the boll weevil larva is a footless grub, 
wliite in color, and incapable of crawling from square 
to square as the young boll worms do. 



THE COTTON BOLL WORM. 



Injury from this insect has long been familiar tO' 
all cotton growers in the entire South. Its regular 
appearance in greater or less numbers each year has 
caused growers to give but little attention to the in- 
jury caused by the boll worm. In the following par- 
agraphs it will be seen that boll worm injury to cot- 
ton is not common until about August ist, when its 
favorite food plant, corn, has become hard and dis- 
tasteful. 

Besides feeding on cotton the boll worm is often 
a serious pest on corn, tomatoes, beans, peas, okra 
and tobacco. All the other crops mentioned are in- 
jured by the boll worms boring into the fruit, or in 
the case of beans and peas, into the pods. 

The Insect Described. 

The boll worm belongs to the class of insects that 
have four distinct stages in their development, name- 
ly: adult, egg, larva and pupa. The adult is a moth 
which commonly flies in the night, but when dis^ 
turbed during the day-time they fly with a quick 
darting motion that is quite characteristic. The 
moths vary in size, but in general they have a wing 
expanse of about one and one-half inches. The color 
may also vary greatly, ranging from a dull yellow 
to a dull olive-green with numerous dark spots and 
markings on the wings. These moths may be easily 
distinguished from the cotton leaf-worm, or cater- 
pillar moth by the fact that when at rest the boll 
worm moth holds its wings slightly raised and part- 
ed to expose a portion of the body, while the cotton 
caterpillar moths always rest with the wings tightly 
closed. The accompanying figure show'S the general 
shape and size to good advantage. (Fig. 42.) 

iMoths usually appear in spring about the time 
that corn is ten or fifteen inches high,* and in gen- 
eral they prefer to deposit eggs on young corn in- 
stead of cotton, the eggs being laid on all parts of 
the plant, but a preference is shown for silk if it is 
present. 

The eggs are small, oval in shape, w'hitish or yel- 
low in color, and may be seen with the unaided eye. 
Each female deposits on an average 1,100 eggs. 
These eggs hatch in from 3 to 10 days, depending 
on the season. 

From these eggs minute worms are hatched which 
are at first pale green in color, but soon become 



*Quaiutance & Bishop. U. S. Deipt. of Agr. Farmers Bui. 212. 



214 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



darker. The full grown larvae may vary in color 
from pale green to brown or almost black These 
worms are voracious feeders, a single individual oft- > 
en destroying a large number of squares or bolls. 
This habit of going from one place to another on 
the plant, for the purpose of feeding, explains the 
reason why the farmer finds many young squares 
with a hole in the base but no sign of the trans- 
gressor. (See Fig. 43.) Boll worms when first 
hatched wander around on the plant feeding on the 
leaves until they find a square or form into which 
they bore. It is during this time that the worms 
may be poisoned with arsenicals. A full grown boll 
worm measures from i 1-4 to i 1-2 inches in length. 






Fig. 43. — ^Cotton squares destroyed by Boll Worms. (Origi- 
nal.) 

the boll worms confined their attacks from the first 
to cotton the damage would be tremendous. In gen- 
eral it may be said that the third brood is the one 
that injures cotton most severely. 



Fig. 42. — Cotton Boll Worn: a, adult moth; b and c, larvae; 

d, chrysalis or pupa; (After Howard, Yearbook, U. 

S. Dept. of Agr., 1S9S.) 

(see Fig. i) and they may complete their growth 
during the summer season in about fifteen days. 

When full grown the worms descend into t'he 
ground where a cell is constructed in which the pu- 
pal stage is passed. This period usually covers 
about two weeks on the average. From the pupa 
there emerges the adult moth, as already described, 
ready to mate and deposit eggs for the next genera- 
tion. 

In the South there are at least four and possibly 
five generations, so it will readily be seen that if 



Remedies and Prevention. 

Of the two, prevention is the best, but for the 
protection of this year's crop, if the boll worms ap- 
pear, the remedy must be considered. There are 
two main methods of preventing injury to cotton.' 
The use of corn planted in rows through the cotton 
field to serve as a trap, and the application of ar-' 
senical poisons to destroy the worms when on the 
cotton. 

Corn as a trap plant should be planted in rows 
every 200 or 300 feet throughout the entire field. 
This corn should be planted late, about the middle 
of 'May or June ist, so as to be in prime silking con-! 
dition about August ist. As the boll worm moths ( 



Some Birds Are Injurious, But Most Of Them Are The Farmers Friend. 



215 



;eem to prefer corn to cotton most of the eggs will 
)e deposited on the corn, which can be destroyed or 
ed to stock when the worms are partly grown. If 
m early maturing variety of corn is planted about 
day 1st, and more of the same variety planted about 
une 1st, the planter will always have an attractive 
ilant for the moths during the period when they are 
xpected to be most abundant. Cowpeas should be 
ilanted between the corn rows in time to be in bloom 
vhen the corn is in silk. The blooms will attract 
he moths. 
Poisoning should be attempted when the forms 



the plant at once (See Fig 44) has proved to be 
most economical. This fact has been demonstrated 
by experiments conducted in the Southern States; 
notably, Te.xas and Georgia. It has been found that 
the best way to apply the poison is to mix it with 
fine lime dust — cheap flour can be substituted^used 
in the proportion, i pound of Paris green to 4 
pounds of dust. This should be applied so as to 
put at least 2 pounds of the Paris green to each 
acre. Owing to the fact that the boll worms feed to 
some extent on the leaves and pass frequently from 
one place to another even when working on the 




Pig. 44. — Metnod of applying Paris green in dry form to cot- 
ton plants. (Photo by Wilmon Newell.) 



'fst appear on the cotton. Experiments in Texas 
iy Prof. A. L. Quaintance in 1904 showed that it 
jbll pay well in most cases to poison for the third 
irood. In some sections, as the worms of the sec- 
nd brood do so much damage, it will probably be 
'3und advisable to poison as soon as the first worms 
ppear on the cotton. This .will be about June i. 
'he old method of applying poison by means of the 
|mple dusting apparatus carried by a man who 
ralks rapidly along the row dusting both sides of 



squares and bolls, it is possible to destroy large 
numbers with the use of poison. 

The dusting apparatus shown in Fig. 45 is made 
from a one inch board, 4 1-2 feet long and three 
inches wide, by boring an inch and a half auger hole 
five inches from each end, and attaching under each 
hole a sack five inches wide by- about fifteen inches 
long. These sacks can be made from unstarched' 
sheeting running about 4 pounds to the yard. If it 
is found that the poison is being applied too fast or 



2l6 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



too slow the proportion of lime, or flour and Paris 
green, must be changed so that the required amount 
of actual poison will be applied per acre. 



THE COTTON CATERPILLAR. 

This enemy of cotton is mentioned here, and fig-j 




Fig. 45. — Dusting apparatus for applying Paris green to 
cotton plants. 



Possibly the most valuable and economical way 
of fighting the boll worm is to plow the land during 
the fall and winter, thus breaking up the pupal cells 
in which t'he winter is passed. It has been found 
that nearly all the pupa thus disturbed will die dur- 
ing the winter. This practice should be followed 
in all sections where the boll worm is known to oc- 
cur. This is also a valuable way of fighting many 
other insects such as Corn Stalk Borers, Grub 
Worms, Squash Viae Borers, and all insects that pass 
t'he winter under ground. 

Attacking Other Crops. 

As already mentioned, tomatoes are often injured 
by boll worms, though when occurring on tomatoes 
they are generally known as "tomato fruit worm." 
The damage is caused by the worms boring into the 
green and ripening tomatoes, in which large excava- 
tions are often made. When occurring on tomatoes 
the worms usually have to be picked off by hand. 
Poison in liquid form, as recommended further on 
for cotton caterpillar, may be applied while t'he 
plants are small. The worms frequently bore into 
the stems of tomato plants at first, but soon transfer 
their attacks to the fruit. Winter plowing of gar- 
dens will aid in keeping this pest in check. 

Corn injured by boll worms should be cut and 
fed to stock to destroy the larvae and the eggs which 
may be present. Early corn is most liable to be in- 
fested and a strict cleaning out of all infested plants 
during June or July will greatly reduce the numbers 
of the following broods. 

When peas and beans, that will be s'helled before 
using, are attacked, the poison in the form of arsen- 
ate of lead or Paris green and lime mixture is re- 
commended. 



ures presented principally to show the difference be- 
tween it and the boll worm. 

The main points of difference to be noted betweei* 
the cotton caterpillar, or leaf worm, as it is somq 
times called, and the boll worm, is in their mode c* 
injuring the plant. While the boll worms feed t 
some extent on the foliage, the cotton caterpillar 
feed entirely on the leaves and buds unless in ex 
treme cases where the plant is entirely defoliatec 
At sudh times they may gnaw into the squares an 
green bolls, but seldow do much injury in this wai 




Fig. 46. — Cotton Caterpillar Moth: a, wings expanded; b 

wings closed, at rest. (After Riley, Fourth 

Rept., U. S. Entoiu. Comm.) 

Fig. 46 shows the adult caterpillar moth, which ma| 
be compared with the boll worm moth. Fig. 47 re] 
resents full grown caterpillars. Unlike t'he ba 
worm the caterpillar does not go into the ground t 
pupate. This stage is passed in a folded leaf on tb 
plant. There are always several generations eac 
year and as the complete life cycle from egg to adu" 
may be covered in from three to four weeks, it is ev 
dent that the increase may at times be very rapid. 

Remedy. 

The remedy is the same as recommended for boj 
worms in regard to poisoning. The plants shoulj 



Spraying Is A Business Proposition. It Pays If Done Correctly. 



217 



be watched closely and poison applied while the ed then — and the injury to foliage avoided. Dust- 



caterpillars are small — as they are more easily kill- 




Fig. 47. — Cotton Caterpillar: a, from side; b, rrom above; 

twice natural size. (After Riley, Pouth Kept., 

U. S. Entom. Coram.) 



ing with Paris green and lime dust should be done 
during the early morning hours, as it will adhere 
better to the plants at that time. In wet weather 
dust is frequently washed off by rains, and in that 
event we would advise the use of Paris green in 
water, using a formula, 

1 pound Paris green, 

2 pounds stone lime, 
100 gallons water. 

Or in place of the above, arsenate of lead (Dis- 
parine) may be used at the rate of 3 pounds to 50 
gallons of water. The latter will adhere somewhat 
better than Paris green mixture, but cannot always 
be as readily obtained when needed at short notice. 



Insects Injurious to Corn and 

Truck Crops. 



THE CORN STALK BORER. 

This enemy of corn has been known since early in 
the nineteenth century, as it was described by Rev. 
Lansdowm Guild in 1828, who reported its pres- 
ence in sugar-cane in the Island of St. Vincent in 
the West Indies. Dr. Howard concludes that it 
must be a native of the West Indies or of South 
America where the cultivation of sugar-cane was 
first begun in America. In 1855 this pest was re- 
ported as injuring sugar-cane in the State of Louis- 
iana, and in 1881 we learn that the U. S. Division of 
Entomology made observations on the ravages of 
this pest in Louisiana, where it was severely injur- 
ing sugar-cane. In Georgia it was found in Lincoln 
County in 1880, and was reported from South Car- 
olina about the same time. It was probably some 
years previous to this date that the borer began to 
attack corn as well as sugar-cane. 

Life History and General Appearance. 

The corn stalk borer is a w'hite six-footed larva at- 
taining a size when full grown of about one inch in 
length (See Fig. 48.) The winter is passed in the 
pupa stage embedded in the corn stubble near the 



surface of the ground. Early in spring the moths 
issue from the over-wintering pupae and when the 
corn is only a few inches high the eggs are deposit- 
ed on the stem and leaves. These eggs hatch in a 
short time into small borers which at once com- 
mence to tunnel into the stalk and up through the 
pithy center. The injury may be quite considera- 
ble and may even necessitate replanting. 

Observations made by the writer sliow that some 
of the borers of the first brood may attain full 
growth by the first week in June. The change to 
the pupa at once takes place, usually in the stalk 
above ground, and adult moths emerge at least as 
early as the middle of June in the latitude of South 
Georgia. Moths continue to issue until about the 
middle of July. 

Corn stalk borers are very active and pass fre- 
quently in and out of the stalk in w'hich they are 
working, thus making a large number of holes. The 
accompanying figure shows the appearance of a corn 
stalk in which borers were at work. Most of the 
damage is confined to the three lower joints, but in 
a few cases larvae and pupae were found three feet 
up in the stalk. 

The adult corn stalk borer is a delicate looking 
moth, fore wings dull yellowish brown, in some cas- 



2l8 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



es 'having very little color. The males in all cases injure the yield, but usually a certain per cent, of 



have the fore wings a little darker than the females, 
and the former are always somewhat small in size. 
Wing expanse varies from a little over one inch to a 
little more than one and one-half inches. The hind 
wings are always .clear white or cream in color. 




Fig. 48. — A com stalk cut open showing 
borers within. (Original.) 

The writer is informed that the corn stalk borer 
injured corn in Georgia in 1900 to an extent of 50 
per cent. It has been observed that the injury is 
greatest during dry seasons, as 1900 was very dry, 
as was also the season of 1904. 

Borers may occur in corn stalks without seeming to 



the stalks are destroyed while the corn is still small. 
This injury should be guarded against, and can be 
largely averted by following the suggestions given 
in the paragraphs on Remedies. 

Remedies. 

Considering the habit of the stalk borer it is evi- 
dent that the damage cannot be stopped after the 
borer has once gained access to the stalk, without 
at the same time destroying the corn. It is not 
practical to remove the borers, unless from a few 
stalks of corn in the garden, as is recommended for the 
squash vine borer. It is clearly apparent that corn 
following corn year after year is most liable to in- 
festation because of the number of borers that win- 
ter over in the old stubble. The usual practice in 
the South of allowing the corn stubble to remain 
on land is the principal cause of the bad invasions 
of stalk borers ; along this same line rotation of crops 
offers a relief from the pest. This is an old sugges- 
tion, but it remains good. 

In infested fields all corn stubble should be gath- 
ered and Ijurned to destroy the ]nipae that are win- 
tering therein. Deep plowing in early spring to 
bury all stalks that were not gathered will be ad- 
vantageous. The pupa should be buried so deeply 
that the emerging moths cannot escape. 

If rotation of crops, burning stubble and deep 
plowing are practiced, corn stalk borers can gener- 
ally be successfully controlled. 

CORN ROOT WORM. 

Corn is often attacked by a root worm soon after 
the plants appear in the spring. The injury is caus- 
ed by the larva of a beetle that is common in the 
South and known as the twelve-spotted Diabrotica, 
the scientific name being Diabrotica 12-punctata. 
To farmers it is locally known as "bud worm" on 
account of its causing the bud to wilt when the roots 
are attacked. 

The adult Diabrotica is a green beetle (See Fig. 
49) about one-third to one-half inch in length, ob- 
long in outline, tapering toward the anterior end, 
and having three transverse rows of four black spots 
on the wings. The adults often feed voraciously on 
melon, squash and cucumber, and they have been 
known to feed on almost every farm crop imagina- 
ble. In fact, they are practically omnivorous. 



The South looses twenty million dollars each year from rats and insects. 



219 



These root worms have been found to injure corn 
in bottom lands most severely, and especially early 
plantings. Corn planted after May 5th to 10th is 
seldom injured severely, as most of the eggs are de- 
posited previous to that time. When corn is plant- 
ed early a surplus of seed can be used and in. most 
cases enough plants will be uninjured to insure a 
full stand without re-planting. A simple rotation of 
crops will often suffice to prevent injury from corn 
root worms. 



most beautiful species, and described by Quaintance 
as having fore wings opaque, shining olive brown in 
color, with metallic green reflections ; the hind wings 
transparent with a narrow fringe of scales. Hind 
pair of legs are thickly fringed. with hairs, which on 
the inside are black, and on the outside orange col- 
ored. The body is about three-fourths of an inch 
long and the wings may expand one and one-fourth 
inches. (See Fig. 50.) 

The moths appear about the middle of May and 




Fig. 49. — Adult beetle, paren't of com root worm (enlarged). 
(Original. 

The suggestion that corn can be treated so as to 
become distasteful to corn root worms, was shown 
to be worthless by Quaintance in 1900.* So also 
was the use of kainit as a fertilizer in killing the 
larvae. In one case he found root worms even 
worse where kainit was applied. 

Melons, squash and cucumber plants attacked by 
the adult Diabrotica should be dusted with land 
plaster and Paris green in the morning while the 
plants are wet with dew. As this insect eats large 
'holes in the foliage the use of poison will be found 
advantageous. 

As a matter of interest it may be stated that the 
12-spotted Diabrotica has often been charged with 
spreading diseases, such as the pear blight, by vis- 
iting the blooms and carrying the blight bacillus 
from one point to another. 

THE SQUASH VINE BORER. 

Like the corn stalk borer this insect does its 
damage by burrowing in the stalks of its host plant. 
Its injury is confined mainly to squas'h and pump- 
kins, but melons, cucumbers, etc., may be attacked. 
The adult moth, parent of the borer, is one of our 

*U. S. Dept. of Agr., Div. of Ent, n. s. Bui. 26. 





^ 






1 

^ 


r 


w^r ' 





Fig. 50. — Moth, or parent of the squash vine borer. 
Quaintance, Ga. Ex. Sta. Bui. 45.) 



(After 



deposit eggs on variotis parts of the plants, mainly 
along the stem, as determined by Quaintance. Eggs 
hatch in from six to fifteen days and the larvae at- 
tain full growth in about one month. 

How to Detect Presence of Squash Vine Borers. 

During the latter part of May and the first part 
of June examine the vines and if there are any ac- 
cumulations of yelltiwish excrement around the stem, 
carefully cut open the stem and remove the white 
grub-like borer. This will often save the plant with- 
out much injury resulting from cutting. The injury 
is caused by the borers making large channels in the 
stem (See Fig. 51,) and often causing the whole 
plant to shrivel and die. Ordinary insecticides and 
repellents are of very little use. The grower must 
watch closely and remove the borers when they are 
present. After the crop is gathered the vines should 
at once be pulled and burned to destroy all borers of 
the second brood. 

Fall plowing and harrowing the gardens will de- 



220 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



stroy many pupae ; this coupled with clean culture 
and destruction of infested stalks will result in keep- 
ing the borers in check in most cases. 




Fig. 51. — A squash stem cut open showing the borers within. 
(Alter Quaintance, Ga. Exp. Sta. Bui. 45.) 

CUTWORMS. 

Cutworms may easily be classed as one of our 
most injurious species of insects. Working silently 
in the nig'ht, as they do, a vast amount of injury 
may occur before the damage is discovered. A 
knowledge of the life history and habits is necessary 
in order to understand how to fight this pest. 



Life History. — The adult cutworm moths appear ' 
during the months of June and July, and soon after ' 
arrival begin to deposit eggs on the grass, weeds and \ 
rubbis'h. A grassy sod may be selected as the place 
to deposit eggs or any field where there is an abun-lj 
dance of grass and weeds. Eggs hatch in a short I 
time and the young cutworms, at first very small, ^j 
begin to feed on any succulent vegetation at hand. 
At this time of year they are so small and the food j 
|so abundant that the injury caused is not noticeable.'! 
By the time cold weather approaches the cutworms 
may be in all stages of maturity, from one-half inch 
in size to nearly full grown. So far no noticeable 
injury has occurred. Cutworms pass the winter in 
little earthen cells in the soil under rubbish, stones 
or any protected place. 

In the spring when the land is plowed the cut- 
worms, emerging from their winter quarters with' 
ravenous appetites after their long winter fast, begin 
to feed on any vegetation at hand. It is, therefore, 
evident that t'he first plants to come up in the gar- 
den will be liable to be cut off by the little cut- 
worms. 



Description. — The adults of our cutworms are 
moths belonging to the family, Noctuidae, meaning 
night fliers, and for that reason they are seldom seen 
unless attracted to lights. Moths range in size from 
one and one-half to two and one-half inches in wing 
expanse. Color of front wings dark brown or grey;i 
hind wings always lighter than fore wings. Cut- 
worms have naked bodies, eight pairs of legs, three 
in front and five at the posterior end of the body; 
color may vary from dirty green to grey or dirty- 
brown. Full grown worms average one and one- 
half inches in length. 

Remedies. — Injury from these insects may bci 
largely prevented by any or all of several methods.] 
First of all should be mentioned fall plowing to ex- 
pose the pupal cells in which cutworms pass the 
winter. This should be practised in fields where 
cutworms have been numerous. Second, poison the 
cutworms in the spring with poisoned bran-mash or 
clover, before the crop is planted. This can be ac- 
complished by fitting land a few days previous to 
the tim'e when seed is to be sown. For poisoned 
bran-mash use one pound of Paris green, forty 
pounds of bran, two quarts of molasses and mix this 
with just enough water to make a thick dough that 



Rotation of Crops Helps to Keep Insects in Check. 



221 



can readily be made into balls. This mash may be 
placed on the land in little heaps just before night- 
fall. The cutworms being deprived of all other food, 
if the land has been fitted as suggested, will readily 
eat the mash while it is fresh. 

Another very good plan is to spray a small piece 
of succulent clover with Paris green, one pound to 
twenty-five gallons of water, cut the clover, and' 
spread it on the land before it has time to wilt. This 
should be done about sun-down and such bait will 
be very attractive to the cutworms. It is almost 
worthless to attempt to poison cutworms after the 
crop is up, or if there is much grass or weeds on the 
land. 

When tomatoes, cabbages and the like are to be 
transplanted fit the land several days in advance, let 
1 it remain untouched for two or three days, in order 
I that t'he cutworms may become hungry, and then 
j try poison bait for three nights in succession. New- 
' ly plowed sod land should always be treated in this 
! way for reasons already stated. No rubbish or weeds 
I should be left on land after the main crop is remov- 
led as it furnishes food for the cutworms during the 
. fall months and protection during the winter. 
J As some people object to the use of poison bait on 
.account of liability of poisoning poultry and other 
animals, bands of tarred paper are recommended for 
use around such plants as cabbage and tomatoes. 
'This paper may be pushed into the ground around 
.each plant to a depth of at least one inch so that the 
I cutworms will not crawl underneath. This will pro- 
'{jtect the plants while small and the bands may be re- 
moved after a few weeks and used around other 
i plants. 






SQUASH BUG. 



This is the rather large, flattened rusty black bug 
.which injures squash and other cucurbits. This in- 
l|Sect has a sharp, pointed beak, through which it 
^raws the sap from the plant. Infested plants be- 
|bonie yellow, and sickly and often die. 

Remedy.— Hand picking of adults when they first 
Sppear is recommended. They may also be trapped 
-inder pieces of board, or leaves from the plant, laid 
in the ground and examined each morning. 
The eggs are laid in masses on t'he under sides of 
he leaves and are readily seen owing to the yellow 
■olor. These egg masses should be found and de- 
■'troyed. If any hatch, the young will be found feed- 



ing in groups. These may be crushed between the 
fingers. Attention to these minor details will usual- 
ly be the means of preventing serious injury. 

Clean cultivation of gardens, keeping all weeds, 
trash and vines removed, will cause many squash 
bugs to succumb to the winter weather. 

THE CUCUMBER BEETLE. 

This is the little yellow black-striped beetle that 
feeds on the young cucumber and melon vines and 
damages them badly at times by eating small hole?, 
in the leaves. This beetle will be readily recognized 
by the following description: Beetles about one- 
fourth inch in length ; head and antennae black ; gen- 
eral body color yellow, with a black stripe on each 
wing-cover, and a third stripe where the wings meet 
along the back. Stripes run longitudinally. 

These small beetles pass the winter under cover of 
leaves and trash around the garden. In the spring 
they come out and deposit eggs in the soil near the 
base of the food plants, and the larvae when hatched 
live on the roots. These larvae are slender little 
wliite grubs and when numerous they may do con- 
siderable damage. The principal injury is caused by 
the adults feeding on the leaves. 

Remedies. — Clean cultivation of the gardens after 
the crops are off in the fall so as not to leave any 
rubbish under which the adults may pass the win- 
ter. Protecting the young plants with gauze netting 
while the plants are small. Where plants are pro- 
tected for three or four weeks, or until they get well 
started, the injury from cucumber beetles will not be 
great. Two pieces of wire bent over the plants in 
the form of a double arch, and thrust firmly into the 
ground, will make a good frame for a netting to cov- 
er young plants. Sprinkling plaster on the plants 
while young will often serve to keep the beetles 
away, but protection with netting is the only sure 
prevention. 

COLORADO POTATO BEETLE. 

This troublesome pest of the potato plant is so 
common that it seems almost unnecessary to men- 
tion it. Still the fact of its being common seems to 
keep many people from learning how easily it may 
be controlled. It is a fact t'hat our new insect pests 
often receive more attention and are fought with 



222 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



more vigor than the ones that are always with us. 
The Colorado potato beetle derived its name from 
its native home. Until about the middle of the nine- 
teenth century this beetle was not conspicuous as a 
garden pest, for before that time it fed on weeds of 
the same genus as the potato plant. 

Life History. — Late in fall the beetles enter t'he 
ground antl hibernate until the warm spring sun- 
shine brings them out. The females soon commence 
to deposit eggs on the under side of the leaves. 
These eggs are yellow, occur in clusters and are 
easily seen. In a short time the eggs hatch into lar- 
vae having enormous appetites, which they at once 
commence to satisfy. The soft-bodied larvae in- 
crease in size with alarming rapidity and when full 
grown, which is in from three to four weeks, they 
go into the ground and form a smooth cell in which 
the pupal stage is passed. There are several broods 




Fig. 52.— Adult Potato Beetle, 

in the South and larvae of all sizes can generally be 
found on a plant. Fig. 52 shows an adult beetle. 

Remedies. — Paris green in any form is death to 
potato beetles. While the plants are small it may 
be applied as a dry powder mixed with ten times its 
weight of cheap flour, land plaster or air-slacked lime. 
This powder can be dusted on the plants while wet 
with dew early in the morning, or after sundown in 
the evening. The duster recommended for cotton 
caterpillar poisoning will be found useful. Or Paris 
green may be applied in liquid form, by mixing one 
pound of poison and two pounds stone lime in 125 
gallons of water. The lime should always be used 
to prevent burning of foliage. It is even better to 
use t'he arsenical in connection with Bordeaux mix- 
ture. (See directions under Insecticides for prepar- 
ing Bordeaux-Paris green mixture.) 

FLEA BEETLES. 

Cucumbers, tomatoes, melons, turnips and many 
Other garden vegetables are often attacked early in 



their life by little jumping beetles that make small 
round or irregular holes in the foliage, and from their 
ability to jump, they have been given the name of 
Flea Beetles. The damage from these little fellows 
is sometimes very severe, as they attack the plants 
while small and tender. The larvae are mostly leaf- 
miners, living in the tissue of the leaves and stems 
of the host plant, though seldom doing much dam- 
age. 

Flea beetles vary in size and color, some of them 
being so small as hardly to be seen, vv^hile others, 
like the grape flea beetle, being nearly one-quarter 
of an inch long. All have thickened hind legs enab- 
ling them to jump readily. They will be recognized 
by this characteristic. Color ranges through steel 
blue, brown and black. 

Remedies. — Clean culture of the garden is the very 
best thing to practice, as flea beetles hide in rubbish 
and trash through the winter. When they appear in 
the spring young plants may be sprayed with arsen- 
ical poisons, unless the plants are protected by a. 
cover as recommended for the Cucumber beetle. It 
has been found that young plants covered thickly, 
with ordinary Bordeaux mixture are not often se- 
verel}' attacked, the mixture acting as a repellent. 
Usually it is best to add Paris green or green arse- 
noid to the Bordeaux as it will poison some beetles 
When the plants have attained some size they arc 
seldom injured by these insects. Simply dusting | 
plants with lime dust will drive some species of flejj 
beetles away. However, it cannot be depended or 
in all cases and the best plan is to use an arsenical 
poison, or cover the plants. 

CABBAGE WORMS. 

Every one living in the country has seen the comj 
mon white butterflies that usually appear early in thi 
spring and love to hover around in sunny places 
but many perhaps do not know that these butterflie' 
are the parents of our most common cabbage worms 
that yearly depredate the cabbage patches. Titer 
are two common cabbage worms, one known as th 
imported cabbage worm, and the other as the nativ 
cabbage worms. The former was imported man; 
years ago from Europe and the latter is indigenou 
to this country. 

Imported Cabbage Worm.— The adult butterfly i 



Do not let insects destroy the crops after they are gathered. 



223 



white in color with a faint creamy tinge ; the males 
have one black spot and the females two similar spots 
on each front wing. In addition to this they both 
have the front wings tipped with black. The hind 
wings in both sexes bear a black spot near the front 
margin. Tliese butterflies have a wing expanse of 
from one and one-half to one and three-fourth inch- 
es. Worms when grown are green in color, some- 
times having an obscure longitudinal black stripe 
along the back. The worms or larvae when grown 
change to pupae on the plant, attaching themselves 
by a silken band. There are several broods and the 
winter is passed in the pupal stage. 

Native Cabbage Butterfly. — Adult males of this 
species closely resemble the imported species in size, 
color and marking. The females, however, look quite 
different; though white in general color the wings 
are muc'h marked with angular blacky spots. The 
worms show four longitudinal pale yellow stripes, 
two on each side of the body. In other respects the 
species are much alike. 

Remedies. — Experiments show that cabbage worms 
succumb to any arsenical poison, but its use has not 
been generally recommended because of prejudice 
against the use of poison on account of danger of 
poisoning the consumer. It may be interesting to 
the reader to know that experiments have been made 
in which cabbage heads sprayed with Paris green 
have been subjected to chemical analysis to find out 
how much poison actually remained after the first 
few days. In every case there was only a slight 
trace, if any; certainly not enough to be dangerous. 
Besides, cabbages grow from the inside out and the 
outer leaves are always removed before cooking. It 
may be said that with ordinary care it is safe to 
spray cabbages with arsenical poison. We do not, 
however, recommend its use on full grown cabbage. 

Paris green or green arsenoid may be used with 
lime and water, in the following proportions: Paris 
green, 1 pounds, stone lime, 1 pound, water, 150 gal- 
lons. Or arsenate of lead may be used at the rate 
of 2 pounds in 50 gallons of water. 

Four sprayings through the season will usually 
suffice to keep the worms in check. When the plants 
are nearly full grown the use of fresh Hellebore 
powder is recommended. This should be dusted on 
the plants every two or three days. It soon loses its 



poison property when exposed to the air, hence the 
necessity of repeating the application so often. 

Poison for Cabbage Worms. 

Prof. Williams of the Nebraska Experiment Sta- 
tion grves the following: 

"I filled an insect duster, or dust bellows, holding 
about two quarts, nearly full of air-slacked lime, to 
which I added a teacupful of green arsenoid. This, 
after being well mixed by shaking and turning over 
of the bellows, was applied to our late cabbages in 
a fine dust that covered the center of the heads or 
wherever the worms were found. One dusterful was 
found ample to treat from SOO to 1,000 cabbage 
plants, just beginning to head. Two days after dust- 
ing there was hardly a live worm to be found, but 
the dead ones were greatly in evidence. On rows 
adjoining we used separate tests of clear lime dust, 
road dust. Bordeaux mixture with Paris green and 
rosin compound with Paris green. Neither of these 
gave any desired results and we went over these 
rows later also with the lime and green arsenoid 
mixture. Green arsenoid is a preparation very sim- 
ilar to Paris green, equalling it in the per cent, of 
arsenic, but differing in formation of crystals. Paris 
green or London purple would no doubt be equally 
as effective. The dust form has the advantage of 
the liquid solution of these ppisons in that 
the former adheres more closely to the leaves. 
In the proportion used, one part poison to seven 
parts of lime, the dust can be distributed quite even- 
ly and with no danger of getting an overdose of the 
poison. An ounce of the poison in this mixture 
would be distributed to 100 heads or more, and a 
person would have to eat ten heads or more — out- 
side leaves and all to become poisoned. 

PLANT LICE. 

Several truck and garden crops are annually in- 
jured by small green, yellow or brown soft-bodied 
insects that live by sucking the plant juices. Plant 
lice are so small that they often pass unnoticed un- 
til considerable injury to plants has occurred, when 
the sickly appearance of the plants causes them to be 
examined. The lice usually occur on the under sur- 
face of leaves, when that is possible, though cab- 
bages may be covered all over. 

Melon Louse. — These lice may appear on melons 



224 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE 



early in the spring, winged individuals coming from 
some of their many food plants in adjoining fields. 
The winged forms give birth to living young, and 
these in turn reach maturity in about eight days, 
and bring forth more young. The colonies thus form- 
ed live on the under side of the leaves and may soon 
cause small plants to turn yellow and die. The 
leaves soon become curled and mis-shapen. More 
colonies are established by winged individuals that 
fly from one place to another. These lice may con- 
tinue to multiply all summer, unless checked by ar- 
tificial means. The winter is passed in the egg stage, 
and possibly in hibernation. 

Remedies. — Spraying with kerosene emulsion or 
whale oil soap solution. To do this thoroughly the 
vines must be turned over or else use a curved rod 
to carry the spray to the under side of the leaves. 
Spray as soon as the first lice appear because when 
the leaves become curled the lice are hard to hit. 
Carbon bi-sulp'hide may be used to good advantage 
when the plants are small. Carbon bi-sulphide is a 
liquid and can be purchased from any drug store. 
Dr. John B. Smith* recommends using one dram, 
which is about equivalent to one teaspoonful to each 
cubic foot of space. A practically air-tight cover 
must be placed over each plant to be treated. The 
cover can be made of heavy ducking stretched over 
a light wood or wire frame. Place the liquid in a 
shallow dish on the ground and let the plant remain 
covered for one hour. It is estimated that five doses 
will cost only one cent if the carbon bi-sulphide is 
purchasd at wholesale prices. 

Cabbage Lice.— For lice on cabbage we would re- 
commend spraying with kerosene emulsion or soap 
solution. Oftentimes a strong soap solution made 
from common washing powder is found fully as ef- 
fective as the kerosene emulsion. The thing to avoid 
is letting the lice multiply to. great numbers before 
treating the infested plants. Furthermore, one spray- 
ing should not be expected to kill every insect, and 
as they increase with such rapidity, the second treat- 
ment should be given in four or five days after the 
first. Thoroughly controlling the lice while the 
plants are small is the best practice. 

Plant lice on any crop may be controlled if taken 
in time. The insects are soft-bodied and easily suc- 
cumb to any common contact poison. 

*New Jersey Exp. Sta. Bui. 121, p. 10. 



In cabbage fields all stumps should be pulled out 
and burned to destroy the lice remaining after the 
crop is gathered. Also keep down such weeds as 
mustard, shepherd's purse and the like, as cabbage 
lice flourish on such as well as on cabbage. Prac- 
tice clean culture in gardens and along fence rows 
and walks near the garden. 

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO. 

The tobacco plant, fortunately, is not subject to 
attack from as many insects as might be expected, ow- 
ing to the nature of the plant. The insects that are 
injurious are so on account of the fact that the plant 
is easily injured, particularly the leaf, for market 
purposes, on account of the holes in the leaves ren- 
dering them unfit to be used for wrappers. Further- 
more the leaves that can be used for wrappers are 
usually comparatively few, and therefore expensive, 
rendering the slightest injury of considerable impor- 
tance. The insects mentioned in the following par- 
agraphs are the ones most liable to cause injury to 
the tobacco plant. 

CUTWORMS. 

The paragraph on cutworms included in the divis- 
ion "Truck Crop Insects," and the remedies given 
therein are applicable to the cutworm injury to to- 
bacco. (See page 220.) 

THE TOBACCO STALK WORM. 

This insect is also known as the Corn-root Web- 
worm, and was found by Prof. W. G. Johnson as a 
serious pest to tobacco in Southern Maryland, and 
is probably liable to occur farther South. 

Injury.— The injury to tobacco is described by 
Prof. Johnson as follows: "The injured tobacco had 
a leaf-spread of from ten to twelve inches. A few 
rods beyond where the soil was not so gravelly and 
better, we found the larvae had literally destroyed 
the first and second planting. * * * * * 
So far as I could ascertain the attack is always at 
the surface or just below. In many instances the 
larvae had hollowed out the stalk from the base of 
the roots to the branches of the first leaves. * * 
* * * * In the great majority of cases the 
larvae were found in a small mass of web near the 
plant, and sometimes within it." 



Watch the Insects that Destroy the Garden. 



225 



Remedies. — This insect works its greatest damage 
to grass and clover and will usually be foimd in sod 
land. Tobacco growers should therefore avoid plant- 
ing tobacco on freshly plowed sod land. If the land 
is used for cotton or potatoes for two or three years 
and then planted to tobacco very little injury will 
follow from this insect. If absolutely necessary to 
plant tobacco on sod land it should be plowed early 
in spring, and frequently rolled and harrowed, to 
starve and destroy the larvae that live over winter 
in the soil. By delaying the planting of tobacco, 
while keeping up frequently cultivation, most of the 
injury from this insect will be avoided. 

The Spined Tobacco-Bug. 



Remedies. — Concerning the measures to be adopt- 
ed to prevent injury to tobacco from this insect, 
Prof. E. D. Sanderson writes as follows: "Poisoned 
corn meal has been found to be a satisfactory remedy. 
Into a quart of finely ground corn meal, a half tea- 
spoonful of Paris green is thoroughly mixed by stir- 
ring, and sprinkled on the buds from a can perforat- 
ed like a pepper can. This should be applied fre- 
quently, especially after heavy rains. Large buds 
should be opened and a pinch of the poison placed 
within. When spraying with Paris green is practiced 
against the horn-worm, it will also be of service 
to hand-pick these worms from small patches of to- 
bacco, as is done when the worms are abundant in. 
ear-corn. 



The stems of tobacco plants are sometimes injured 
! by a true bug (a suckmg insect) which punctures 
the stems to obtain food. Concerning the spined to- 
j bacco-bug, Prof. Carmen, of Kentucky, writes: "Oc- 
j casional plants in tobacco fields are at times observ- 
ed to have become suddenly wilted, the leaves hang- 
I ing limp, much as if the stalk had been severed. Af- 
I ter a time they recover again, and, beyond a tempor- 
I ary check on their growth, appear to have suffered 
I but little injury. If such plants are searched care- 
! fully while still wilted, a flat, brown bug with each 
\ side of the body produced into an angle, or sharp 
i spine, will be found upon the stalk along the base of 
the leaves. It is very shy and keeps out of sight, 
hence any brisk movement on the injured plants is 
likely to cause it to drop to the ground and conceal 
' itself." These insects are about half an inch long, 
of a drab color above and greenish or vellowish be- 
[, low. Usually only one bug is found on a .plant, so 
i that the best way to prevent injury is to pick them 
'from the plants, and keep down such weeds as 'this- 
tles and mulleins, upon which these insects feed, in 
[ the adjoining fields. 

Bud-Worms. 

Young tobacco plants are sometimes attacked by 
bud-worms which eat into the leaves before they are 
unTolled, thus causing many holes in the leaf, these 
holes being very damaging to the full-grown leaf. 
The tobacco bud-worm is known also as Corn-worm, 
Tomato-worm, Cotton Boll-worm and by other 
names. (For description of this insect see the dis- 
cussion of Cotton Boll-worm on page 214.) 

16 



The Tobacco Leaf-Miner. 

Injury to tobacco from this insect is caused by the 
young larvae eating irregular patches of the leaf-tis- 
sue, leaving only the upper and lower surfaces. 
These mines appear like blisters on the leaves. They 
are quite serious, rendering the leaves unfit for wrap- 
pers. Often a single larvae will destroy an entire 
leaf, as they do not remain in a^ single mine, but move 
from place to place over the leaf, entering wherever 
they wish to make a new mine. This habit is of im- 
portance, as it serves to give the grower a chance to 
poison the little worms. 

Remedies. — Wherever plants are sprayed to de- 
stroy the horn-worm the leaf-miners will be gener- 
-ally controlled, as while entering the leaf to com- 
mence a mine they will get a fatal dose of poison. 
As a preventive the common horse — or bull — nettle 
(the original food-plant of this insect) and closely 
related weeds should be kept down around the tobac- 
co fields. 

THE HORN-WORM OR TOBACCO-WORM. 

Of all the insects attacking tobacco this worm is 
the most to be feared. Tobacco plants may be en- 
tirely ruined unless this worm is kept in control. 

Description and Life-History. 

The large bluish-green worms, having a promi- 
nent horn at the rear end, and white or yellow lines 
or V-shaped marks on each side of the body, are 
familiar objects to all tobacco growers. These are 



226 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



the true tobacco-worms. They may vary in color, 
some being brown or nearly black. There are two 
species, one called the "Northern Tobacco-worm" and 
the other t'he "Southern Tobacco-worm," though the 
latter is by far the most abundait in the South. The 
worms can be distinguished by the marks on the 
body. The Southern species have single lig'ht color- 
ed marks along the sides of the body, while the 
Northern species have V-shaped marks similarly lo- 
cated. The parents of these worms are big strong- 
bodied moths known as Sphinx moths. The adults 
are as'hy-grey or brownish-grey in color, the body is 
long and pointed, and the size, though variable, aver- 
aging from four to five inches in wing expanse. 

The worms as found on the tobacco plants change 
to pupae in the ground where they remain during 
winter, and moths emerge from these over-winter- 
ing pupae during April and May. There may be as 
many as four brood-s during a single season, the 
pupae of the last brood remaining in the ground over 
winter. 

Remedies. — The best remedy on small patches of 
tobacco is to pick the worms off by hand, but this 
is a slow and tiresome process in large fields. Flocks 
•of turkeys or guinea-hens will often keep a field free 
from worms. They seem to have a natural liking 
for these worms and will devour them in large num- 
l)ers. Poison may be applied to the tobacco plants 
either in dry or wet form. Paris green or arsenate 
of lead may be used at the strengths usually recom- 
dended for using those poisons. Poison must be ap- 
plied while the worms are small and its use must be 
continued throug'hout the season owing to the num- 
ber of broods. In spraying, both surfaces of the 
leaves should be covered. Growers need not fear 
that the poison on the leaves will be dangerous to 
the consumer of the tobacco, as all the poisons used 
soon lose their most poisonous property and while 
strong enough to kill the worms the poison remain- 
ing will not injure the consumers. 

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. 

Few farmers realize how much they lose each 
year on account of insects destroying their grain. It 
.is estimated that Texas alone loses over a million 
dollars each year, and that 50 per cent, of her corn 
rmnually is destroyed by weevils and rats. But 
Texas is not the onlv State that loses on account of 



weevils and rats, for Alabama Ices 10 per cerit. "f 
the corn she raises. Estimating in the same propor- 
tions, t'he eight Southern Stutes: South Carolina, 
Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisian.i, j, 
Texas and Arkansas lose nearly $20,000,000.00 each 
year, that is the amount lost on account of the corn 
destroyed. And then when we consider the amount 
lost on rice, oats, wheat, rye, peas, and other grains, 
the loss is enonuous. The following descriptions <ji 
grain insects, and the remedies recommended are 
taken from Farmer's Bulletin No. 45 of the U. S. 
Department of .Agriculture. 

The Grain Weevils. 

All the various species of insects that attack stored, 
grain are indiscriminately called weevils, or simply 
"weevil," but t'he only true grain weevils are thci 
granary weevil and rice weevil. 

These two insects resemble each other in structure 
as well as in habit. They are small, flattened, brown 
snout-beetles of the family Calandridae. Neither i? 
more than a si.xt'h of an inch in length, but their rat' 
of development is so rapid that they do an almu- 
incalculable amount of injury in a short period ofi 
time. Their heads are prolonged into a long snout 
or proboscis, at the end of which are the mandiblc- 
their antennae are elbowed and are attached to the 
proboscis. | 

The Granary Weevil, (Calandra granaria Linn.l — ! 
The granary weevil has been known as an enemy t' 




Fig. 54. — C.Tlanddra granaria: a, beetle; b, larva; c, pupa 

d, C. oryz, beetle — all enlarged (author's illustration.) 

(Courtes.v Board of Entomology U. S. Dept. of Agriculturf 

\vashington, D. C.) 



If one will use Paris Green with care there is no danger of poisoning the consumer. 



27 



stored grain since the earliest times. Having be- 
come domesticated ages ago, it 'has long since lost 
the use of its wings and is strictly an indoor species. 

The mature weevil measures from an eighth to a 
sixth of an inch, is uniform shining chestnut brown 
in color, and has the thorax sparsely and longitudin- 
ally punctured, as indicated, much enlarged, at fig. 
54, a. 

The larva is legless, considerably shorter than the 
idult, white in color, very robust, fles'hy, and of the 
form shown in the illustration (b.) The pupa, illus- 
trated at c, is also white, clear, and transparent, ex- 
hibiting the general characters of the future beetle. 
j The female punctures the grain with her snout and 
JLthen inserts an egg, from which is hatched a larva 
J;hat devours the mealy interior and undergoes its 
:ransformations within the hull. In wheat and other 
'[;mall cereals a single larva inhabits a grain, but a 
.cruel of maize furnishes food for several individu- 

The time required for the completion of the life 

ycle varies with the season and climate, and there 

nay be, under favorable conditions, four or five 

.prcHDds and six or even more in the South. 

s This species is injurious in wheat, maize, barley, 

iijlind other grains and attacks also the chick-pea (Ci- 

er arietinum,) a food product of the Tropics. Un- 

ike the moths which attack grain, the adult weevils 

eed also upon the kernels, gnawing into them for 

jiood and fof shelter, and, being quite long-lived, prob- 

' .bly do even more damage than their larvae. This 

Species is verp prolific, egg-laying continuing over 

n extended period. It 'has been estimated that one 

jiair will, in the course of a year, produce 6,000 de- 

icendants, and it will be se.en that the progeny of a 

i'lingle air are capable in a short time of causing con- 

iderable damage. 

The Rice Weevil, (Calandra oryza Linn.) — A very 
nnilar insect to the preceding is the rice weevil, 
jvhich derives both its popular and Latin name from 
lice (oryza.) in which it was originally discovered. 
t is conceded to have originated in India, whence it 
as been diffused by commerce until it is now estab- 
shed in most of the grain-growing countries of t'he 
'orld. It is a serious pest in the Southern States, 
■'here it is commonly, though erroneously, called 
iblack weevil," but farther north is of less impor- 
mce. It occurs, however, in every State and Ter- 



ritory in the Union, and occasionally invades Canada 
and Alaska. 

This species resembles the granary weevil in size 
and general appearance, but differs in being dull 
brown in color, in having the thorax densely pitted 
with round punctures, and t'he elytra, or wing cases, 
ornamented with four more or less distinct red spots, 
arranged as in the illustration (fig. 55, d.) Unlike 
the preceding species it has well-developed and ser- 
\iceable wings. The larvae and pupae are also simi- 
lar to those of the granary weevil, and in haljits and 
life history these two species do not materially dif- 
fer, except in that the rice weevil may often be found 
in the field remote from the granary, in the extreme 
South and in t'he Tropics lays its eggs in standing 
grain. 

The rice weevil feeds upon the grain of rice, wheat, 
particularly the soft varieties, maize, barley, rye, 
hulled oats, buckwheat, chick-peas, and the cultivat- 
ed varieties of sorghum known as Kafir, or Jerusa- 
lem corn, etc., and the adult beetles, when abundant 
in storehouses and groceries, invade boxes of crack- 
ers, cakes, and other breadstuffs, barrels of flour and 
bags of meal. 

■ The Grain Moths. 

The Angoumois Grain Moth, (Sitotroga cerealel- 
la 01.) — This moth received its name from the pro- 
vince of Angoumois, France, where it is known to 
have been injurious since the year 1736. In this 
country, where it is familiarly but incorrectly called 
"fly weevil,"' it is said to have been recognized as 
early as 1728. It infests all the cereals, as well as 
buckwheat and the chick-pea, product of the Tropics. 
It has been estimated t'hat in six months grain in- 
fested by this moth loses 40 per cent, in weight and 
75 per cent, of farinaceous matter. 

The adult insect resembles somewhat a clothes 
moth, for which indeed it is often mistaken. It is 
light grayish brown in color, more or less lined and 
spotted with black, and measures across the expand- 
ed fore-wings about half an inch (see fig. 55.) The 
hind-wings are bordered with a long, delicate fringe. 

The moth deposits its eggs in standing grain and 
in the bin, singly and in clusters of from 20 to 30. 
Tbe eggs shown, much enlarged, in the illustration, 
are white when first laid, but soon turn red and hatch 
in from four to seven or more days, when t'he min- 
ute larvae or caterpillars burrow into the kernels and 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURi: 



feed on the starchy interior. A single larva inhabits 
a grain of the smaller cereals, but maize affords sus- 
tenance for two or more individuals. A kernel of 
corn opened to show the larva at work is reproduced 
at fig. 55, b, and an ear of infested pop-corn is shown 




rig. 55. — Sitotrog.a cerc-UeUa: a, eggs; b, larva at work; c, 

larva, side view; d, pupa; e, moth; f, same, side 

view (original). 

(Courtesy Board of Entomology U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 

Washington, D. C.) 

at fig 56. In three weeks or more, according to sea- 
son, the caterpillar attains maturity, when it spins 
within the kernel a thin, silken cocoon and trans- 
forms to a pupa or chrysalis, the moth emerging a 
few days later, the entire period from egg to adult 
cmbracinsf in summer time about five weeks and in 
colder weather considerably longer. After copula- 
tion, the moth deposits eggs for another brood, and 
thus several generations are produced in the course 
of a year. In the warmer climate of the South, 
where the insect can breed uninterruptedly through- 
out the win'.er, it 'has been estimated that as many 
as eight generations may be produced. 

Flour and Meal Moths. 

Four or five species of moths, in addition to the 
one just mentioned, are injurious to grain in store, 
but are more prevalent in mill products, and are 
troublesome as well by their depredations in a va- 
riety of articles. 

The Mediterranean Flour Moth, (Ephestia kueh- 
niella Zell.) — The most important of all mill insects 
is the Mediterranean flour moth. Tiiis scourge of 
the flour mill, as it is called, has attracted much at- 
tention of recent years and has been the subject of 



many articles and bulletins. Until the year 1S77, whf 
the moth was discovered in a flour mill in German 
it was comparatively unknown. In later years it i 
vaded Belgium and Holland, and in 1886 appeared 
England. Three years later it made its appearam 
in destructive numbers in Canada. In 1892 it w: 







mr 



4? 



':y\ 



V 



Fig. 50. — Ear of pop-corn siiowing work of Angooimois gr: 

moth (from Riley in Ann. Rept. Dept. Agr., 1S84). 
(Courtesy Board of Entomology U. S. Dept. of Agricullu 
Washington, D. C.) 

reported injurious in mills in California, and in i? < 
in New York and Pennsylvania. 

That the Mediterranean flour moth has become f 
formidable in recent years is due to the higher as 



Not how much you make, but how much you save, counts. 



329 



nore equable temperature maintained in modern 
nills, a condition highly favorable to the develop- 
aent of the insect. 

The adult moth has a wing expanse of a little less 
han an inch; the fore-wings are pale leaden gray, 
jrith transverse black markings of the pattern shown 
n the accompanying illustration (fig. 57, a) ; the 
lind-wings are dirty whitish, semi-transparent, and 
vith a darker border. Tlic caterpillar, illustrated at 
!'&• 57 c, e, is whitish and 'hairy. The chrysalis, 
hewn at fig. 57 d, is reddish brown. 

The caterpillars form cylindrical silken tubes' in 
vhich they feed, and it is in great part their habit 
f web spinning that renders them so injurious where 
jhey obtain a foothold. Upon attaining full growth 
he caterpillar leaves its original- silken domicile and 
orms a new web, which becomes a cocoon, in which 
undergo its transformations to pupa and to imago. 
t is while searching for a proper place for transfor- 




flg. 57.— Ephestia kuetiniella: a, moth; b, same from side, 
, resting; c, larva; d, pupa — enlarged; e, abdominal 
I joint of larva — ^more enlarged. 

ICourtesy Board of Entomology U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 
Washington, D, C.) 

Ination that the insect is most troublesome. The in- 
fested flour becomes felted together and luiupy, the 
nachinery becomes clogged, necessitating frequent 
ind prolonged stoppage, and resulting in a short 
|ime in the loss of thousands of dollars, in large es- 
jjablishments. 

Although the larva prefers flour or meal, it will 
kttack grain when the former are not available, and 
ist flourishes also on bran, prepared cereal foods, in- 
cluding buckwheat, grits and crackers. In Califor- 
lliia it lives in the nests of a wild bumble-bee and in 
he hives of the honey bee. 

When a mill is found to be infested, the entire 
;)uilding should be fumigated, and in case a whole 
jlistrict becomes overrun the greatest care must be 
bbserved not to spread the infestation. Uninfested 



mills should be tightly closed at night, and every 
bushel of grain, everj' bag or sack brought into the 
mill, subjected to a quarantine process, by being dis- 
infected either by heat or bisulphide of carbon. 

The Flour Beetles. 

The Confused Flour Beetle, (Tribolium confusum 
Duv.) — The most important of the flour beetles is 
the one above mentioned. It is about the same size 
as the true grain weevils, is of nearly universal oc- 
currence in grain of all kinds following the attacks 
of the latter species with which it is very often as- 
sociated. Its principal damage, however, appears to 
be to flour and other patented articles of diet con- 
taining starchy matter; in fact, it is without doubt 
the insect rhost injurious to prepared cereal foods, if 
we except the Mediterranean flour moth, which for- 
tunately is as yet confined to a limited territory. 

Although known for many years in Europe as an 
enemy to stored cereals, seeds, and even as a pest in 
museums, it was not until the fall of 1893 that it was 
recognized in this country as a species distinct from 
others of its kind. In less than two years from the 




Fig. 58.— Tribolium confusum: a, beetle; b, larva; c, pupa 

all enlarged; d, lateral lobe of abdomen of pupa; e, head 
of beetle, showing antenna; f, same of T. ferrugineum — 
all greatly enlarged (author's illustration.) 

(Courtesy Board of ii:ntomology XJ. S. Dept, of Agriculture. 
Washington, D. C.) 

time of its first recognition here, this insect had been 
reported as injurious in nearly every State and Ter- 
ritory. The divisional experience of a single year, 
1894, s'hows that more complaints are made of in- 
juries by this than of any other granivorous insect. 
As a mill pest it was the most troublesome species 



230 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



of 1895, and annually costs the millers of the United 
States thousands of dollars by its presence in manu- 
factured products. 

The mature beetle is scarcely a sixth of an inch 
long, elongate, and flattened, brown in color, and of 
the form indicated in the illustration (fig. 58, a.) 
The head, with antenna, is shown, much enlarged, 
at e, and t'he general characters of the larva are il- 
lustrated at b, the pupa at c and d. 

Among the many substances attacked by this in- 
sect may be mentioned, besides grain and its manu- 
factured products, snuff, orris root, baking powder, 
rice chaff, red pepper, ginger, slippery elm, peas, 
beans, nuts, and seeds of various kinds, in all of 
which it has been found by the writer. It some- 
times also invades cabinets of dried insects. 

The Slender-Homed Flour Beetle, (Echocerus 
maxillosus Fab.)— The above-named insect should 
be mentioned here. It also feeds on flour and meal 
and is of frequent occurrence in the South and has 
been found as far north as t'he District of Columbia 
and southern Ohio in Indian corn, which appears to 
be its preferred food. The beetle resembles the two 
preceding species, but is lighter in color and a little 
smaller, measuring a trifle over an eighth of an inch 
in length. On the head, between the eyes, are twa 
pointed tubercles, and the mandibles in the male) 
are armed with a pair of slender, incurved horns. 

There are several other flour beetles occurring in 
the South, but space will not permit of their men- 
tion here. 

The Meal-Worms. 

The Yellow Meal-Wonn, (Tenebrio molitor Linn.) 
—The above-mentioned s])ecies is the meal-worm 
most often referred to in scientific literature, and as 
it is in the larval stage that it is best known, the 
name yellow meal-worm has been suggested to dis- 
tinguish it from the other species, w'hich is much 
darker in color. The larva is cylindrical, long, and 
slender, attaining a length of upward of an inch, and 
being about eight times as long as broad. It is wax- 
en in appearance, resembling a wireworm. In color 
it is yellow, shading to darker ochreous toward each 
end and near the articulation of each point. The 
anal extremity terminates in two minute spines. The 
pupa is white, and the adult insect, as will be seen 
by reference to the illustration, resembles on a large 



scale one of t'he flour beetles. It is considerably over 
half an inch long, somewhat flattened, shining, and 
nearly black. An enlarged antenna is shown at e. 

The eggs, with a covering of meal, are white, 
bean-shaped, and about a twentieth of an inch lone^, 
and are deposited by the parent beetle in the meal,| 
or other substance which is to serve as the food of' 
t'he future lava. 

Methods of Control. 

The measures to be employed in the control of in- 
sects affecting stored products are both preventive; 
and insecticidal. As an insecticide nothing answers' 
the purpose so well as the bisulphide of carbon, which 
is a nearly perfect remedy against all insects that' 
infest the storehouse. The remedies that will be 
■ liscussed in the present work, while intended' 
primarily for use against insects in stored grain, 
"have an almost equal value against all forms of ani- 
mal life that occur in products that are dried and 
kept in storage. 

Preventive Measures. — A limited number of in- 
sects, like the Angoumois grain moth in the extreme 
South, enter the grain in the field, and certain pre- 
cautions are therefore necessary to prevent their ac- 
cess to the granary. This is accomplished, first, by 
harvesting as soon as the grain is ripe; second, by 
threshing as soon afterwards as possible. 

In the process of threshing or cleaning much in- 
fested grain is blown out with the chaff and dust, 
and the moths and many adult weevils are killed by 
the agitation which the grain receives; but the im- 
mature forms of these insects, concealed in the ker- 
nels as eggs, larvae, and pupae, are apt to survive 
this treatment, and further measures are necessary 
for their destruction. 

For this purpose a quarantine bin is desirable, to 
be as nearly air-tight as possible, in w'hich the new- 
ly threshed as well as the infested or suspected grain 
can be fumigated with bisulphide of carbon, accord- 
ing to th^ directions given elsewhere. 

Fresh grain should not be exposed to insect attack 
by being placed in bins with "weeviled" grain, 01 
even housed under the same roof with such gram,! 
If before storing in buildings that have been infest- 
ed, the old grain be removed, t'he bins thoroughly 
cleaned, floors, walls, and ceilings brushed and scrub-: 



Do Not Let the Cows SuiTer tror 



m !•..;: 



231 



bed, the chances of infestation will be reduced to a 
minimum. If the storehouse has been badly in- 
fested, a fumigation with bisulphide is necessary. 

The floors of the storehouse should be frequently 
swept, and all material that has no commercial value 
burned. 

A certain amount of attention has always been 
given to the construction of the storehouse with a 
view to the exclusion of insects, and, with the ad- 
vent of the flour moth, our modern mills are being 
fitted with reference to its peculiar habits. 



sects. The floor, walls, and ceilings should be smooth,. 
.=0 as not to afford any lurking places for the insects,, 
and it would be well to have them oiled, painted, or 
whitewashed for further security. A coating of coal 
tar has been strongly recommended for the latter 
purpose. Such measures are not an absolute neces- 
sity in cold and temperate climates, but in the more 
'heated atmosphere of our Southern States whatever 
possible should be done to lessen the chances of 
damage. 




Fig. 59. — An Orchard showing the effect of Leaf Curl. 

The ideal farmer's granary, from the standpoint of The Bisulphide of Carbon Treatment. — The sim- 
insect ravages, should be built at some distance from plest, most effective, and inexpensive remedy for all 
other buildings and the rooms constructed so as to insects that affect stored cereal and other products is 
be as near vermin proof as possible. The doors the bisulphide of carbon, a colorless liquid with a 
should fit tightly, and the windows covered wit'h strong, disagreeable odor, which, however, soon pass- 
frames of wire gauze to prevent the passage of in- es away. It vaporizes abundantly at ordinary tern- 



:232 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE 



poratures, is highly inflammable, and is a powerful 
poison. 

It may be applied directly to infested grain or seed 
without injury to its edible or germinative principles 
by spraying or pouring, but tlie most effective man- 
ner of its application in moderately tight bins or 
other receptacles consists in evaporating the liquid in 
shallow dishes or pans, or on bits of cloth or cotton 
waste distributed about on the surface of the infest- 
ed material. The liquid rapidly volatilizes, and be- 
ing heavier than air descends and permeates the 
mass of grain, killing all insects and other vermin 
present. 

The bisulphide is usually evaporated in vessels 
containing one-fourth or one-half of a pound each, 
and is applied in tight bins at the rate of a pound to 
a pound and a half to the ton of grain, and in more 
open bins a larger quantity is used. For smaller 
masses of grain or other material an ounce is evap- 
orated to ever)^ loo pounds of the infested matter. 
Bins may be rendered nearly air-tight by covering 
with cloths, blankets, or canvas. 

Infested grain is generally subjected to the bisul- 
phide treatment for twenty-four hours, but may be 
f.-xposed much longer without harming it for milling 
purposes. If not exposed for more than thirty-six 
hours its germinating power will not be impaired. 
In open cribs and badly infested buildings it may 
sometimes be necessary to use a double quantity of 
the reagent and repeat treatment at intervals of 
about six weeks during the warmest weather. 

Mr. H. E. Weed, entomologist of the Mississippi 
Station, claims that i pound to loo bushels of grain 
is amply sufficient to destroy all insects, even in open 
cribs. 

Mills and other buildings, when found to be in- 
fested throughout, may be thoroughly fumigated and 
rid of insects by a liberal use of the same chemical. 
A good time for this work is during daylight on a 
Saturday afternoon or early Sunday morning, closing 
t'he doors and windows as tightly as possible and ob- 
serving the precaution of stationing a watchman 
without to prevent anyone from entering. It is best 
to begin in the lowest story and work upward, to 
escape the settling gas. The building should then 
be thoroughly aired and the grain stirred early Mon- 
day morning. 

For the fumigation of a building or a reasonably 
close room it is customary to evaporate a pound of 
the bisulphide for every thousand feet of cubic space. 



In comparatively empty rooms, and in such as do 
not admit of being tightly closed, two or three times 
the above quantity of the chemical is sometimes nec- 
essary. 

Certain precautions should always be observed. 
The vapor of bisulphide is deadly to all forms of 
animal life if inhaled in sufficient quantity, but there 
is no danger in inhaling a small amount. The vapor 
is inflammable, but with proper care that no fire of 
any kind, as, for example, a lighted cigar, be brought 
into the vicinity until the fumes have entirely pass- 
ed away, no trouble will be experienced. 

Bisulphide of carbon retails at from 20 to 30 cent 
a pound, but at wholesale, in 50-pound cans, may L 
obtained for 10 cents a pound. A grade known a', 
"fuma bisulfide," for sale at the latter price, is sai! 
to be more effective than the ordinary commercial 
article. 

Ai the rate t:sed the cost of treatment is from 10 
cents and upward for each ton of grain. 

A FEW ORANGE INSECTS. 

Insects injurious to orange and other citrus fruits 
include a whole class by themselves. An entire book 
devoted to the subject would be required to gi\'- 
this matter proper treatment. Only a few orange 
insects, however, cause a great amount of damage, 
but tliese are ever present and must be fouglit dili- 
genty and intelligently. 

The White Fly. 

This is probably the worst citrus insect in Florida 
and also occurs in all sections where the orange is' 
grown. It is a common enemy of all plants relateil 
to the orange. The insect itself is very small, being 
only about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. The- 
insect winters on the undersides of the leaves in va- 
rious stages of development, mostly full grown. The 
adults sometimes appear early in February and com- 
mence at once to deposit eggs. These adults are so 
small that t'he average grower will never notice 
ihem, but t'he young insects on the leaves are easily 
found. Most of the flies appear in April and May. 
Egg-laying at once begins, the eggs being placed on 
the undersides of the leaves. The eggs hatch in 
about ten days and the young larvae crawl around to 
find a suitable place to commence feeding. The 
food is taken through a minute beak which is thrust 



Protect Your Stored Grain from Insects. 



233 



through the surface of the leaves. The adults while 
-winged are not capable of long flight, but they un- 
doubtedly spread from one grove to another. The 
voung lice are easily carried by workmen and teams 
for long distances, thus making the possibility of 
spread very rapid. 

The w'hite fly does not kill a tree as quickly as 
most of the scale insects, but is very persistent in 
its attacks, saps the vitality of the trees, impairs the 
■quality, flavor and keeping properties of the fruit 
and renders both trees and fruit unsightly because 
of the black, sooty mold, which invariably develops 
in the honey-dew excreted by the insects. Orange 
growers fear the attack of this insects a's much as some 
w'hich are really more quickly injurious in their at- 
tacks. 

Remedies for the White Fly. 

A resin spray recommended by the Florida Ex- 
periment Station is considered the most practical 
remedy. The following is the formula : 

Resin pulverized 8 pounds 

Caustic Soda, pulverized .... 3 pounds 
Fish Oil I 1-2 pints 

I Boil in a large iron kettle in six or seven gallons 

'' of water until the materials are all dissolved, which 

1 will usually be in twenty minutes. Strain into a 

'I barrel holding about 50 gallons and fill the barrel 

1 with water. It is now ready for use as a rather 

\ coarse sprav. 

f ' 

1] The insects will be found on the under sides of 

1 

II the leaves so that when spraying care must be taken 
iito strike the lower surface with the mixture! 
I; This wash should be applied while the insects are 
in the larval (young) stage on the leaves. Three 
4or four sprayings may be necessary each year. 
I Kerosene emulsion at 15 per cent, strength will 
I also serve to control this insect. When using the 
|€mulsion only enoug'h should be used to cover the 
[leaves. Too heavy an application may injure the 
ji foliage. 

I Fumigation with Hydrocyanic acid gas is prac- 
tised by some large orange growers for the control 
of the white fly. It is most practical on small trees. 

The San Jose Scale. 
This scale insect is often very serious in orange 



groves. The remedy suggested for the scale on 
peach trees will serve also for the orange, only it 
must be remembered that the strength of wash used 
on peach can be greater as the trees become entirely 
dormant. The kerosene emulsion treatment for 
scale or orange trees has in many cases been suc- 
cessful. 







'^';f'^> r 






:g^g 




1.^ 


'3hH 


.''I ■■ 


M?;->:v^ 




■'.; 




1 

t *' j 
■m'j.^ar'i'.w.^y ■<«£«&■■■: 




> 


HB^' 9 


' 


^ ' 


^-——^. 



Fig. CO. — Pear Blight. An Orctiard showing the effect of 
Pear Blight. 

THE COTTONY CUSHION SCALE. 

This insect was at one time the most dangerous 
pest in California and did a great amount of damage. 
An Australian lady-bug was introduced from Aus- 
tralia and has succeeded in keeping the insect in 
control. If it had not been for this imported lady- 
bug the cottony cushion scale would probably have 
destroyed the orange industry in California. The in- 
sect is known to occur over a limiited area in Florida. 

The body of the adult female scale is dark orange- 
red, usually more or less covered with yellowish 



234 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



white powder. The female secretes an egg-sac which 
is white and beautifully ribbed. This makes a very 
conspicuous object, one not readily over-looked. 

Remedies. — As stated above this insect has been 
controlled in California by the lady-bug. It occur- 
ring in places where the lady-bugs are not present, 
spraying with resin wash or kerosene emulsion, as 
recommended for the white fly, will serve to control 
t'his insect, or at least keep it in check until the lady- 
bugs can be secured. 

THE RED ORANGE-SCALE. 

This is one of the most destructive of orange and 
lemon pests, and in California where it is abundant 
it is being fought by parasites and by the usual fu- 
migation and spraying methods. The Red Scale is 
about the size and shape — generally speaking — of the 
San Jose scale with which most are familiar. The 
color of the scale formation covering the true soft- 
bodied insect_ has given it the common name "red- 
scale." 

The fumigation method, with hydrocyanic acid gas 
generated under tents stretched over the trees has 
for several years been the principal method of con- 
trolling this insect. This fumigation is quite costly, 
and for that reason experiments are being made to 
determine the value of liquid sprays. It will prob- 
ably be found that modifications of the washes used 
against San Jose and ot'her scales will serve to con- 
trol this pest also. 

SOME HOUSEHOLD PESTS. 

Every housekeeper knows the trouble caused by 
certain insects both in the way of destroying cloth- 
es, books, carpets, etc. She usually has to fight 
some insect at all times of the year. A few of the 
most important pests, together with suggested reme- 
dies, may be useful in helping to aid the fight against 
these insects. 

Bedbugs. 

Owing to tlie fact that this pernicious bug can be 
carried about so easily it often finds its way to the 
beds of the rich as well as the poor but can usually be 
exterminated if noticed in time. Beds and bedding 
should be frequently examined for this pest and if dis- 
covered apply one or all of the following remedies. 



Prof. C. L. Marlatt, of the Bureau of Entomology. 
Washington, D. C, recommends the following: 

"The bedbug, on account of its 'habits of conceal- 
ment, is usually beyond the reach of powders, and 
the ordinary insect powders, such as pyrethrum, art- 
of practically no avail against it. If iron or brass 
bedsteads are used the eradication of the insect is 
comparatively easy. The most practical way to ef- 
fect this end is by very liberal applications of ben- 
zine or kerosene or any other of the petroleum oils. 
These must be introduced into all crevices, with 
small brushes or feathers, or by injecting with Small 
syringes. 

Corrosive sublimate is also of value, and oil of 
turpentine may be used in the same way. The lib- 
eral use of hot water wherever it may be employed 
without danger to furniture, etc., is a'.so an effectual 
method of destroying both eggs and active bugs. 
Various bedbug remedies and mi.xtures are for sale, 
most of them containing one or the other of the in- 
gredients mentioned, and they are frequently of 
value. The great desideratum, however, in a case of 
this kind, is a daily inspection of beds and bedding 
and of all crevices and locations about the premises 
where these vermin may have gone for concealment. 

A vigorous campaign should, in the course of a 
week or so at the outside, result in the extermina- 
tion of this very obnoxious and embarrassing pest. 
In the case of rooms containing books or where 
liquid applications are inadvisable, a thorough fumi- 
gation with brimstone is, on the authority of Dr. J. 
A. Lintner, New York State entomologist, an effec- 
tive means of destruction. He says: 'Place in the 
center of the room a dish containing about four 
ounces of brimstone, within a larger vessel, -so that 
the possible overflowing of the burning mass may 
not injure the carpet nor set fire to the floor. Aftir 
removing from the room all such metallic surfaces 
as might be affected by the fumes, close every aper- 
ture, even the keyholes, and set fire to the brim- 
stone. When four or five hours have elapsed, the 
room may be entered and the windows opened for a 
thorough airing.' " 

FLEAS. 

The common troublesome fleas which overrun 
Tiouses are not human fleas as many suppose, but 
the common cosmopolitan flea of the dog and cat. 
The eggs of the flea are deposited between the hairs 



Bedbugs Can Be Exterminated If You So Desire. 



235 



of the dog and cat, but are not fastened, hence the sticky fly-paper to capture the adults seems to have 

eggs may be dropped wherever the animals lie or found its most successful application in the plan fol- 

while moving about. By keeping all such animals lowed by Prof. Gage, of Cornell University. He 

out of houses this nuisance will generally be pre- tied sheets of sticky fly-paper, with the sticky side 

vented. The eggs of the flea are small, w'hite and out, around the legs ' of an office janitor, who was 

oblong. When hatched the larvae are very small then instructed to walk around the rooms of a build- 

and active and readily find a hiding place in some ing for several hours. This resulted in nearly all the 

crack where they are not easily disturbed. The use fleas jumping on his ankles where they were ■cau."-ht 

of matting and carpets favors the development of by the fly-paper. Another plan is to let the doo-s 

fleas by furnishing a hiding place. stay in an infested house for a couple of hours at\ 



■~ ' -J " ■ 'f 

'-V- ■;.•;.* 




Fig. Gl.— Rossette. Orchard showing the Effect of Peach Rossette. 



Remedies.— The larvae can be destroyed by the 
liberal application of benzine or similar liquid in all 
cracks and crevises of the floor and applying the 
same to carpets and mats. The adult fleas are much 
■larder to contend with. Their extreme activity and 
great hardiness render any but the most strenuous 
measures unsuccessful. The suggested plan of using 



time and then kill t' e Teas that get on the dog by 
thoroughly washing the animal with a strong soap 
solution. 

The Carpet Beetle, or "Buffalo Moth." 

The adult insect is a small, blackish beetle, about 
three-si.xteenth inch in length, and ornamented by a 



236 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE 



red stripe along the back. The beetles generally ap- 
pear in fall, but may be present all the year. The 
damage is caused by the larvae, w'hich is brown 
with stiff hairs on the back and sides. It is about 
one-fourth inch long. When full grown it changes 
to a yellowish pupa from which the beetle develops. 

Remedies. — Only the most thorough measures will 
eradicate this pest. All carpets should be taken up, 
t'hofoughly beaten out of doors and sprayed with 
benzine. Infested rooms must be cleanly swept, 
the floors washed with boiling water, and the cracks 
filled with kerosene or benzine, which should also 
be sprayed under the baseboards. It is best to avoid 
the use of carpets, or at least use rugs that can be 
cleaned each day. When the insects are in carpets 
that cannot well be removed, a hot iron and damp 
cloth can be used to steam t'he carpets, thus destroy- 
ing many insects. 

THE CLOTHES MOTH. 
How to Destroy Clothes Moths. 

One of the greatest enemies of the housewife is 
the clothes moth. It is very small and makes its 
way through the smallest crevices. The female 
moth finds its way in early summer among the 
clothes and furs, suitable for food for its young, and 
there deposits about fifty or more eggs. In about a 
week the eggs hatch and the young worms begin to 
eat upon the cloth upon which the eggs were laid. 
It Spins a sort of case which it lengthens and en- 
larges. Not content with eating and making a house 
for itself upon t'he cloth upon which it lives, it cuts 
its way in various directions through the cloth and 
drags its case after it. As the weather gets warmer 
the little worm closes its case at the ends and in 
three weeks the perfect moth will make its appear- 
ance. 

Remedy. — Beat the garments well early in the 
spring and occasionally during the summer. It is 
better to keep the articles in a large paper bag. Oc- 
casional airing is good. ■ 

For clothes packed in boxes or trunks, put a little 
oil of cedar on a piece of paper and roll up and wrap 
with other paper to avoid soiling the garments, and 
put several of these rolls into each box or trunk. 
Carbolic acid, turpentine or benzine is equally good, 
used in the same manner. 



Black pepper, a piece of camphor gum, or a hand- 
ful of snuff wrapped up with the clothes is excellent. 

Caution. — Camphor should neyer be used in keep- 
ing seal skin, as it takes the color out of the fur. 

A close closet lined with tar paper is the best for 
furs. It is also excellent for clothes. 

Whole cloves are now used to exterminate moths, 
and some say t'hey are much better than tobacco, 
camphor, or cedar shav.ings. 

The repellents are of no use unless the clothes to 
be protected are first beaten and aired to remove 
eggs and larvae. 

HOW TO EXTERMINATE SPIDERS. 

Take a small common kerosene lamp and light it, 
and late in the afternoon or early in the evening 
look over the corners and places where spiders are 
commonly found, and when one is seen hold the 
lamp chimney directly beneath it, and it will fall at 
once into t'he chimney and be instantly destroyed. 
It is not difficult in this way to destroy all the spi- 
ders in the house in a few evenings. It avoids kill- 
ing them by sweeping them down and staining the 
walls and carpet. Early in the evening is the best 
time. 

HOW TO PRESERVE BOOKS FROM BOOK 
MOTHS. 

The little Bristle Tail or Silver Fish has a little 
long, slender body covered with a delicate silver ' 
scale ; it has no wings and passes through no chang- 
es. It feeds on the paste of the binding of books, 
devours leaves, eats off the labels in Museums, and 
is generally destructive to both books and papers. 

Books are also eaten by the larva of a little bug 
that produces a ticking sound like a watch — it is 
called the "Death Watch," as it is usually heard in 
the night ticking like a watch. 

Remedy. — A little rag saturated with benzine or 
carbolic acid placed along the back of shelves will 
help to clear the library of all insects. Insect Pow- 
der sprinkled over the books will destroy the little 
"Silver Fish" insect if used freely. 

A CURE FOR BEE AND WASP STINGS, SPI- 
DER BITES, ETC. 

I. The cure for insect stings is very simple. 
Scientists have found that the poison injected by 



Consult the Spray Calendar in This Book. 



^Z7 



the insect is an acid, and hence any alkali is an ex- 
cellent remedy. 

2. Remedy. — Apply ammonia or common soda 
and water. If there is much inflammation and red- 
ness, apply a solution of borax and warm water. 
Apply with rag saturated with the solution. 

FLIES. 
The Farm. 

The Fly Nuisance. — Every farmer and live stock 
grower will freely admit that the presence of flies is 
a great drawback to the welfare and comfort of ani- 
mals. Work horses are not able to do as much, and 
what they do is less satisfactory when they are con- 
tinually tormented by flies and mosquitos, says 
"Twentieth Century Farmer." Colts and calves are 
greatly diminished in flesh and prevented from mak- 
ing healthy and thrifty growth when they are ob- 
liged to continually fight these pests. The yield 
from milch cows is greatly reduced by the same 
cause. Taking the whole maiter into consideration, 
it is unquestionably to the interest of the farmer to 
do something with a view to reHeving animals from 
the tortures which these insects inflict. 

As a rule, farmers do not neglect this matter be- 
cause they are not careful of their stock or because 
they are willing to permit them to suffer. The trou- 
ble usually lies in a lack of, knowledge and under- 
standing of the question. Many stock raisers would 
gladly spend time and money to bring relief from 
flies and mosquitoes if they knew of a good and re- 
liable method of attaining these results. For the 
benefit of these well-meaning parties, whose sym- 
pathy is touched by the mute appeals of their ani- 
mals, we wish to give our experience along this line. 
While treating colts with a standard coal tar prepa- 
ration for lice a few years ago we discovered that 
the flies gave animals so treated a wide berth. The 
smell appeared to be very repulsive to them, and 
the colts enjoyed a perfect freedom from their bites. 
Acting upon this suggestion, we have continued to 
use this preparation for the sake of the freedom of 
flies which it gives us, even though no lice are pres- 
ent. 

Since that time we have discovered that the addi- 
tion of linseed oil or cotton-seed oil makes the appli- 
cation much more permanent in its effects. The 
proportions are about as follows : One quart of the 



coal tar product, one quart of oil and fifteen quarts 
ter. Such a solution is very inexpensive and brings 
about a wonderful relief to the animals. Where it is 
desired to treat work horses or driving horses we 
make it a practice to omit the oil and make the ap- 
plication more frequent. A small sprayer, which can 




Fig. 62. — Orchard showing the effect of Brown Rat in 
Peaches. 



be purchased for 75c or $1, is the ideal method of ap- 
plying the solution to the animals. With precaution- 
ary measures so simple and effective, it is to be hoped 
that steps will be taken by the owners of live stock 
to give them relief from flies and mosquitoes. 

PRACTICAL RECIPES. 

Owners of horses will be interested in the method 
successfully pursued by Dr. A. T. Peters, veterinari- 
an at the Nebraska Experiment station, for driving 
away flies. He took an ordinary oil barrel and put 



238 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



into it a wooden spigot, using the barrel as a stor- 
age tank. Two and a half gallons of Zenoleum, with 
five gallons of cottonseed oil, were then placed in 
the barrel and enough water added to fill it. As re- 
quired, the mixture thus formed was drawn from the 
barrel and sprayed upon the horses, or applied with a 
sponge or clot'h as the occasion demanded. The 
control of the flies was not only perfect, but it had 
one marked advantage not possessed by most other 
mixtures for the purpose, in that the solution was 
not sticky, but left the coat of the animal in a fine 
condition. The mixture has the further advantage 
of being compounded at very small cost. 

The Horn Fly. — (Bulletin 153, Virginia Experi- 
ment Station). Since the importation of the fly from 
Europe in 1885, it has spread throug'hout the Ameri- 
can continent. Even the severe Northern winters 
do not effectually check it, for it as frequently ap- 
pears in Canada as in the warmer sections of the 
South. 

In appearance it is much smaller than the ordina- 
ry house fly, probably not over half as large, and 
about the same color. 

The life history, as given by Newman, is quite 
simple, and is as follows : The fly makes its appear- 
ance during the middle or latter days of June, ac- 
cording to the season. The eggs are deposited in 
fresh dung about the pasture, and the larva hatch 
in about twenty-four hours. The young parasite 
then inhabits the superficial layer of the soil, and 
becomes fully developed in about fifteen days. 

Of late vears by reason of its rapid multiplication, 
general alarm has been created among stockmen on 
account of the peculiarly irritating character of the 
bite, in consequence of which the cattle do not thrive. 
When in large numbers they gather about the base 
of the animals' horns to rest, and are sometimes 
found covering them for several inches. 

During heavy rains they collect on the under side 
of the animal's abdomen. They attack, by prefer- 
ence, the upper parts of the body, usually selecting 
those parts which are most out of reach, namely, 
over the back ; and in contrast to most other flies, 
they remain upon the animal day and night, inflict- 
ing t'heir torture constantly. In the feeding attitude 
the fly mav be noticed with wings spread ready for 
flight. 

No accurate estimate can be made of the injury 
resulting from the pest in cattle-raising sections. 



Beef cattle increase in weight slowly, if at all, while 
milch cows fall off in their milk from one-fourth to 
one-half during their presence. 

Various remedies have been recommended from 
time to time, some not wholly wanting in merit, but 
lacking the most essential features so necessary for 
complete success. Among them mig'ht be mentioned 
ihe daily treatment of fres'h droppings with fresh 
lime, thereby destroying the larva, also the applica- 
tion to the cattle of substances calculated to disgust 
the fly, and prevent or modify their attack, the lat- 
ter being the universal custom. 

Kerosene emulsion after the following formula 
has proven the most effectual remedy yet tried : 

Yellow Soap 1-2 pound 

Soft Water i gallon 

Kerosene Oil 2 gallons 

Shave the soap fine and dissolve in the water at 
boiling temperature. I'lace kerosene oil in a barrel 
containing a spray pump, to which should be added 
the hot soap solution. The mixture is now churned 
vigorously through the pump for fifteen or twenty 
minutes, or until the mass becomes like thick cream 
and is fully emulsified. One gallon of water (or in 
this proportion) is now added to prevent the solution 
from becoming thick, curdy and troublesome to be 
dissolved. This is to be kept as the stock solution 
and diluted in the proportion of one part to five of 
water, and thoroughly mixed by agitation through 
the pump just prior to using. Only the required 
amount must be mixed in the pump for one applica- 
tion, as it tends to separate and gives unsatisfactory 
results. Too severe and continued agitation is to be 
avoided, as it tends to cause the solution to foam, in 
which condition it will not spray satisfactorily, and 
requires a few minutes to settle. 

One of the simplest preparations is one of about 
two parts of lard and one of pine tar. Mix thorough- 
ly together and rub on the neck and behind the 
shoulders, where the flies are most numerous. This 
mixture seems to be especially effective in prevent- 
ing attacks from the fly vvhic'h produces the screw- 
worm in open wounds. 

The United States Department of Agriculture 
recommends the following: 

"Take resin, 1 1-2 pounds; laundry soap, two 
cakes; fish-oil, 1-2 pint; enough water to make three 



Spraying Should Be Done Carefully and Intelligently. 



239 



g-allons. Dissolve the resin in a solution of soap and 
water by heating; add the fish-oil and the rest of the 
water. Apply with a brush. If to be used as a spray, 
add one-half pint of kerosene. This mixture will cost 
from 7 to 8 cents per gallon, and may be used on either 
calves or cows. One-half pint of this mixture is con- 
sidered enough for one aplication for a cow; a calf, 
of course, would require- considerably less. It will be 
more economical to apply this only to the part of the 
animal not reached by t'he tail. At first it will per- 
haps be necessary to give two or three applications 
per week, until the outer ends of the hair become 
coated with resin ; after that, retouch those parts 
where the resin is rubbed off. 

A bulletin of the Mississippi Station recommends 
a mixture made with two parts cottonseed oil, lard or 
any other c'heap oil, and one pint of pine tar. Apply 
with a paint brush or swab. The writer of the bul- 
letin states that he treated 350 head of cattle with this 
mixture in about six hours, using four gallons of oil 
and two gallons of tar, the cost of the materials used 
being $2.20, or about three-fourths of a cent a 'head. 

"Gnat oil," used so largely in' the Yazoo Delta reg- 
ion, is made by mixing i ounce of crude carbolic acid, 
I ounce of pennyroyal, 1-4 pound of sulphur and i gal- 
lon cotton-seed oil, and seems to be etiually effective. 

Whatever application is used must be renewed ev- 
ery ten days or two weeks, or as soon as the flies be- 
come troublesome again. Kerosene should not be 
used in the place of other oils, and coal tar is not a 
safe substitute for pine tar. 

THE SCREW WORM. 
Its Ravages on Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Hogs, etc. 

Description and Cure. — The mature insect is a fly 
! a' little larger than a common housefly, and 
lays its eggs in wounds, sores, and in the natural 
openings of man and animals. Young calves are al- 
■ most invariably affected in the navel, and frequently 
fin the mout'h, causing teeth to fall out. Young colts 
[1 are affected in the same way. Barb wire injures to 
horses and cattle are the most common sores in which 
the screw worm is found. Hogs are very liable to be- 
come affected by castration and other wounds. 

History. — After the egg is laid it becomes a small 
maggot, which soon buries itself in the flesh of the 
wound. The maggot grows steadily in size, and eats 



more and more every day of the soft flesh around the 
wound or sore. The worm is full grown in about a 
week. They then leave the sore and fall to the ground, 
and in about 12 days become flies. 

Symptoms. — A swollen, gaping condition of the 
wound, and the constant discharge of blood. While 
the sore is unhealed new eggs are constantly being 
laid, and if the worms are not destroyed, they eat 
deeper and deeper and often kill the animal. 

Remedy. — Cresylic ointment, calomel, chloroform, 
or a little carbolic acid in water. In some cases ban- 
dages are useful. In others the sores can be filled 
with oakum and a few stitches taken. All treatment 
should be supplemented by daubing the margins of 
the wound with pine tar to ward off the fly. 

SPRAYING, INSECTICIDES, AND FUNGICIDES. 

Great advancement has been made within the last 
few years in the matter of spraying. The practice of 
spraying trees and vegetables is just now in its in- 
fancy. In the older section of the South, there is no 
doubt about it paying to spray. In fact, it has reach- 
ed that place where it is necessary to spray in order 
to produce perfect fruit and vegetables. IMost people 
are afraid of the subject of spraying, because they 
think that they must learn all about insects and a 
great many hard names. But one should not be afraid 
of the subject, for it is necessary in order to make a 
success of growing fruit. If you have never tried spray- 
ing, make a thorough test of it, and see the good that 
will result. Spray the trees thoroughly, and be sure 
that all parts are sprayed. Better waste a little ma- 
terial and time than leave a portion of the trees un- 
touched. It seems hardly necessary to tell the ad- 
vantages derived from spraying, as every one knows 
that there are insects and diseases that must be kill- 
ed by spraying, if they are killed at all. 

Insects are of two classes, as regards the spray 
remedies. The biting insects, that may be killed by 
eating poisoned foliage or fruit, are most easily de- 
stroyed by arsenic in some form, and those that live 
by sucking their food must be killed from the out- 
side and with something that will coat them or their 
coverings in some such way as to smother them to 
death. 

Of the first class are canker worms, cut worms, 
caterpillars, codling moth, larvae and all the rest that 



240 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



live by eating the leaves or fruit, except those which 
do it in such ways as so far to have baffled the inge- 
nuity of scientists and practical fruit growers and 
gardeners. Paris green has been the form of arsenic 
most in use, but the preparations of white arsenic 
have been found to be cheaper and more effective. 
They can be made at home by mixing it with lime 
and salsoda, and almost any of the State or govern- 
ment bulletins on insecticides give full directions for 
making them. One that is thought to be the best is 
made by putting one pound of white arsenic and tv^'o 
pounds of salsoda in one gallon of water and boiling 
it for fifteen minutes. One quart of this will poison 
fifty gallons of water, or Bordeaux mixture. If wa- 
ter alone is used, tiiere should be two pounds of lime 
dissolved and put in with it to prevent the arsenic 
from injuring the foliage. In the Bordeaux mix- 
ture, w'hich contains lime, that is not necessarv. 

Of the second class, such as the scale insects, which 
live by sucking the juices through tiny beaks which 
they insert into the tender bark, living under tents, 
which we call scales. They must be coated with oil 
or something that will keep the air from them 'till ttiey 
die. The lime-sulphur-salt mixture is of this class, 
and, strange to say, this has been found a good fun- 
gicide as well. 

The basis of about all of the fungicides is sulphate 
of copper. This is the killing part of Bordeaux mix- 
ture. 

DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING THE MOST 
IMPORTANT INSECTICIDES. 

Lime-Sulnhur-Salt Wash. 

Ko. I. 
Formula 

Lime 20 pounds 

Sulphur 16 pounds 

Salt 5 pounds 

Water to make 50 gallons 

Boil for about 40 minutes, or until all sulphur is in 
solution. More detailed directions for making and 
applying this wash will be found on another page. 
This wa.sh is effective against nearly all scale insects. 
It is also a good fungicide, taking the place of Bor- 
deaux mixture for spraying to prevent leaf-curl of 
peach; also effective as first treatment against such 
diseases as apple scab, brown rot, bitter rot, and fun- 
gus diseases that can be reac'hed by spraying when the 



trees are dormant: that is, liefore the leaves push ou; 
in spring. 

Kerosene Emulsion. 

I 
No. 2. 

Formula for .Stock Solution : i! 

Kerosene 2 gallons 

Hard soap, (soft soap, i qt. ) 1-2 pound i 

Water i gallon 

Dissolve the soap in boiling water, then remove 
from the fire and add 2 gallons of kerosene and agi- 
tate violently for at least ten minutes. The emulsion 
is prepared best by using a small force pump, having 
direct discharge, and pumping the solution back into; 
itself for ten minutes, \^'hen properly mixed the 
emulsion will last for several weeks. 

For' convenient reference the proper amounts of 
water to use in diluting the stock solution for certain 
strengths is given herewith: 

For 5% emulsion dilute wit'h ^7 gallons of water. 
For 10% emulsion dilute with 17 gallons of water. 
For 15% emulsion dilute with 10 1-3 gallons of water. 
For 20% emulsion dilute with ~ gallons of water. 

Kerosene emulsion is used against nearly all soft! 
bodied insects, such as plant lice, currant slugs, small 
cabbage worms, etc. ' 

Paris Green. 1] 

No. 3. _ Ij 

Paris green is used at many different strength? 
but as a general formula we recommend the follow 
ing: 

Paris green i pound 

Lime 3 pounds 

Water 100 to 200 gallons 

When Paris green is used without lime it is liabl' 
to scorch the foliage. The same amount as above i 
used in Bordeaux mixture. 



Paris Green-Bordeaux Mixture. 

No. 4. fl 

Made by mixing Paris green in the Bordeaux afte 
the latter is ready for use. An excellent way to ap 
ply poison for potato bugs, tomato worms, etc., an' 



A Study of Insects is Pleasawt and Profitabls. 



241 



for spraying fruit trees to destroy the canker worm, 
codling moth, and all chewing insects. 

Arsenate of Lead. 

No. 5. 

This may be made from the raw materials or pur- 
chased in prepared form under such trade names as 
"Disparene" or "Swifts" Arsenate of Lead. Formu- 
la for making is as follows: 

Lead acetate (sugar of lead,) 11 ounces 

Arsenate of Soda 4 ounces 

Water 50 gallons 

To prepare, dissolve each in 2 quarts of warm wa- 
ter. When dissolved pour them together in a barrel 
of water and stir. This solution gives a very light 
precipitate, requiring little stirring in the spray tank 
and has an advantage over the other arsenicals in 
that it will usually adhere better on the trees or fo- 
liage. 

This preparation is not liable to burn the foliage of 
plants and is very cheap, if prepared at home. Even 
the manufactured products are not very expensive. 
A valuable insecticide. 

Hellebore. 

No. 6. 

L^sed in dry form, i part to 4 or 5 of flour or fine 
air-slacked lime. Kills both by contact and by being 
taken internally. Hence may be used against chew- 
ing insects and sucking insects. Not nearly as active 
a poison as the arsenicals, but sometimes useful on 
plants like cabbage which are nearly ready to be eat- 
en. 

Pyrethrum. 

No. 7. 
Is used both in dry and wet form. As a spray use 
one pound in 3 gallons of water. Use dry the same 
as hellebore. This material acts only as a contact 
poison for soft bodied insects ; especially useful against 
currant worms and plant lice. 

Tobacco. 

No. 8. 

Tobacco is often a useful insecticide. It will some- 

17 



times take the place of kerosene emulsion against 
plant lice and can be easily prepared and applied. 

Tobacco stems or leaves i pound 

Water 2 gallons 

Boil for 2 hours and use without dilution except to 
add water to make up the full 2 gallons. Especially 
useful against the aerial form of woolly aphis. 

Tobacco is used in dry form as stated in discussion 
of apple woolly aphis ; also used as repellent for cu- 
cumber beetles and other garden insects. 

Whale Oil Soap. 
No. 9. 

For insects, such as plant lice and scale insects, 
whale oil soap may often be used to advantage. It 
was once considered the best remedy for San Jose 
scale until the Lime-Sulphur wash came into use. It 
is, however, valuable for other purposes. This ma- 
terial is purchased for about 5 cents a pound in bar- 
rel quantities, and sometimes less. It is best to pur- 
chase from some large firm rather than buy from lo- 
cal dealers. Good's potash whale oil soap No. 3, sold 
by James Good, Philadelphia, Pa., and the Anchor 
Brand sold by Leggett & Brother, New York, are 
both good soaps. 

For plant lice and soft bodied insects use about one 
pound to 5 gallons of water; for scale insects use a 
stronger solution, depending on the hardiness of the 
plant under treatment. 

Potash Lye. 

No. ID. 

Is sometimes used to spray dormant trees to de- 
stroy insects and fungi. In late years it has been 
found that the Lime-Sulphur wash is better adapted 
for all winter treatment, and that wash is rapidly 
taking the place of lye. Lye may be used i pound 
to 5 gallons of water on perfectly dormant trees. It 
is very caustic and must be handled with care. 

People should not be deluded by fhe glaring ad- 
vertisements of new patent insecticide manufacturers. 
The old standard sprays are often much more effec- 
tive and cost less. 

FUNGICIDES. 
Standard Formula for Bordeaux Mixture. 

No. II. 
5 pounds fresh, unslaked lime, 



242 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE 



5 pounds bluostone (sulphate of copper), 
50 gallons water. 

The above formula is designated by the symbol 
(5-5-50.) Four pounds bluestone and 5 pounds lime 
would be written thus: (4-6-50,) and other propor- 
tions in the same manner. 

Slake the lime carefully with just enough water to 
reduce it to the consistency of thick cream and dilute 
to 25 gallons ; dissolve the bluestone in 25 gallons of 
water also. Then in a separate barrel mix t'he two 
solutions, first pouring in a bucket of one and then 
a bucket of the other, or better still, pouring them in 
simultaneously. After thoroughly stirring the mix- 
ture and allowiv\g it to stand for a few moments, it 
will be ready to spray. 

When thus prepared Bordeaux is at its best, con- 
sisting of a fine, floculent, pale blue precipitate sus- 
pended in the water. If either or both of the ingre- 
dients should be in concentrated solution when the 
mixing is done, fhe resulting Bordeaux is coarser 
grained, settles much more quickly and is less effec- 
tive as a spray. 

Bordeaux mixture is used against nearly all fungus 
diseases and is also frequently used as a carrier for 
Paris green and other arsenical poisons. It is partic- 
ularly useful in this form by serving a double purpose 
and often avoiding the necessity of spraying once for 
an insect and again for some disease, when both oc- 
cur on the same plant as is often the case. 

Copper Sulphate Solution, 

No. 12. 

Copper Sulphate 3 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

This solution is sometimes used in early spring on 
dormant trees. It must never be used on foliage. 
Not generally in use. 

Liver of Sulphur. 

No. 13. 

Valuable for powdery mildew upon gooseberries. 

grapes, etc., acting as a direct remedy. Especially 

useful after the fruit is set. 

Liver of Sulphur i ounce 

Water 3 gallons 

This mixture is not poisonous, hence can be used 
on fruit whic'h is nearly ready to gather. 



Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate Solution. 

No. 14. 

Copper Carbonate 5 ounces 

Ammonia 3 pints 

Water 50 gallons 

Dissolve copper carbonate in the ammonia and di- 
lute when used to 50 gallons. As the ammonia is 
very volatile, the solution until ready to use must be 
kept in a tightly stoppered bottle or jug. The solu- 
tion is used in place of Bordeaux mixture on nearly 
ripe fruit, as it does not show so as to injure the sell- 
ing property of the fruit. Frequently used for grape 
antbracnose. Sometimes also for brown rot of peach- 
es and plums. This mixture is somewhat liable to 
injure foliage and must therefore be used with care. 

Formalin or Formaldehyde. 
(40 per cent.) 
No. 15. 
For Potato Scab. — 

Formaldehyde (40 per cent.) . . i pint 
Water 25 gallons 

Seed potatoes may be treated before planting with 
the above strength of Formaldehyde solution, recom- 
mended by the Wisconsin Experiment Station.* The 
solution is placed in a barrel or other vessel and the 
potatoes tied up in loose sacks, submerged for 2 
hours. They should afterward be spread out to dry. 

For Oat and Wheat Smut. — For smut submerge the 
wheat or oats, tied in sacks, in the solution for ten 
minutes. Then remove and spread out to dry. Or 
the grain may be piled in heaps on a tight floor, 
sprinkled with the solution and shoveled over to in- 
sure wetting every kernel ; then cover with an oil- 
cloth for two or three hours. Dry the grain after- 
ward. It may be found necessary to treat aeed oats 
three or four days before they are wanted for plant- 
ing, otherwise they may not be t'horoughly dry and 
will cause trouble in the seed drill. This treatment 
will cause the seed to enlarge slightlv, and the ger- 
minating period may be shortened, hence seed grain 
should be treated only a few days previous to plant- 
ing. 

Formaldehyde solution may be used several times 
so that 25 or •?o gallons will treat a number of bush- 
els of either potatoes or oats. 

*Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulle- 
tin 98. 



Protect Your Stored Grain from Insects. 



243 



Corrosive Sublimate. (Mercuric Chloride.) 
No. 16. 
For Potato Scab. — 

Corrosive Sublimate 2 ounces 

Water 15 gallons 

Dissolve the corrosive sublimate in 'hot water in an 

earthen or wooden vessel, and dilute to 15 gallons. 

Mix thoroughly to insure a uniform solution. The 

IJpotatoes should be washed and tied in sacks and sub- 

jJmerged for 2 hours. Remove and spread out to dry. 

I'After this the potatoes may be cut and planted as 

usual. 

Caution. — Corrosive sublimate is a deadly poison 
internally, but the solution may be handled with per- 
fect safety. It acts as a disinfectant for the hands 
and will benefit scratches or sores. 

Carbon Bi-Sulphide. 

No. 17. 

j This is a very useful insecticide for fumigating 
"grain and other seeds to destroy weevils, and other 
(insects. It is also used to fumigate houses to destroy 
rats, cock-roaches, bedbugs, carpet-beetles and many 
household pests. Ants in lawns and moles are often 
Ijkilled by this process. 

Carbon bi-sulphide is a clear, colorless, volatile 
[ijUquid, the fumes of which are 'highly explosive, and 
|very disagreeable to smell. The fumes are deadly 
[Ipoison to all animal life if taken in sufficient quan- 
tity. People are safe while using it, as the smell is 
\%o repulsive that there is no danger of getting too 
rgreat a dose unawares. 

The fumes of carbon bi-sulphide are much heavier 
than air, so that fumigation with it is rendered easy. 
Grain may be treated in boxes or bins having tight 
sides- and bottom by simply placing fhe liquid in 
-hallow pans on top of the grain and covering all 
with a blanket or boards to prevent a circulation of 
air. Use from three-fourths to one and a half pounds 
sf carbon bi-sulphide to each 1,000 cubic feet of space, 
ijor in round numbers, one pound to 100 bushels of 
ain or other seed. Let the bin remain covered for 



pa 



at least 24 hours. Grain or seed treated in this man- 
ner is not impaired for planting purposes, its germin- 
ating power not being affected. For corn, oats, 
beans, peas and the like which will not be used for 
seed it will often pay to use 2 pounds of carbon bi- 
sulphide to eac'h 100 bushels. 

To destroy underground forms of insects use two 
to three ounces of carbon bi-sulphide per square yard, 
placed in little holes in the earth made with a sharp- 
ened stick, and closed by pressing with the heel after 
pouring in the liquid. This liquid must be used with 
care around growing plants, but may be used in small 
quantities on lawns to destroy ants and moles. 

When fumigating houses remove all chance of fire 
and use about three to four pounds of carbon bi-sul- 
phide per 1000 cubic feet. Allow the house to re- 
main closed for 36 hours. 

Caution. — Never expose carbon bi-sulphide in a 
room with a lighted lamp or any form of fire. Re- 
member that the fumes are highly explosive. 

For convenient reference in connection with the fol- 
lowing SPRAY CALENDAR the list of insecticides 
and Fungicides ire given below. The numbers are 
the same as the numbers appearing before the vari- 
ous formulas in the preceding pages. 

No. I Lime-.Sulphur-Salt wash. 

No. 2 Kerosene Emulsion. 

No. 3 Paris Green. 

No. 4. . Paris green Bordeaux mixture. , 

No. 5 Arsenate of Lead. 

No. 6 Hellebore. 

No. 7 Pyrethrum. 

No. 8. Tobacco, (dry and as decoction) 

No. 9 Whale Oil Soap. 

No. 10 Potash Lye. 

No. II Bordeaux Mixture. 

No. 12 Copper Sulphate Solution. 

No. 13 Liver of Sulphur. 

No. 14 Amm. Cop. Carbonate Sol. 

No. 15.... Formalin or Formaldehyde. 

No. 16 Corrosive Sublimpte. 

No. 17 Carbon bi-sulphide. 



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APPEARANCE OF IRRIGATION CA NAL WHEN FIRST COMPLETED. 
(From U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Espt, Stas., Bui. 105) 



Book VI. 
Irrigation and Drainage, 



EDITED BY 

JAMES CLYDE ADAMS, S. B. 

MESENA, GEORGIA. 



256 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Irrigation and Drainage 



Irrigation and drainage are more important in the 
South t'han most people suppose. The watering of 
land is irrigation, and the taking away or withdraw- 
al of the water that is not evaporated is drainage. 
You will readily observe that the two are directly op- 
posite. On acount of the importance of these two 
subjects we will treat them separately. 



IRRIGATION. 

A great many farmers are of the opinion that it is 
not important in the South to irrigate the land. They 
say that the annual rainfall is so much greater than in 
the western arid regions, and that while it is necessa- 
ry to water land there, that it is not necessary to 
water it here, where the rainfall is so bountiful. If 
we oould control the water that falls in the South, 
and have it just at times when we needed it most, 
there would be no necessity for irrigation. But the 
water does not come at t'he time that the crops need 
it most. Drouth ruins many crops, and has caused 
the Southern farmers to lose thousands and thou- 
sands of dollars. It is not contended that irrigation 
will always pay, for such is not the case. There are 
some soils, when certain crops are planted on it, that 
do not need irrigation. Some crops do not require 
as much water as some other crops. And there are 
some lands that hold t'he moisture better than other 
lands, and therefore do not require so much water 
as other lands. You can readily see that when you 
think of irrigation that you think of a great subject. 
There is an effort on the part of some writers on this 
subject to minimize this subject. It is a subject that 
will require thought and attention. It will require 
study to understand it. In agriculture there are no 
cheap methods or crops. If irrigation required no study, 
and no expenditure of money, it would be worthless 
to the farmer. But it requires a good expenditure of 
both money and brain. T;t will h? money and brains 
-well spent, on the subject of irrigation. Irrigation 



we said is watering land, so let us see the imporJ 
tance of water to the production of crops. 

There are some cases on record where crops seer 
to flourish and produce fair yields with very sma!, 
amounts of water, yet these are exceptions, and nc 
the rule, and few of us would be willing to risk a cro 
on a small amount of water, were we able to obtai. 
more water. In the soil are a great many germ 
which re-act upon dead organic matter in the soi| 
converting this dead organic matter into ammoni; 
and then converting this ammonia into nitrous aci( 
and then germs transform this nitrous acid into nitri 
acid, which ib the real nitrogen supply of nearly a 
the higher plants. These germs must have the rigl 
amount of moisture. If the water supply is cut sTior 
these germs do not do their work, and the plant su^ 
fers. And then there are other germs, whose bus 
ness it is to take the nitrogen from the air, an 
transform it into forms that can be used by i! 
plants. These germs must have water, or they wi 
not do their work. There is another very importai 
part played by water, and that is the development i 
root hairs. These root hairs supply the water to tl ' 
plant, and unless they are developed, the plant sii 
fers. Give the plant plenty of water, and root hai 
will be developed, and the plant can receive a plcir 
of water. A very important work of water is 
change the solid minerals that are used as plant t ' 
from a solid insoluble form to a soluble form, so thj i 
the plant can absorb them. This work is quite '' 
portant, for unless the minerals become soluble, i 
are absolutely worthless as a fertilizer. Few peopj i 
realize the amount of water that is used by plan' 
The amount that is required to mature crops of •' 
ferent kinds under various field conditions varies h 
tween wide limits. This amount is dependent upc, , 
the seasons, whether humid or dry; whether t'he tei' 
perature is high or low ; whether the wind velnc' 
are strong or light; also upon the amount of sunshir 
There are many other matters that affect tlie anion 
of water used by plants. Among these is the tre; 
ment of the soil itself. 



The First Cost of Irrigation is Great, But the Results as a Rule Justify It. 



25r 



The annual rainfall for the Southern States accord- 
ing to the United States Weather Bureau is as fol- 
lows: 

Alabama ' 49-50 inches. 

Arkansas 49.20 inches. 

Florida 58-38 inches. 

Georgia 51-45 inches. 

Louisiana 54- 18 inches. 

Mississippi . 50.71 inches. 

N. Carolina 52.00 inches. 

S. Carolina 48.98 inches. 

Tennessee 49.13 inches. 

I Texas 31-94 inches. 

■1 It is contended by some that the rainfall in some 

;Df the Western States is so much less than the South- 

■prn States that it is not neaessary to irrigate 'and. 

While it is true that the rainfall of the Southern 

States is greater than that of the Western States, 

itill it is contended that irrigation will pay here in 

'he South. As stated above, the great trouble is that 

he rain does not come at the time it is most need- 

i:d. When corn begins tasseling, it needs more water 

tj'or- the next few weeks following, than at anv other 

Deriod during its growth. But as a rule this is a dry 

eason. 

If water could be furnished the crop just at tiiis 

ime, many times the crop would be doubled sev- 

;ral times. As an illustration that irrigation does pay 

n the South, in Louisiana, which has the greatest 

rainfall of any Southern State, a farmer had a field of 

jjjome fifty acres which produced 55 bushels of corn 

per acre. He placed a pump in and watered this land, 

knd made no bushels of corn per acre. And yet this 

'Vas situated in a State that receives more rain than 

liny other Southern State. Mr. F. J. Merriam, Editor 

of the Southern Ruralist, of Atlanta, Ga., has had 

jiuite a little experience wit'h irrigation, especially in 

garden truck, and he says : "As I have told you, we 

pad a very nice little pond and our irrigation was 

working beautifully. With its help we had been able 

\o sell $115 worth of cucumbers from 250 hills; also 

'■omething over $350.00 worth of tomatoes from half 

ind acre,- and the land was not very rich either." 

Fhis was in Georgia, which has a very heavy rainfall. 

Jther instances can be given showing that irrigation, 

vlicre done right, does pay right here in the South. It 

jit not contended that irrigation will pay in every case, 

or such is not the case, nor will it pay in a majority 

if cases, for the farms have not been brougtit up to 

18 



that point. A great deal of the land cannot be profi- 
tably irrigated. But there is a great deal of land here 
that should - be irrigated. Celery can be profitably 
grown here in the middle South by the use of irriga- 
tion. In. some parts of the South it is now yielding 
large returns w'here irrigation is practiced. Much of 
the land will and is producing large returns in rice. 
Onions yield good returns where planted and irrigat- 
ed. A great many garden crops, and some field crops, 
will pay to be irrigated in larger yields. In many West_ 
ern States farmers are entirely dependent upon irriga- 
tion. If they can make farming pay, where their wa- 
ter is expensive, it seems that the Southern farmer 
should be able to make irrigation pay where water is 
abundant. 

One great advantage in irrigation is that you have 
your water .at your command. It is true that you 
cannot control the rains and prevent floods, but you 
need never have any fear of drouths. There is more 
loss throughout the South from drouths than there is 
from floods. To have water at your command is a 
great advantage. A great many crops suffer on ac- 
count of the parching Southern winds. The effect of 
these winds can be overcome by irrigation. 

But perhaps nowhere in the South is irrigation so 
important as around our cities. Here land is valu- 
able, and one has to raise as much as possible on the 
land that he cultivates. This is especially true with 
regard to gardening. If the gardener is out in the 
country where land is plentiful and no object he may 
be justified in not irrigating, but the successful truck 
farmer near the city must irrigate his land to obtain 
the best returns. Intensive farming must be practiced, 
and this can only be done when the land is irrigated. 
Hon. H. M- Wilcox, Editor of the Field and Farm, also 
Editor of 'Trrigaton Farming," is one of the best 
authorities on the subject, says: "There is scarcely 
an acre of land under cultivation in Noi-th America, 
that would not produce more and better crops if there 
were at hand an abundant water supply. There are 
seasons now and then in which the rains come just 
right and irrigation mig'ht not be needed even once, 
but they are rare. Usually there are several dry 
spells during each year that cause serious injury to 
crops, and were irrigation possible all harm from this 
source might be prevented. A very little water at 
the right time would make all the difference with the 
crop and turn into success what otherwise would have 
been a partial or total failure. The work already put 



258 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE 



-on the land would be saved as well as seeds and 
plants. Satisfaction and plenty would take the place 
of disappointment and scarcity.", 

RELATION OF SOIL TO IRRIGATION. 

The relation of soil to irrigation must be under- 
stood by the man who expects to irrigate. Accord- 
ing to physical characteristics there are several class- 
es. However, all of these might lie classed as 
clays or sand. Sand is made up of small grains of 
silica or cjuartz. It is not a plant food and cannot be 
used directly by the plants. It does not stick togeth- 
er, but on the other 'hand, acts as a divider in the soil. 
It makes the land easy to work and enables the roots 
of t'he plants to work their way down deep into the 
earth in search of food. Sand absorbs very little 
moisture, and htnce cannot stand a drouth well. It 
retains heat better than any other soil. Clay is a 
compound of silica and aluminum. It is very rare 
that we find it pure, for it generally contains potasli, 
lime, ammonia and other minerals in small quanti- 
ties. The potash, ammonia and other minerals are 
valuable as plant foods, but the clay in itself has no 
value as 3 plant food. Clay absorbs moisture very 
rapidly. It absorb." heat more rapidly than does sand, 
but it does not retain it as well as sand. Clay lands 
are usually ric'h in phosphoric acid, potash, ammonia, 
etc., and hold moisture well, withstands drouth, but 
it is difficult to work. When irrigated in the sum- 
mer it is liable to bake. Loam soils, or gumbo soils 
is the name given to the soils in the South having a 
greasy feeling, and a soapy or waxy appearance. This 
class of soils require less irrigation than most art 
roil. Really the loam soil is a medium between a 
clay and sand. If the sand predominates, it is called 
a sandy loam, and if the clay predominates, it is call- 
ed a clay loam. The peat land and muck are very 
much alike, 'having in them a great deal of decayed 
vegetable matter. The darker the land the better. 
It contains all the elements needed in plants. 

WATER-SUPPLY. 

^ The greatest question to the man who contem- 
plates irrigation is the question of the water-supply. 
Indeed, this is the greatest difficulty in the wav of ir- 
rigation. There is no use of making preparations to 
irrigate the farm or garden until you have arranged 



for your water supply. In many Western farms, the i 
supply of water is in t'he hands of large corporations, ) 
and the farmer has little to do with arranging this \ 
matter. But here in the South each farmer who pro- .■ 
poses to irrigate his land, must solve this orobleni i 
himself. If your land is so situated that you can se- J 
cure your supply of water from a creek, or branch ' 
you are fortunate indeed. It is frequently the case 
that you can go above tl:e land you wish to irrigate 
a short distance and by throwing a small dam across 
the stream and by running a ditch nearly on a level, 
you can have the water at sufficient height by the 
time you reach your land. Mr. F. J. Merriam, of At- 
lanta, gives his (Experience as follows: 

"Sandy Creek runs through the bottom lands of our 
farm, a distance of 1-2 a mile. The bottoms are nar- 
row and lie mostly on the north side of the creek. 
At the upper end the hills on either side come near- 
ly together, and here we decided to build our dam, 
some ten years ago. We first constructed a box 20, 
feet long and i foot square, which we placed on one^ 
side of the creek for the water to run through while 
we built the dam. We then piled in the soil from 
either side, 'hauled in clay with a mule and scraper.: 
and were getting on famously when there came a big. 
shower of rain and washed the whole thing away. 
We had failed to cut a waste ditch and tlie i foot 
box would not carry the water. 

■'Well, we went to work again, and this time we cut 
a waste-ditch at the opposite end from where our ir- 
rigating ditch started. T'he bottom of the waste 
ditch was about i ft. higher than the bottom of out 
irrigating ditch and the top of the dam was aboufjji, 
two feet above this. We put a sliding gate in the up: t 
per end of the box in the creek bed, piled a lot o". i 
mud against it, and very soon had a nice pond. Thii ) 
water was let into the irrigating ditch by means of ;| 1 
I ft. box running t'hrough the dam, and having a gat(j , 
so as to shut it off when not needed. The main irri ; 
gating ditch was cut around the base of the hill al 
most on a level and having every 400 or 500 ya' 
an escape box emptying into a cross-ditch throu:. 
the creek. This is necessary in order to let the " 
ter off whenever it rains, to keep the ditch from ov 
flowing. These boxes are, of course, kept clo-' 
when the ditch is in use. I may remark in passi: 
that this main ditch has been worth all it cost i 
keeping the surface water from the hills off our b^it 
tom lands during heavv rains. There has been abso 



Many Little Branches and Creeks Could be Used to a Good Advantage Irrigating Rice. 



259 



lately no washing from this source except once when 
we neglected to pull out the gates." 

Among other means of irrigation is the steam 
pump, gasoline engines, windmills, artesian wells, 
hydraulic rams and the like. The gasoline engine 
has come to the front in the matter of irrigation in 
the last few years. A three and a half or four horse 
power engine will deliver 60 gallons of water per min- 
ute through a two-inch pipe, or enough water to irri- 
gate an acre of land in three 'hours, or four acres per 
day of twelve hours. This engine should keep forty 
acres well supplied with water, for the land will not 
have to be irrigated more than once in ten days. The 
water is forced by the engine to the highest point in 
the field, and is distributed from there by means of 
small furrows made by a plow for that purpose. In 
using a gasoline engine you will not have to use a 
storage tank. A hydraulic ram where you have a 
large stream, and cannot get the water elevated by 
natural means, will do good work, but it does so at 
a great waste of water. There are creeks that are 
very low, and the water to be available for irrigating 
purposes will have to be raised by some artificial 
means. A hydraulic ram will run with less attention 
than any water lifting machine that we know of. In 
using a ram, you will have to have a storage tank, for 
the ram will work night and day. In many sections 
*rtesian wells can be used to an advantage. The 
well runs on all the time, and to use the water econ- 
omically, will require the use of a storage tank. In 
the Western sections canals are dug to the river, and 
the water used for irrigation secured from the river. 
There are no objections to this plan, except that the 
people of the South are not ready for it. There are 
some cases where a man may wish to canal the river, 
but they are few. If you contemplate using a canal, 
you had better employ an engineer to lay it out for 
you. To do the work yourself is to fail in almost 
every case. Mr. Hal Runnels, of Caldwell, Texas, is 
well posted on t'he question of irrigation here in the 
South, and we cannot perhaps do better than quote 
from him. He says: 

"Irrigation gardening is a subject that is interest- 
ing to many who every year lose money by drouth 
more or less protracted. I have for the past 12 years 
been engaged in irrigating, so will attempt to give a 
few ideals that may benefit some brother farmer or 
gardener. 



"Look after water supply first if you have a place 
where can build a storage reservoir to be filled from 
a spring, and that reservoir is higher than the land to 
be irrigated you can convey the water in gravity 
ditches to the highest point on your land cheaper 
than by any other means. The centrifugal pump run 
by means of a gasoline engine if your lift for the wa- 
ter is not more than 35 or 40 feet is the next best 
method. The amount of water supply will be next 
thing to consider. Cabbage will require more water 
than any other vegetable to force the growth and 
make large compact heads. It is computed that for 
one acre of cabbage, irrigating by allowing the water 
to flow in furrows, it requires 40,000 to 60,000 gallons 
of water for one irrigation. I-Vom this you can ap- 
proximate the amount of water needed for any given 
area. You can test your land by allowing a small 
stream to flow through an open furrow. If this stream 
holds up well and runs a given number of feet, say 
20 to 40, down the furrow and percolation is sufficient 
to carry moisture laterally to the roots of the plants 
growing on either side, your best method of irrigat- 
ing will be by furrows. But if it is absorbed rapidly 
with little lateral pressure you will have to flood. 
This method requires the throwing up of small ridges 
upon the land it will pass over t'he entire surface of 
the soil. The flooding system is used on t'he Rio 
Grande in West Texas, as that soil drinks water like 
a sponge. For flooding more water is required. I 
prefer the furrow system for several reasons, it takes 
less water, it does not leave the soil in which small 
seeds are in a puddled condition to crack or bake, it 
carries the moisture directly to the roots of the grow- 
ing plants, thns preventing scalding, it leaves the 
ground in better condition to cultivate after irrigat- 
ing, which must be done thoroughly to get best re- 
sults from the moisture. 

"A three inch pump (centrifugal) with a five horse 
power engine can put three hundred gallons per min- 
ute with a lift of 25 feet directly upon the land with 
Avhich 10 to 15 acres can be irrigated without a stor- 
age reservoir, with reservoir of 10,000 gallons capac- 
ity much more land can be brought under the ditch, 
as a constant pumping can keep the reservoir full 
when not irrigating. 

"Now we will consider your plant all complete. The 
next thing will be the preparation for pumping the 
water on hand. This will require surveying, first to 
find the highest point from which to run your main 
ditches from which to carry your lateral ditches. A 



2bo 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



surveyor of competent ability will charge you about 
$5.00 per day and it will take him two days to sur- 
vey the levels and make you a map or chart showing 
I'he levels so you can read them and work according- 
ly. My advice is get a Bostrom's Improved Farm 
Level, and do your work yourself. lYou 
can get for $o.UU a level without telescope. 
'1 his level is good for 200 feet. $10.00 with telescope, 
this one is good for 500 feet or more with perfect ac- 
curacy. Prepare you a lot of stakes, have plenty. 
.Set your level at your highest point on your land, and 
let your assistant take the staff and target down the 
line you think is the way you wish the main ditch to 
go, and a boy to carry the stakes. Let him step off 35 
steps which will be near 100 feet, place his staff and 
run up or down the target, as you may direct, to get 
it upon a level with your instrument, drive a stake 
-;;;ul num'ber it i. you setting down the figure on the 
staff proceed to stake 2 in the same way, and so on 
down the entire line, writing down the levels for 
each stake. Come back to the starting point and 
survey the levels from stake i at right angle every 
'hundred feet, numbering your cross sections i-i. 1-2, 
etc., then at stake two cross again and so on until 
you have the levels of your entire field in squares 
of one hundred feet each. By this you know where 
there is a rise to be leveled down or a depression to 
be filled. I prefer to have my ditch to have a fall of 
not more than three inches to 100 feet, and the water 
to flow through furrows not more t'han six inches to 
100 feet, less if possible, i inch to 100 feet is plenty 
for the best results. 

"We have now the levels and can tell just where to 
scrape down and fill in. With turn or disc plow, 
plow the land broadcast, leaving the stakes in posi- 
tion. Then with a plat or map of your land upon 
which you have your levels marked, go over your 
field with your scraper and double team and driver- 

"You get between the handles of the scraper, (a 
IX12 board, 6 or 8 feet long, fastened to a sweep 
stock with lower edge beveled to make it cut into the 
earth.) Scrape down the high place and hold the 
scraper full until you get to depression, then gradual- 
ly raise scraper, dropping the dirt evenly. Keep this 
up 'till your land is on even or perfectly inclined plain 
and graded to suit. Now that this is all complete and 
you know which way you wish your main and later- 
al ditches to flow and your rows to run, we consider 
the water supply and how to run to make your ditc'h- 
es. The highest point is the one at which the water. 



is delivered, that is the head. Many try building their 
ditches above ground. This method is a failure in 
many cases, and it never gives satisfactory results. 
Mice, toads, crawfish and bugs burrow or make 'holes 
in the banks, and some soils crack when dryng, hence 
when waler is turned into the. ditches after 8 or 10 
days' disuse, it will keep one man busy fixing up the 
breaks. Wooden flumes are too expensive. 

"My plan is to stake off the ditch, then with turn 
plow I throw two furrows in opposite directions 3 
feet apart full length of ditch. Then turn and break 
out center, then with hoes pull out the dirt, 'half on one 
side and half on t'he other, forming a well-round- 
ed wall on either side. This ditch with a fall of 3 
inches to 100 feet, will carry 1,000 gallons of water per 
minute. With less fall less amount. It requires work 
to keep up the walls of the ditch, so I never allow a 
horse or wagon to pass over the main ditch except 
where it is fixed for the purpose. 1 have a turn road 
along the main and opposite side of which I have a 
small ditch made by two furrows of turn plow of a 
sixteen inch sweep run along the ends of the rows. 
Along this main every twenty or thirty feet I put 
a gate made of board with dirt placed around the ed;^- 
es to keep back the water. Running across tlie turn 
road is a small ditch or bo.x of 1x6 plank covered u;) 
in the trench which extends from main to the small 
ditch. The rows in the field run right up to the small 
ditch and the furrows at the lower end open into a 
small or waste ditch to carry off any surplus water. 

"We want now to turn on the water to-morrow. 
So to-day we take a hoe and long pointed shovel and 
go to work to get ready. Scoop all the loose dirt out 
of the mouth of each furrow the full length of the small 
ditch, put this in a pile just opposite mouth of furrow. 
Be sure and have plenty in a pile if you 'have to get 
two or three shovels full extra dirt. You have, as be- 
fore stated, openings from the main to small ditches 
either branches dug out or boxes. Between each of 
these put a dam across little ditch, full length of 
ditch. In main ditch if it has not more than three 
inches fall, place a dam. I use 1x12 boards with endS 
sawed off on a bevel to suit the sides of my ditch. I 
drive a stake in center of ditch to support the weight 
of water. Place board in front of stake. Then with 
my shovel I dig dirt from bottom of ditch and throw 
in front of hoard, pack it with shovel. This holds wa- 
ter well. Place these dams all along main at about 
100 feet apart, and open all the gates that allow wa- 
ter to pass into small ditch. 



Crops Have Been Doubled by Irrigation. 



261 



"Vv'e are now ready for water and recollect that it is 
absolutely necessary to a successful handling of the 
water to thus prepare alicatl. If you are not, your 
water will get the best of you, if you have only a small 
amount, and you will find yourself having to wade 
around in the mud, greatly to the detriment of your 
land, to say not'hing of the annoyan^ e and extra exer- 
tion you have to put forth to gain control of the 
water again. 

"With land and ditches fixed as 1 have described, 
I can, with less exertion handle and keep control of 
2,500 gallons of water per minute, than a green hand, > 
not properly fixed before hand, can handle 250 gallons 
per minute. 1 can use 2,500 gallons of water per 
minute and never get my feet wet, and sit down and 
read Tilling the Soil, too. 

"We will now go to the head and turn the water 
down our main. It's on. . . .now let's go down to the 
first dam and watch it, as the water strikes. If any 
little stream or seep goes beneath the board, we will 
have to put a few shovels full of dust if we can get it 
to stop the leak, else in a short while the whole dam 
will be washed away. Well, it holds. Now let us 
step along to the gates and see if the walls of our 
main are standing the strain, for this bemg the first 
time, they may get soft and slough into the ditch or 
the water may break through them. Watch them 
closely. The water is flowing rjicely throug'h each 
furrow except for a clod or a little trash ; we get ahead 
of the water with a hoe and remove the obstruction. 
Wt turned on a small amount of water this time to 
test our ditch and to get a little use to handling the 
water so that we needed only two of our gates open 
from main ditch. These two ditches water about 12 
to 14 furrows. These are about through, some of them 
run through before the others. These are always 
to be filled at the mouth with t'he loose dirt that was 
piled up in turn road opposite mouth of furrow, thus 
cutting off its supply of water and accelerating the 
other. As soon as the first 6 or 7 rows of ist gate are 
through, close the gate and open the third, and soon. 
When all is about watered above the first dam in 
the main, just pull up the board and t'he water will go 
through the dirt and take it down and fill any holes 
with. Keep this up until the whole is watered. 

"Keep open enough rows to let your water run 
slowly in furrows, so there will be no washing, and 
moisture has had time to reach from side to side of 
bed.'' 



IRRIGATING THE ORCHARD. 

"In this article, which will be short, we will give 
some directions for preparing to irrigate the orchard. 
My experience teaches me that an orchard irrigated 
gives fruit far superior to one that is not so treated, 
anl by the proper use of water one can have a full 
crop of fruit every year without fail. 

"You frequently hear men say they do not know 
why it is that trees bear heavily one year and very lit- 
tle the ne.xt, and that they cannot count on a full 
crop each year. 

"My theory is this : After a tree has borne a heavy 
crop, the hot, dry weather of summer is upon them, 
evaporation is great and the proper plant food is non- 
available for the tree, hence its growth is stopped and 
exhausted. Nature compels the tree to sleep or be- 
come dormant, and the formation of fruit buds is 
stopped to some extent, and those which are formed 
are imperfect and fail to fertilize properly in spring, 
hence a failure of the crop. And so it takes a whole 
year for trees to recuperate. 

"With irrigation this is changed, for when the fruit 
is taken from the trees, give a liberal supply of water, 
get your subsoil thoroughly wet and the trees will 
'leap for joy,' and put on a big growth of new wood, 
form fruit buds that are perfect in construction, and 
last, but not least, by this method of keeping them 
growing late in the fall — right up to frost — you can 
set back the time of spring blossoming from two to 
three weeks, thus obviating and lessening the danger 
of late frosts. 

"While t'he young fruit is in the growing stage, 
push it along by copious draughts of water and culti- 
vate after irrigating, not deep, to put a dust mulch up- 
on every part of the ground where the sun strikes it. 
Two or three weeks before the fruit begins ripening, 
be wonderfully surprised at results, in both beauty 
of appearance and flavor. 

"Last year I had at San Marcos, Tex., Elbertas and 
Mamie Ross, irrigated that were exquisite and deli- 
cious, while just 500 feet distant the same varieties 
not irrigated could no more be compared than a dol- 
lar to a dime. They were being forced vastly earlier, 
liaving sold the Elbertas before June ist. So you see 
the advantage as an early market catcher. 

"Now take the plan t'hat I have in the or 
chard. There are dikes on the level or 

comparatively level land. These dikes surround as 



262 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE 



much as a quarter of an acre, on less level land throw 
them up around one or two rows of trees. Notice that 
the dikes run up to the ditch from which the wa- 
ter may be turned into the space between dikes. I 
let the water run in until it will stand about si.x inch- 
es deep at the first irrigation in spring, while trees are 
in bloom. Unless, of course, there has been a very 
wet winter, and lighter applications later will suffice. 
This will apply to grapes and berries as well as fruit 
trees. I am thoroughly convinced that the bearing 
time of nut trees could be cut down one or two years 
by irrigation. Thus if it takes ten years to bring a 
young grove into bearing under ordinary circum- 
stances, by irrigation. eip:ht would suffice." 

IRRIGATION OF CELERY. 

Celery requires more water than any other crop we 
know of. The irrigation of celery at the New Jersey 
E.xperiment station more than doubled the yield, and 
increased its market value more than eight times. As 
soon as the plants are transplanted into their perma- 
nent bed, water should be allowed to run down the 
rows, and give the plants a good soaking. If the 
weather is very dry the plants s'hould be irrigated at 
least once a week. Many growers water the plants 
as often as three times a week. Some growers use 
tiling to irrigate their celery, placing a row of tiling 
under t'he ground beneath the surface. These rows are 
placed about twelve feet apart. The tiling is sup- 
plied by a long ditch, the ditch being filled by a 
pump. The water comes out at the joints of the til- 
ing and waters t'he celery. 

IRRIGATION OF ONIONS. 

The successful onion grower irrigates bis onions. 
There are two ways of irrigating onions, — by flooding 
and by furrows. There are some growers who object 
to flooding, while there are other growers who claim 
that flooding has no disadvantages. The ground 
should be laid off in beds ten, fifteen or twenty feet 
in width and ten rods in length. The beds should be 
level, especially should they be level lengthwise. If 
there is any fall, let it be from one side to the other 
and not from end to end. Water can be turned on un- 
til it stands an inch deep all over the bed. Inimedi- 
atelv after irrigating, that is, as soon as the soil be- 
comes dry enough, it should be gone over with the 
wheel hoe to keep it from baking. If the soil is well 



supplied with moisture wben the seed are planted, it 
may not be necessary to irrigate for a month after the 
plants are up. We cannot lay down a definite rule as 
to when the water should be applied in each case. 
The first application in the spring should be light. 

For furrow irrigation, the rows should be on a level 
an about fourteen inches a])art. Run a Planter Junior 
cultivator betwen each row, which will leave the 
ground in excellent shape for the water. Through 
each one of these furrows run a very small stream of 
water, not enough to overflow the banks, but just 
enough to keep running. One great advantage in us- 
ing the furrow system over flooding in the South, is 
that a great deal of the land is not level enough to 
flood, while the rows can be run on a level even if the 
land is rolling. Onions should not be irrigated more ■ 
than once a week, and not that often if you have had. 
any rain. Too much water causes a yield of scullions, ' 
and the onions will pro\e poor keepers. 

IRRIGATION OF RICE. 

This subject is treated under the head of Crowing 
Rice in another part of this book. 

The following, taken from the address of F. J. Mer- 
riam, of Atlanta, Ca., which address was delivered 
before the Farmers' Institute, at Clemson Col!c~e. 
August I2th, 1903, while a repetition in some matters 
will not be irrelevant at this juncture: | 

METHODS OF APPLICATION. 

"There are as many different methods of applying 
as there are of supplying water for irrigating pur- 
poses. Of these, flooding is probably the most ef- 
fectual ; but unless one's land lies comparatively level 
this method is out of the question. Moreover, lands ?a ij 
treated must be thoroughly underdrained, else it will I 
become too wet, and damage result. It also requires 
an enormous quantity of water at one time, such as 
it would be difficult to obtain without a very large 
outlay, unless one happened to be exceptionally situ- 
ated. 

"Irrigation in the South is very different from that 
in the West, where there is little or no rainfall dur- 
ing the summer months. Here a severe drouth is 
likely to be broken at any time by a heavy downpour 
of rain, and if this follows immediately after irriga- 
tion, the land is liable to become puddled and run to- 



Celery Is a Paying Crop, if Irrigate'. 



together. This not only injures its physical condition, 
but often results in permanent injury to the crop as 
well. I remember once I fiad just finished irrigating 
a field of cabbage and was congratulating myself up- 
on 'having done an extra good job. The ground was 
so wet you could not walk on it without miring up. 
Well, that night it rained 'hard, and rained a portion 
of the next day. The land remained saturated with 
water for several days and the cabbage simply wilt- 
ed down and died. At least the majority of them 
died, and the patch was practically ruined. The land 
was what would he called naturally well drained, but 
that was not suflicient. It needed artificial drains as 
well to carry off the surplus water. We have put sev- 
eral ditches through there since and have had no more 
Itrouble, but we have also been more careful in ap- 
plying the water. 

When irrigating we run a furrow across the up- 
jlper end of our rows into which the water is turned 
Ifrom the main irrigating ditch. From this furrow it 
'lis allowed to run down between the rows of growing 
Ivegetables. Where the rows are very close we turn 
ijthe water down Ijetween every other row ; where 
jwider, between every row. If the rows are very 
jjwide we run a furrow alongside the vegetables for 
ithe water to flow in, our rows being laid off so the 
jjwater will flow through slowly without washing. 
,j "We have injured clay land by running the water 
■lover the surface and keeping it there too long at a 
(time, causing the land to puddle and run together. 
f|To obviate this, we have found it best to open a deep 
jifurrow for the water to run in, and even running a 
pmall subsoil plow t'hrough before the water is turn- 
ip in. Such deep working might injure a crop if the 
jfurrows were allowed to dry out, but where water is 
['turned in immediately it is beneficial. The water 
being let into the subsoil acts in a measure like sub- 
irrigation, the moisture rising to the plant from be- 
low. Enough water is turned into these furrows to 
'•nn through to the end, thoroughly wetting the soil 
vvithout puddling, and is then turned into a fresh row. 
I have found this to be the most practicable method 
3f applying water to my land. 

"Undoubtedly better results can be obtained from 
1 system of sub-irrigation than by any of the ineth- 
■"ds of applying water on the surface. As usually 
practiced, this method consists in laying lines of tile 
■ibout a foot below the surface, directly under where 
;'he row of vegetables is to grow, and keeping them 
filled with water during dry weather. This, how- 



ever, is very expensive and only practicable for per- 
sons of abimdaiu means and on a l.r.i.teJ scale. 

"A friend of mine who has a piece of ve.y rich bot- 
tom land tried a system of sub-irrigation by means of 
open ditches. His land was a loose alluvial loam un- 
derlaid with pipe clay. He dug narrow ditches 
through his field 2 feet deep and 30 feet apart. These 
ditches were run on a level and he filled them with 
water and succeeded in raising the water table of liis 
land to correspond wiUi the water in his ditches,, as 
it percolated through from ditch to ditch. He grew 
some very fine celery on this system of irrigation. 
Duong wet weather the water was turned off, and 
the ditches served as drains. Any system of irriga- 
tion or drainage by open ditches, however, is open 
to serious objection, not only because of the loss of 
land occupied by the ditches, but because it is an 
endless job to keep them cleaned out and control the 
weeds and grass tliat accumulate on their banks. 

"Tlie market gardener who must bring his vegeta- 
bles on at a certain time in order to meet the de- 
mands of his customers, finds it necessary to plant at 
a certain time, wlietber the weather is hot or dry.. 
For him, irrigation is often necessary in order to 
bring up 'his seed. I have had considerable experi- 
ence along this line and find that the best plan is to 
apply the water to the land before the seed are sown. 
If you wait until afterward your stand will be very 
irregular. We prepare our land, lay off our rows, 
run the water through them, let it settle, then plant 
our seed. It is sometimes necessary to cover with a 
hoe, but we get a stand every time." 

DRAINAGE. 

Thousands of acres of land lie idle every year, not 
producing enough to pay the taxes on it, simply be- 
cause it is not drained. While water is important, 
yet there is such a thing as overdoing the matter: " 
A great many of the river bottoms are the most fer- 
tile, yet on account of lack of drainage are unproduc- 
tive. These lands would need practically no fertiliz- 
er, and would make a great deal more than the hills. 
The great question with many of our farmers, is how 
to drain these lands. And it may not be out of the 
way to digress enough to say, that there is no sub- 
ject upon which the farmers know so little as the 
drainage of land. The U. S. Agricultural Depart- 
ment has taken this matter up, and has done a great 
deal to enlighten the farmers on the subject of drain- 



264 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



ing land. But its mission has not been completed, 
for many are ignorant on the subject yet. There is 
a great deal of land t'hat needs draining. For in- 
stance, the hill sections of the Southern States are 
literally washed away because they are cither improp- 
erly or insufficiently drained. We shall not attempt 
in a brief treatise of this kind, to Jjive the necessity 
for drainage. Most every one realizes that land 
should be drained, and that if it is not properly drain- 
ed, that good crops cannot be produced. There are 
uvo classes of land that should be drained; the low 
IjoUonis that are constantly too wet for cultivation, 
and the hillsides that must be drained in order to 
prevent them from washing away. We will treat each 
separately. 

The Bostrom-Brady Co., of Atlanta, Ga., issued a 
treatise on Drainage from which we take the fol- 
lowing: 

'"TLe little drainage practiced in the South is so 
iuefnciently done that but slight opportunity is af- 
forded to illustrate the benefit and profit accruing 
f:-r.n the proper execution of the work. Many acres 
•xf land that could be drained with but little cost are 
r.uw allowed to lie idle, t'he owners preferring to cul- 
tivate the less fertile upland. Many of these wet 
lands will pay the cost of drainage the first or second 
year and give double the yield per acre that is being 
gathered from areas believed not to be in need of 
■drainage. 

"Tlif benefits of drainage were very forcibly illus- 
trated during the present year on the Southern 
Branch Station, Arkansas. There were gathered from 
one and one-fifth acres 39 bushels of corn. The land 
liad never before been in cultivation and a portion of 
it rc:;iaincd under water during the entire summer. 
1 lie whole area was boggy and covered with a growth 
of such plants as are commonly found growing in and 
around marshes. About 10 cords of willow, sweet 
gum, and blackgum were taken off and the coarse 
trash either removed or burned. A small, open ditch 
was first dug to drain the surface water. A main and 
two lateral ditches were staked off, the total length 
•of which was 135 yards. These ditches, where stumps 
and roots did not interfere, were opened to a depth 
■of from 12 to 18 inches with a large turning plow and 
further deepened to 30 or 36 inches with shovel, giv- 
ing a fall of about 5 inches to every 100 feet. Into 
these ditches were placed inverted V shaped troughs, 
made of cypress plank, 6 inches wide, i inch thick 
and 16 feet long. The ditches were then filled part- 



ly with shovel and partly with turning plow. The 
total cost of the ditch, including digging, plank, nails 
and filling, did not exceed $10. Not one-tenth of the 
land thus drained (i 1-5 acres) could have been cul- 
tivated at all without drainage, but underdrained it 
produced 39 bushels of corn the first year without 
fertilizer, while upland not 200 yards distant failed to 
yield 10 bushels fertilized with 200 lbs. of cotton-seed 
meal and given twice fhe amount of cultivation. No 
water now remains on any portion of the drained area 
referred to more than an hour or two after the heavi- 
est rain. In fact, it is the drycst ground on the Sta- 
tion propertv after a heavy rain and the most moist 
during drouth. 

Indications cf the Need cf Drainage. 

"The roots of all cultivated plants extend down to 
a depth of 3 or 4 feet and under favorable circum- 
stances deeper. The roots will not, however, grow 
in water. If the soil remains saturated to within 12 
inc'hes of the surface the roots will not penetrate to. 
a depth greater than 12 inches. The roots of ciilti^ 
vated plants must be in air as well as the tops. Un-, 
less excluded by water, air will penetrate the earth to 
a depth greater than that attained by ther roots of any 
cultivated plant. That cultivated plants may be prof- 
itably grown the water should not remain for any 
length of time nearer the surface than 3 feet. The 
depth of a water table (or the height to which water 
stands in the soil) can be determined in several ways! 
and when found to remain nearer the surface than ^ 
feet the soil will be greatly benefited by drainage. 

"Among the indications of the need of drainagtj, 
are: 

( a) Swamps. 

(b) Certain plants that grow on wet ground. 

(c) Wide cracks on surface in dry weather. 

(d) Water in pits or standing on surface. 

(e) Soil remaining wet long after rain. 

(f) Stagnant water within three feet of surface.. 

The presence of any one of these indications is sufj 
ficient evidence of a decided need of drainage, am! 
as a rule it would be profitable to drain land with t - 
evidence of the presence of even one of these inih 
tions. It has been written "that all lands which ar 
worth plowing, which is not the case with all h- 
that are plowed, would be improved by draina::' 
But it does not necessarily follow that all lands wort 



You Cannot Learn All About Irrigation In a Day. 



265 



plowing may be profitably drained. It is a fact, how- 
ever, that thousands of acres of cultivated lands 
would, if properly drained, give double their present 
yield, and thousands more not cultivated, on account 
i of their being too wet, would, if drained, yield dou- 
ble or treble as much as the average acre now in cul- 
tivation." 

The draining of bottoms is a very important sub- 
ject throughout the South. A great deal of land is 
not in cultivation on account of the great amount of 
water. There are several methods of draining bot- 
toms. The one that has been practiced more than 
any other throughout the South to drain bottoms is 
by means of open ditches. This, method of draining 
I has a great many objections, and should not be prac- 
1 ticed. The imderground drain is really the only suc- 
cessful met'hod of draining wet lands. You have 
several advantages in using the underground drains 
over the open ditch. One great objection to the use 
of the open ditch is that you lose the use of the land 
■ that is occupied by the ditch, and this is a large con- 
•sideration, for it will require a great deal of land used 
)| as ditches to properly drain land. The underground 
'drains more successful than the open ditch. 
j, The writer is acquainted witli a farm in Jack- 
-!| son County, Georgia, that had been attempted to be 
B drained by open ditches. The farm is just between 
iia river and a creek. The effort to drain with open 
I ditches proved a failure. Another party bought the 
llfarm and placed underground drains made of tiling 
ijin and since that time has had the bottoms in culti- 
vation, making good crops each year. Before this 
land was drained with the underground drains, it did 
not produce anything at all. And taking it for grant- 
ed that you desire to use underground drains, which 
you should do by all means, several questions come 
ijup for solution. 

DEPTH OF DRAINS. 

Drains should not, as a rule, be placed lower .than 
ifour feet, for ordinary farm crops. The level of the 
I] ground water changes with the seasons. In some 
cases land that must be drained only to allow the 
jland to be cultivated in the early spring, and it is 
j|only desired to draw the water down enoug'h to al- 
low cultivation in the early spring. In such cases, 
the tiles can be placed 2 1-2 or 3 feet deep. If you 
Iplace the tiles deeper than this, the water bed will 
jbe permanently lowered, and the crop caused to suf- 



fer in the summer for water. And the nature of the 
soil effects the depth the drains should be placed. 
Fields that are underlaid by sandy subsoils, for the 
water bed should be as near the surface as possible'. 
Water is raised to the surface of the ground by what 
is known as capillary action, i. e., the water comes up 
through the small holes that are between the grains 
of soil, and the distance that it can be raised in sandy 
soils is not so great as in other soils, hence drains 
for sandy land s'hould not be placed as deep as in clay 
lands. 

DISTANCE BETWEEN DRAINS. 

The distance between the drains is also an impor- 
tant consideration. According to F. H. King, author 
of Irrigation and Drainage, three factors determine 
the proper distance between underdrains: (i) the 
freedom with whic'h water may flow through the 
subsoil toward the drains, (2) the depth at whic'h the 
drains are placed, and (3) the intervals of time be- 
tween rainfalls sufficiently heavy to produce consid- 
erable percolation. The character of the subsoil de- 
termines the rate at which the water moves towards 
the drains. There are several other matters that ef- 
fect the rate with which the water flows towards 
and into the drains. It is the practice to place drains 
anywhere from 30 to 100 and sometimes as much as 
200 feet apart. The most successful tile drains laid 
in Georgia are those on the farms of Dr. L. G. Hard- 
man. Dr. Hardman places his drains anyw'here from 
50 to 150 feet apart, and claims to have received great 
benefit from them. 

KIND OF DRAINS. 

As to the material with which drains should be 
made, opinions vary. There are several different 
materials. Small pine poles were once used, placing 
one pole upon two others. Some split • large pine 
poles, and L^y them in the bottom of the ditch side 
by side with their faces upwards. And t'hen some 
have nailed two hoards together V-shaped and placed 
in the bottom of the ditch. 

Stones have been used in various ways for the pur- 
pose of draining. Sometimes the bottom of the ditch 
is covered with small stones, and these covered w'th 
dirt. Then two flat stones placed on edge to form 
a V opening downward is a plan that has been used 



266 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



a great deal. Another plan is to place two flat stones 
on edge, and one on top of these two, forming a 
rectangular box, using the dirt for one side, has been 
used. This is the most successful plan of 
using stones, and where the stones can be secured 
at a reasonable price, this kind of drainage is per- 
haps to be preferred above all others. 

Boxes made of boards about seven inches square 
make an excellent drain as long as they last. Since 
the box at times becomes dry it is subject to decay, 
antl is not as lasting as some other materials. There 
is another very serious objection to boards, and that 
is when you wish to make any repairs, or should the 
drain become filled, you will have to take up a much 
longer section than when tiling or stones are used. 
As a rule when plank boxes are used, they are made 
twelve, fourteen or sixteen feet long. Tiles are, as a 
rule, eighteen inc'hes long, and it is not necessary to 
dig up JO much should repairs be necessary. 

There is no better drain made than tiling. It costs 
more to put in a tile dram that it does any other ma- 
terial, but it is far- more satisfactory. It costs more 
to put them in, but they never decay, and on a whole 
give much more satisfactory results. There are a 
great many erroneous impressions concerning tile 
draining. Some people believe that a considerable 
^pacp should be left between the ends of the tiles so 
that the water can enter. But this is not true 
The tiles should be placed as close together as pos- 
sible. The water will enter through the joints, and 
through the pores of the tiles in sufficient quantities, 
.•ind it is therefore unnecessary to make any provis- 
ion for the entrance of water. Collars should not be 
used at the joints to prevent the trash from entering, 
for if you will place the tiles as close as you can get 
them, you should experience no trouble in keeping 
trash from entering. The collars will retard the en- 
trance of the water. 

There are several shapes of tile on the market, but 
you will find that the round tile is better than any 
other s'hape. There is Ic^s friction, and less danger 
of moss growing in the drains if they are round, than 
vifhen they are square or octagon in shape. 

THE FALL FOR DRAINS. 

The matter of laying the drains with the correct 
amout of fall is the most important part of tile 



laying. Indeed, this matter is of so much importance 
that you had better get some one with instruments 
lo do the work for you, for you will make a misera- 
ble failure, nine cases out of ten, if you depend on 
guess work. While it is true that it will cost some- 
thing to secure the services of a competent man, yet 
if you have it done as it should be, you are through 
with it, but on the other hand, if it is not properly- 
done, you will be worried about it as long as you 
live. Really when you consider that you are placing' 
tile drains in for life, and that you want to be trou- 
bled with them just as little as possible, you can read- 
ily see the importance of doing the work as it should 
be. Reference has been made once or twice to the 
drainage done by iJr. L- G. Hardman. w'ho sent to 
a tile factory for a man to come to his farm and place 
the drains in. The man came without levels or in- 
struments of any kind. It was seen at once that the 
method of guessing would not do, so Dr. Hardman 
sent to Iowa for a man that knew how to lay drains. 
It was expensive, but a man was secured that knew 
his business, and the drains that were laid in 1898 
are giving perfect satisfaction now, while the drains 
that were laid by guess have had to be taken up and 
repaired. If you can secure a fall of 2 inches to ev- 
ery 100 feet of drains, the results should be favora- 
ble. In many cases, however, much less fall than this 
has to be accepted. If you have to use less fall than 
two inches it should only be after careful surveying 
of the ground, and after you are satisfied that you 
cannot possibly get more fall. Care should be ob- 
served to have the most uniform fall for the whole 
drain, or any lateral possible, and then the tiles should 
be laid true to grade after the grade has been secur- 
ed. It may not always be possible to maintain a uni- 
form grade throug'hout the ent-re main or lateral, and 
when such is the case, that is, when you have to 
change the grade, it should be changed from a less 
fall to a greater one, for then any sediment which 
should be carried in the upper part of the drain will 
also be carried in the lower part of the drain, but if 
the fall is reversed this does not always follow. 

Shouhl it be necessary to change from a greater 
fall to a less fall, a silt basin should be used. It is 
best to make silt basins of brick or stone, and they 
may be two or three feet square, or larger, and should 
be a foot deeper at least than the lowest drain. AH 
sediment that comes from the drains will fall in this, 
and can be removed at any time. Silt basins should 
be covered to prevent accidents. 



Cabbage Will Pay Well when Irrigated. 



267 



SIZE OF TILES TO USE. 

It may be laid down as a safe rule that tiling small- 
er than two inches in diameter should not be used. 
The larger the tiles are the better. Mr. C. G. Elliott, 
one of the best posted men in the United States on 
drainage, says: "For drains not more than 500 feet 
long, a 2-inch tile will drain two acres. Lines more 
than 500 feet long, should not be laid of 2-inch tiles. 
A 3-inch tile will drain five acres, and not be of great- 
er length than 1,000 feet. A 4-inch tile will drain 12 
acres : a 5-inch 20 acres ; a 6-inc'h 40 acres, and a 7- 
inth tile 60 acres." 



TERRACING. 

The question of how best to construct terraces is 
] an important one 'here in the South. Many farmers, on 
1 rolling land get along without any terraces at all, and 
their land does not wash away either. But there are 
few farmers that can get along without terraces. A 
'farm in middle Georgia was very badly washed. .'\n 
enterprising farmer came into possession of it, and be- 
gan by deep cultivation. He broke the land deep and 
plowed on a level. That same farm to-day has not a 
single wash in it, and neither has it a terrace in it. 
•jMost farmers do not break t'heir land deep enough 
iifor anything like this, nor do they plow on a level. 
'jThey will have to continue the old method of build- 
"ing terraces. 

HI "The theory of terraces, wh'c'h has been sustained 
'iby experience, is that it prevents the water which 
falls on the land from collecting in rivulets 'having 
force enough to do mischief, and causes it to remain 
longer on the soil, as the terrace spaces become gradu- 
ally leveled by sucessive plowings ; and compels that 
which does not flow off to spread in sheets as from the 
eaves of a'house roof, instead of in collected quantities 
las from the valleys of the roof. The water that does 
|not soak into tlie earth is carried from the field spread 
(uniformly over its surface and with a checked velocity, 
jtthus decreasing its washing effect geometrically as its 
[Velocity is retarded and geometrically again as it is 
uniformly spread. Some give a slight fall to the ter- 
race line and others throw up a bank with a ditch 
above. Both are objectionable and totally inconsis- 
tent with the fundame-.tal idea of the terrace. The 
bank proves terribly destructive and has caused much 
jjprejiidice against terracing. T'he mischief done bv 



the breaking of t'he bank and turning loose the pond 
which has collected above. Such a so-called terrace 
is nothing more or less than a hillside ditch improp- 
erly constructed. 

To Lay off a Terrace. 

"A starting point is selected either above or below 
any comparatively level part of the hillside so as to 
cut such level as little as possible. If there is no such 
level to be protected it matters little where the start- 
ing point is taken. Absolutely level lines are laid off 
around the hill and staked, placing the stakes nearer 
if the curve is sharp to preserve the level when plow- 
ing. If t'he slope is uniform and the curvature slight 
the stakes may not be so near each other. If there 
are old gullies or other decided local depressions or 
elevations to be crossed by the terrace, let stakes be 
placed near the edge on each side to avoid sudden 
bends in the line. These gullies and other sharp lo- 
cal depressions must be filled and the terrace line 
where it crosses them be strongly fortified before 
plowing commences. This is greatly facilitated by 
plowing up one side and down the ot'her with turn- 
ing plow throwing the furrows into the ditch. Af- 
ter plowing and replowing several times in this man- 
ner the gullies can be greatly leveled, even when 
originally 3 or 4 feet deep. The terrace lines, which 
are designated by the rows of stakes, are at no time 
to be broken, but soil not less than the width of the 
plow slice must be left with the stakes. In plowing 
the spaces between the terrace lines begin one fur- 
row width above the lower line, throwing the plow 
slice upon the unbroken space. Continue returning 
upon the furrows, throwing each plow slice dpwn 
hill with hillside or reversible plow until the next 
terrace line above is reached, leaving the last furrow 
below t'he next terrace line open. Unless the two 
adjacent terrace lines are parallel, which is rarely the 
case, there will be short furrows to break below the 
terrace line. Before plowing these short furrows it 
is well to plow the first furrow above the next ter- 
race line that it may be used as a guide in plowing 
out the short furrows and that the terrace line may 
not accidently be broken. This is only necessary 
when t'he terrace is being plowed the first time. If 
there is unterraced land above from which the water 
will flow upon the land being terraced, its flow must 
be arrested by a ditch so laid off and constructed as 
to collect and carry this water around the terrace. 



268 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



otherwise gullies may be cut across the terraces by 
the first washing rain. 

"The fall between two terrace lines, or the vertical 
elevation of one terrace line above the line below, 
should be three feet, and this fall will be accurately 
preserved when the terraces are laid off on a perfect 
level, as should invariably be the case. 

"After the terraces are once correctly formed and 
grass grows upon them, they are of no further trou- 
ble, but take care of themselves. If the terraces are 
made in fall or winter, it will be of very great ad- 
vantage to sow terrace line thick with rye, or with 
oats if they are made in the early spring. . This cov- 
ering of vegetation will be valuable for 'holding the 
terrace lines until they become covered with the na- 
tive grasses and weeds which appear later and serve 
the same purpose. German clover may be substitut- 
ed for rye if planted in late summer or early fall. In 
sowing the seed, whether rye, barley, oats, or clover, 
it is a good plan to first sow thickly on the unbrokea 
terrace line. This sowing will be covered by the fitst 
cover with the second furrow. Alfalfa and meliotus 
will answer the above purpose where these plants 
thrive without much attention and on strong soil 
would afford protection both summer and winter. 

"Terrace lines serve as a valuable guide in laying 
off rows for planting. These lines will not be equi- 
distant throughout their lengths and there must be 
short rows in the terraces. Lay off the rows alter- 
nately from fhe upper and lower margins until they 
meet at t'he narrowest part and then finish the space 
with short rows, laying them off alternately as be- 
fore. Rows thus laid off are themselves miniature 
terraces and materially aid the regular ones in per- 
forming their function. The objections to terraces 
are the greater difficulty in the use of improved ma- 
chinery, in hauling and the increased number of short 
rows, all of which is insignificent when compared 
wifh their benefits. 

"In portions of Georgia and Alabama where the 
proper svstem of terracing is largely practiced, im- 
mense areas that once were considered 'worn out' 
and incapable of profitable yield, now produce crops 
as large as were gathered when the same areas were 
'new ground,' and in many instances where a judi- 
cious system of crop rotation and proper culture are 
practiced, the yield is greater than ever before. 

"To avoid trouble and disaster to those who may 
construct terraces or hillside ditches, this cautionary 
statement is m^ide — that the work must be properly 



and thoroug'hly done. This statement applies to all ' 
kinds of farm drainage. 

"Mr. J. S. Newman, vice-director and agriculturist, ' 
South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, ' 
says: 

"It has been estimated that eighty per cent, of the 
injury to the cultivated soils of the cotton States as 
the effect of tillage, is attributable to surface wash- 
ing." 

"Clean culture and hillside ditches are responsible 
for the present wasted condition of the soils of the 
cotton States. Clean culture, by leaving the land ex- 
posed to washing and leac'hing duri,ng the fall and 
winter months, has impoverished not only the hill 
sections, but the sandy, level lands as well. In North- 
ern latitudes, where the surface soil freezes in the 
fall and remain frozen for from three to five months 
all decomposition is arrested, and no waste from 
leaching can take place. In our climate decomposi- 
tion continues, with slight interruption, through the 
winter. The meager supply of vegetable matter left 
upon the soil, decomposes during the winter, and the 
plant food which results (there being no covering of; 
vegetation on the surface and no feeding roots in the 
soil to arrest the products of the decomposition) is 
either carried off in the surface water or leached 
t'hrough the soil beyond the reach of the roots of the 
spring crops. If grain of some kind was sown in the 
fall upon all fields which had been subjected to clean 
culture during the current year, not only would the 
surface covering prevent the waste by washing, but 
the roots filling the soil would take up and conserve 
the plant food, becoming available during the winter, 
for the use of the crops to be planted in the spring I 
following. In the grain and grass growing sections j 
the soil is never wit'hout some covering vegetation, ( 
and consequently there is less liability to waste ' 
(even if climatic conditions were the same,) than i 
under our system of husbandry. 

"More than half century ago the land owners of 
the cotton States realized the rapidity with which | 
their soils were being wasted, and recognized the I 
most conspicuous cause in surface washing. Mr- 
Hardwick, a planter in Hancock County, Georgia, is 
said to have devised and put into practice t'he first 
system of what has been since known as hillside 
ditching, as a supposed preventive of the wasteful 
surface washing, which was rapidly carrying the soil 
from the hills into the vr.llcvs and Ftreams. This sys- 
tem was general'y adopted by planters own'n'^ roil- 



Keep Trying is the Motto in Irrigation as Well as in Other Things. 



269 



ng lands in all of the older cotton States, and some 
ire even now using this most efficient method of has- 
ening the transfer of the soil of the hills to the ad- 
acent swamps and streams. The history of hillside 
•litches is written in unmistakable language in the 
jullied hillsides from the Atlantic to the Mississippi 
—in the barren, corrugated surfaces, red with the 
ilushes of mother earth at the rude exposure of her 
iO-Lim, and the prodigal waste of her resources. 

"The theory of the hillside ditch looked to the pro- 
tction of the land from surface washing by collect- 
ng the descending water at intervals, and conduct- 
ng it by gentle grade to the creeks. They proved in 
iractice, however, a deception and a snare. They 
lot only did not prevent the removal of the surface 
oil, the humus and the soluble plant food, but has- 
eiicd it, even while the banks of ditches remained 
iitact, and all obstructions were regularly removed. 

"Under the tenant system, which has prevailed for 
he last thirty years, these neglected ditches have be- 
ome the most effective engines of destruction. 

"The neglected ditch has conferred one blessing 



upon the landowners of the cotton States, w'hich com- 
pensates in some degree for the sins it has commit- 
ted. An observant farmer in Chambers County, Ala- 
bama, noticed that where the old ditches had little or 
no fall, they had filled with the soil washed from 
above, and formed against the lower bank a terrace. 
Acting upon this suggestion he laid off his entire 
farm with horizontal lines, giving a perpendicular fall 
of three feet between them, and plowing the surface 
in imitation of the agencies which had converted the 
ditch into the terrace, and such success crowned 
his experiment that terracing is now adopted as the 
most and, in fact, the only reliable means of prevent- 
ing injurious surface washing upon cultivated hill 
sides. The theory of the ditch is to collect the water. 
which falls upon fhe hills and carry it off. The theory 
of the terrace is to prevent the water from collecting, 
and to cause it"to sink into the soil of the hill, where it 
is needed. The ditch carries off the water, and with 
it the soluble plant food, leaving the soil dry and 
hungry. 



h 



Book VIII. 
Enemies to thI'. Farm 



EDITED BY 

JAMES CLYDE ADAMS, S. B 

MESENA, GEORGIA. 



272 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE 



Enemies to the Farm 



The farmer has many enemies in the shape of mice, 
rats, moles, Johnson grass, Bermuda grass, nut grass, 
etc. These pests do a great deal of daniage, 'and it is 
important to the farmer that they do fheir best to rid 
the farm of as many of these pests as possible. 

MICE AND RATS. 

There is hardly a farmer that is not bothered with 
mice. They are a great nuisance, cutting into bags 
and boxes causing a great waste. There are several 
methods of disposing of or getting rid of mice. There 
is nothing better than an old-fashion cat, provided she 
will do her duty. However, this method sometimes 
proves a failure, other methods will have to be re- 
sorted to. There are many traps on the market and 
many of them are first-class. But rats will learn 
these traps, and you will have to make a change. A 
very simple plan is to take a large bucket or lard can, 
something whic'h has slick sides so that they cannot 
crawl up, and fill it about one-half full of water, and 
place some cotton seed, or grass, chaff, or something 
that will float over the water. The rats and mice 
will jump into this can, and drown, not being able to 
stay upon the water, and the sides being so slick that 
they cannot run up them. 

Scatter a few grains of copperas about the mice 
holes, and it is said that you will not be bothered 
with them. 

TJ:cre are many poisons for rats, but as a rule it is 
best not to use them. It is a sure method, but other 
things are liable to get hold of the poison. And then - 
the rats are liable to get into the walls and die, and 
the odor will not be very -agreeable. 

A mixture of two parts well bruised common squills 
and three parts finely-chopped bacon is made into a 
stiff mass with as much meal as may be required 
and then baked into small cakes, which are put down 
for the rats to eat. This plan while simple, is said to 
be very effective. 

RABBITS. 

Rabbits do a great deal of harm by cutting' down 
the garden and gnawing the fruit trees. 



If the rabbits are gnavidng your trees, wrap them 
with screens or wood veneering. But if you have 
none of these at hand, and do not care to buy, you 
may use any kind of cloth or old rags, or even corn- 
stalks. Newspapers will do for one season, using sev- 
eral sheets to the tree. Wrap closely and tie secure- 
ly with twine, about two feet high or more. Before 
wrapping, examine for tree borers; you will find 
them usually near the ground. Look carefully wher- 
ever you find a hole or worm meal and be sure to cut 
out the worm or kill it with a wire. It will be a 
good idea to rub the trunk of the tree well in order 
to clean it of eggs of insects and fungous. Rake 
away all trash and grass around the trunk of the 
tree to prevent mice from making nests there. Mice 
will bark fruit trees near the ground, if permitted to 
winter there. 

MOLES. 

Moles are small animals easily distinguished by 
their soft dark fur, long pointed nose, and large, 
strong developed front feet, which are used to throw 
a^^ide the dirt in making their burrows. The moles 
live on insects almost altogether, and do very little 
harm in eating the roots of fruit trees, and seed that 
are planted. However, the mice that go in the runs 
of the moles do a great deal of harm, and the respon- 
sibility for the loss of seed should be given to them, 
and not to the moles. However, if the moles did not 
make the runs, the mice would do no harm, so far as 
destroying t'he seed that are planted. The moles are 
a benefit in that they destroy a great many insects. 
If you desire to get rid of them, there are several 
very sim])le methods of getting rid of them. 

Pour kerosene oil in their runs, and you will not 
be troubled with the mole any longer. 

Another remedy: 

.Soak the seed in kerosene before planting, and you 
will not be troubled with moles. This remedy causes 
the corn to be later in coming up, as the oil prevents 
the moisture from entering, and therefore the grain 
does not germinate so soon. 

Another remedy: 

Pour carbon bisulphide into the runs. Place it at 



I'! 



Take pains to see that the rats are kept out of the corn crib. 



273 



different parts of the run so that the fumes will be 
sure tcrget to the mole. 

Another remedy : 

Make a small hole into t'he run and place castor 
beans in, and then cover up the hole. These should 
be placed every few steps. 

JOHNSON GRASS. 

Many farms have been ruined by Johnson grass. 
While it has some value as a hay, yet it is very ex- 
pensive hay, for when the land has once been infest- 
ed it is a very difficult matter to get rid of it. If the 
land be very poor, persistent and continuous cultiva- 
tion from early spring until late fall will do much to 
rid the farm of it. However, if the land be fertile, it 
•will withstand this treatment. Some one has recom- 
mended the summer plowing of fallow land during 
the hottest and driest months of the summer as the 
best means of killing it. The first plowing should be 
two inches deep, and the second plowing should be 
four inches deep, and crossways the field. 

Some one has recommended pasturing to kill it 
out, but this is not effective. The roots remain alive, 
and when the land is brought back into cultivation, 
the grass appears very luxuriantly. 

Salt has been recommended to kill it, but it has lit- 
tle value. 

Killing Johnson Grass. 

We quote the following from a recent bulletin on 
"The Extermination of Johnson Grass," by W. J. 
Spillman, of the United States Department of Agri- 
culture, just issued to the public: 

"In the autumn, at a time when the land is in good 
condition to cultivate, plow to a moderate depth with 
I a turning plow, being careful to cut and turn every 
inch of the soil. A good disk plow so set as to cut 
every inch of the soil would answer as well. Har- 
row the land immediately so as to get it smooth and 
well pulverized. It is perfectly useless to try to use 



t'he root digger unless the land is brought into excel- 
lent condition and is free from clods. The next treat- 
ment is to run over the land with some implement 
which acts on the same principle as the root digger. 
First, run crosswise of the furrows and then length- 
wise. 

"The roots left on the surface by this treatment 
may either be removed from the field, or left to de- 
cay during the winter. In t'he spring, plow the land 
again with the turning plow and then put it in cot- 
ton in the usual way and give the cotton ordinary 
good tillage. Pay no attention to the Johnson grass 
until the first sprigs get to be about six inches high, 
then go carefully over the land and pull out every 
bunch of Johnson grass visible. By doing this work 
carefully it will be possible to remove every sprig, 
root and branch, because the grass sprouts come from 
small loose pieces of roots in the soil. By repeating 
this operation, never allowing a sprig to get more 
than six inches high, the grass can be completely 
eradicated during the summer, and the amount of 
labor required will not be excessive." 

BERMUDA GRASS. 

Bermuda grass, once established is very hard to 
get rid of. It can be eradicated, however, by persis- 
tant effort. In October turn your land over, and al- 
low it to remain until the spring. Then plant corn 
or cotton, or some crop requiring clean cultivation 
for two or three years. It ought to be turned over 
not later than October. Another recommends the 
following method : 

"To kill out Bermuda grass break your land shal- 
low, very shallow, when it is dry; the drier the bet- 
ter. Always remember that deep plowing and lots of 
moisture is the life of the plant; therefore, govern 
your licks accordingly. Plow often, use the harrow 
freely, and strike w'hile the sun shines hot. If you 
plow deep, using a turning plow you will never get 
rid of it." 




One Way of Growing Corn, Chipley, Fla. 




A Busy Day at Chipley, Fla. One Car Load of Mowing 

Machines Unloaded in One Day, Six Years After 

the Above Picture Was Taken, 



Book IX. 
.Improved Farm Machinery. 



EDITED BY 

G. F. HUNNICUTT, A. B. 

EDITOR SOUTHERN CULTIVATOR, ATLANTA, GA. 



27.6 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Improved Farm Machinery 

AND Tools. 



THE IMPORTANCE AND USE OF FARM 
TOOLS. 

Man has been designed as "A tool using animal," 
and his ability to make and use tools has been one 
of the principal influences that 'has forged our civili- 
zation ; and every nation now upon mother earth is 
removed from barbarism just in proportion to its 
advance in the use of improved tools. It is very 
strange that while agriculture is the oldest of all the 
arts, and forms the very foundation of all of them, 
and while the first rude tools were made to help till 
the soil, yet advanced progress was made in all other 
tool-using trades much earlier than in agriculture. 
However, as this state of affairs could not continue, 
as all mankind must be first fed and clothed, the 
Nineteenth Century witnessed rapid strides made in 
the invention and use of tools upon the farm ; and the 
movement continues until now we have many varie- 
ties of tools to perform every step in our varied farm 
operations. The progressive farmer now uses his, 
muscle and brain to guide the many farm tools that 
accomplish his every form of work, from preparation, 
through cultivation and harvesting, with greater 
thoroughness and rapidity than he could possibly ac- 
complish them with his hands. All of us are to some 
extent familiar with many of the improved farm tools, 
yet others are slow to appreciate their value and use- 
fulness in rendering our work so muc'h more effec- 
tive. Our soil can be plowed so much deeper by the 
use of the disc and two-horse plows; pulverized so 
much more thoroughly and rapidly by the use of im- 
proved harrows; our seed put in more evenly and 
thoroughly by the use of weeders. harrows and culti- 
vators; and our harvesting done so much more effec- 
tively and rapidly by the use of mowers and binders, 
— that t'he whole process of farming becomes »a con- 
tinued' using of suitable tools. For every phase of 
work and for each different crop we have special 
tools; so that it becomes very important for the farm- 
er to learn the excellent features of the many kinds 



of tools manufactured, and to become skilled in oper- 
ating them. 

Improved tools have become A POWER, and such 
a power in our farm world that the main question ' 
left a progressive farmer is, What kind and how 
many tools shall I_have? Then as the world pro- 
gresses, the' labor prcfblem becomes more and more a \ 
feature to be dealt with in our farming'. Our people ^ 









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Cutting Eusilage Corn, Belmont Farm, Smyrna, Ga. ll 

are becoming and will become more intelligent, cani 
use tools to a better advantage and will naturally I 
need and demand better wages than were formerly 
paid; hence another imperative demand for more and! 
better tools upon the farms. Then those using them 
are given so much the advantage in economical pro- 
duction over those who do not use improved farniji 
tools, that it becomes a universal necessity. We feeh 
safe in saying that by an intelligent use of all tlie^ 
necessary tools up'on a farm the cost of production 
can be lessened fifty per cent. ; while on an average 
with the most improved tools one man can do the 
work of three men. But as 'it costs something to buv 
these tools and the power to run them, we count on- 



Use The Best Iproved Farm Machinery Possible. 



277 



]y on a clear saving of fifty 
j?roduction. 



per cent, in the cost of 



I^or the most effective use of tools we must clear 
our lands of stumps and rocks. To get our land in 
the 'best mechanical condition becomes our first duty. 
Here dynamite, the stump pullers and the two-horse 
plows come to our aid. In our succeeding chapters 
■we will 'have something more definite to say about 
many of our most important tools and their specific 
use. We will only add in this connection that the 
South is far behind the Northern and Western sec- 
tions in the intelligent use and care of labor-saving 
tools. It was our privilege many years ago to visit 
I a magnificent farm in the North-west of seven hun- 
l-dred and fifty acres. This farm was yielding as 
I great a net cash income as any cotton plantation of 
■I equal area, yet this farm was operated by the owper 



ed with cultivators that cleaned a row at a time; no 
hoeing was done. The corn was cut by a corn har- 
vester and shucked and put into the barn by a shred- 
der. Many people think that we cannot afford to buy 
so many tools, while the fact is, we cannot afford not 
to buy them, since fhey double our producing capac- 
ity, and if we do not have the tools our competitors 
who do use them will have the advantage of us. 



TOOLS TO BE USED IN THE PREPARATION 

OF LAND AND IN CULTIVATING 

THE CROPS. 

It is a matter of vital importance in successful farm 
operations that we become familiar with, and learn 
to use the very best tools made in the preparation of 
our lands; also in the cultivation of our crops. The 




A Good Disc HaiTow. 



land two hired men. When they went out to break 
jl!heir land they used a sulky turning plow each drawn 
i"by three twelve hundred pound horses, and they 
Iplowed well, nine acres per day. They put in their 
grain with a drill covering eight or ten acres per day, 
and cut it. with a binder. They planted their corn 
iwith a corn dropper, whidh opened, dropped and cov- 
jered the corn at one operation. This corn was plow- 



deep and thorough -preparation of the soil lies at the 
foundation of all truly successful farming. It has 
laeen said that this is more than' half the battle- It 
is certainly true that no amends can be made for a 
deficiency in this respect. The deep soil holds and 
furnishes more than double the amount of water ; it 
has available more than double the amount of plant 
food ; and the plant roots can penetrate it more read- 



2^8 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



ily. The ideal soil s'hould be as fine as diist, and 
when reduced to this state furnishes one thousand 
times the water surface for the plant roots to feed up- 
on, as when left coarse. The plow constitutes our 
first and most important farm tool. There are many 
kinds, that will do effective work in the lines in which 
they are intended to be used. In no way has the 
Sout'h suffered so much as from shallow and imper- 
fect plowing. The one-horse plow used to scratch 
the surface of the soil has been made our curse. 
Hence so much of our lands are seamed with gullies 
and our virgin soil has been washed away. We are 
certainly thankful that the two-horse and disc plows 
are now fast coming into general use. No farm is 
complete without one or the other. Every farmer 







.-... , imm'^''-' 



Filling Silo, Aug. 17, 1903. 
Georgia Experiment Station, Experiment, Ga. 

should break at least one-third of his land with one 
of these plows each year; if he could turn it all in 
the fall and winter it would be so much better, but 
our winters are so wet as to render t'lis difficult. 

It is not within the scope of this article to give 
special mention of any make of plows, but we can 
trutlifully say t'hat there are many good ones on the 
market; and good work can be done with almost any 
of them, when hitched behind a strong team, and 
guided by competent hands. 

When the land has been properly broken, then yoti 
want to use 3'our harrow until you g.et it smooth and 
very fine. We Southerners do not appreciate the full 
value of tlie harrow, and its province in producing 
fine tilth. This fine tilth is essential to the maximum 
yield. Mr. J. B. Terry, of Ohio, says he has increas- 
ed his yield of wheat one bushel per acre for each 



harrowing given the land before sowing, up to six- 
teen times. Any crop will germinate quicker, come 
up earlier, grow off better, and yield more where the 
land is well harrowed after breaking. There are many 
makes, but a disc, a cutaway and a smoothing harrow 
are a necessity upon every well equipped farm. There 
are some classes of work that each kind does best,. 
and with tools you want the one especially adapted 
to the kind of work you wish done. 

TOOLS FOR PLANTING AND CULTIVATING. 

As soon as the soil has been properly plowed and 
harrowed, then the work of putting in fertilizers, 
planting and cultivating our crops commences. The 
distributing of fertilizers and t'he planting of cotton 
seed is nearly universally done with distributors and 
planters. But the manure spreader is still too rare a 
tool in our Southland ; also the corn dropper and the 
grain drill.- Since the cotton planter, the grain drill, 
the guano distributor and the corn dropper are all 
four combined in one machine, there is no excuse for 
our farmers not possessing such a machine. As we 
become more prosperous, we should become more 
progressive, and should make use of all the distribu- 
tors, planters and grain drills t'hat do the work more 
rapidly and satisfactory. 

Just as soon as planting is over, cultivation begins, 
and then comes the necessity for rapid shallow cul- 
ture. Here the weeders and wide light harrows come 
into play and are fast winning that appreciation they 
so richly merit. Crops are now being made without 
so much expensive hoeing, and the amount of labor- 
ers needed is reduced by nearly half. Mr. W. H. 
Morton, one of the best farmers of Clark County, 
Georgia,' in 1905 cultivated sixty acres with 2 mules 
and two 'hands. He never used a hoe in his cotton or 
corn and made quite a fine yield of both. 

After getting the crop started off. then the walk- 
ing and riding cultivators come into use. Here we 
are much behind, on account of the stumpy and rocky 
condition of our lands ; but these obstacles must be 
removed so the most improved tools can come into- 
general use. Rapid, level, shallow cultivation is cer- 
tainly the ideal ; and the tools that will accomplish 
this most effectively for our growing crops are the 
ones we farmers s'hould use. The choice of a tool 
and the proper operation of it. will mean much in the 
result of our crops and the profit they will yield us, 



See To It That The Farm Implement that You Are Buying Is Practicable. 



279 



which are the main things all of us are after. By the 
use of such tools farming not only becomes remuner- 
ative, but the work ceases to be such drudgery. The 
intelligent man finds a demand for his skill, a reward 
for his efforts and his physical forces are not over- 
taxed. 

TOOLS TO BE USED IN SAVING AND UTIL- 
IZING THE FARM PRODUCTS. 

The tools for gathering and saving our varied 
crops are wonderful labor savers, and the scale of 
•our farm operations now, could not be continued 
without them. Take for instance, the item of hay ; 
what could we do without the mower, the self-dump- 
ing rake, the tedder, the hay loader, the hay fork and 
the hay press. Every step in the saving of this valu- 
able crop can be performed with great rapidity and 
efficiency by the use of these now indispensable tools. 
In the case of grain we have even a more effective 




Breaking Land on Fai-m of Southern Ruralist, 
Atlanta, Ga. 

tool in the binder. With corn, we have the corn har- 
vester; and the fertile brains of inventors are now 
trying to perfect a cotton picker. While we doubt 
this last ever being made an economical sucess, yet 
fifty years ago the binder would have' been deemed 
equally impossible. However this may be, it behooves 
every farmer to procure and to use the best har- 
vesting macliines made. A gentleman wisely put it 
the other day this way, "We can no longer buy or 
control labor, but we can both buy and control ma- 
chinery, and have it do our labor in producing and 
harvesting our crops." 

This branch of farm tools is fairly appreciated in 



the South and is daily gaining ground. The music of 
the mower and the reaper is heard in our land, 
though not half to the extent it should be. We 
need these tools it is true, but we need far more to 
grow greater quantities of grass and grain to save 
with them. 

Our Southern farmers are just upon the threshold 
of this important department of farm tools, — tools for 
Utilizing our farm products. To make a crop is an 
important matter: to utilize it to its greatest advan- 
tage becomes a much greater matter. Since here the 
true profit lies, and this profit is what we are main- 
ly after. The manufacturers have ever reaped larger 
and surer profits than the producers of raw material. 
The farm should be both a producing and a manufac- 
turing plant, with the proper use of horse power, the 
wind, water powei*, gasoline engines and electricity. 
All farm products should leave the farm as finish- 
ed products as nearly as possible. The shredder, the 
cutter and the mill should prepare our food right at 
home so as to yield its highest nutritive value and be 
fed to our stock in only its most digestible form. Be- 
cause we formerly did a certain way is no reason for 
our continuance. We must be ever reaching out for 
the best. Our motto should be No Waste: the full 
value from every crop. But few of us know the full 
value of our corn crop, and we cannot know until we 
feed stalk and all. The stalk cut up or shredded and 
the corn and cob ground together into meal, then and 
not until then can our stock receive from it its full 
value. The writer now has a gasoline engine and 
outfit and never dreamed of their usefulness or con- 
venience before. He often cuts up two loads of corn 
and pumps water for a week's use in an hour's time, 
doing all the work himself. 

CARE OF FARM TOOLS. 

Here three-fourths of the Southern farmers are at 
fault. Thousands of dollars are annually lost by buy- 
ing expensive machinery and leaving it out in the 
rain and weather. No farm is complete without an 
adequate tool shelter. There are enterprising farm- 
ers who always carefully clean and wipe dry every 
shovel, spade, plow, cultivator; in fact, all kinds of 
tools that they use in the dirt, before they lay them 
down, and in most cases immediately place them un- 
der a shed. Farm machinery, such as plows and cul- 
tivators, should be wiped clean and covered with a 
coat of wagon grease, which will absolutely prevent 



^^^ TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 

1. .0. .sun. TOO. U„. n-ea.a ...^ ™^ .ea.. ^ ^^^ ^'^ ll^ ^ l.^ " 

be .n f.ne shape and much n.ore sat.faaor> work f-^^doUa-^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^.^^^^^ ,^^.,^^ ^^^.^ ,,„,,, 

can be accomphshed. ^^^^^^^ ^^^.^^^ machinery that does not look weather 

Mr T B Terry (a very successful farmer) never beaten. This careful and methodical way should be 

allows a tool left out for 'an hour when not .n use. practiced by ourselves and certamly taught to our 

He has a manure spreader he has been using for children. 






Gasoline Thresliing Outfit. 



Book X. 
Bee Department. 



EDITED BY 

JAMES CLYDE ADAMS, S. B 

MESENA, GEORGIA. 




W. S. HART'S APIARY, HAWKS PARK, FliA. 



Every Well Equipped Farm Should Have Bees. 



Bee Department. 



283 



"The bees are humming, humming, 
And the honey crop is coming — 
In the fall. 

If you are in a position to give a portion of your 
ime and attention to bee keeping, there is no reason 
,'hy you should not make money out of the business. 
)f course it is not all profit, and you need not expect 
3 get rich without labor and trouble, but there is a 
ery fair profit in the business. It is not claimed 
lat the business will pay from the start, for you 
now that it is an exception for any business to pay 
om the very start. There is one thing that it re- 
iiires to succeed in the bee culture, and that is de- 
:rmination. You cannot hope to be successful with- 



if you are on the farm, or live in a village, you should 
keep a few hives of bees. One reason why bee cul- 
ture is so little engaged in, is on account of ignor- 
ance. Most of us are densely ignorant concerning 
bees, although we have seen them most of our lives.. 
Some people speak of bees gathering honey. Bees 
do not gather honey. This only shows the ignorance 
of people. Bees no more gather honey, than dairy- 
men milk butter. What the bee does is to gather the 
nectar from the flower, and then converts this nectar 
into honey. Just how this is done is not known. The 
honey is very thin and is deposited into cells, and it 
is then evaporated Ijy a process of the bees' wings to 
nearly one-half of what the original amount was. It 






Aijiai.v of J. F. ilclut.yre, near Ventura, Cal. — Looking "Westwai'd. 



t determination. Make up your mind that you will 

;cced despite difficulties. At present not as many 

niers are engaged in bee culture as there should 

Every farmer should have a few hives of bees, 

they will prove a present^help in the time of trou- 

Most every one can look after bees if they have 

'Ugh will-power and patience. The bee is very 

id in disposition, and rarely becomes angry. So 



IS one of the sweetest articles produced without the 
agency of man, and it therefore commands a good 
price. 

"All honey, when gathered by the bees, is placed 
in little wax cells of a hexagonal form, and, after be- 
ing filled up by the bees, the comb is capped over by 
them in the same fashion as the housewife seals the 
preserves which she puts up in the summertime. 



284 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



"So infinitesimally small and delicate has been this 
wax film placed over as a sealing to these delicate 
cells, and the walls of these being also exceedingly 
delicate, it has been absolutely impossible for man to 
duplicate the product. So much interest has been 
created in the past that there are now two rewards, 
one from Ohio and another from WiscOnsis, of $i,ooo 
each, for any one who will invent a machine, or oth- 
erwise manufacture a full comb of honey which is a 
duplicate of the product made by the bees. While 
this offer has been widely spread throughout the 
country, as yet there has never been a suggestion by 
any one of even attempting to claim to imitate the 
original. 

"The public, when they buy these pieces of comb in 
the center of these jars, want to be exceedingly care- 




Comb buililing in the open aii\ 

ful that the capping of these cells is still on the comb, 
and if so, they can feel entirely at rest in knowing 
they are getting the pure article. One thing we can 
feel sure of — that all honey sold on the market in lit- 
tle section boxes, or in any way in the comb, capped 
over is the genuine production of the honeybee." 

MONEY IN KEEPING BEES. 

"Whether there is a profit in keeping bees depends 
upon two factors — it must be made a business, not a 
side issue, and the keeper must know his business. A 



writer says that five colonies should yield 250 pounds 
of fancy comb honey each year. The annual cost will 
be about $2 for honey boxes and comb foundation. 
Such honey s'hould sell for 22 cents per pound. Half 
of the yield may be first quality — sections snow 
white, well capped and filled. The No..i quality, 125 
.pounds at 22 cents, nets you $27.50. The No. 2 qual- 
ity, 125 pounds at 16 cents, nets you $20. Here at 
an annual outlay of $2 five colonies of bees return 
$47.50. Do not try to realize these prices from the 
stores, but s.ell to those who buy your butter and 
eggs — sell to the best families and do not be afraid 
to ask a good price. I will try to give you an esti- 
mate of the cost of a modest venture. 

"If you have never handled bees or have kept them 
in old bo.xes, a first-class work on bee-keeping should 
'head the list of purchases and be carefully studied. 
Hives are generally crated in lots of five. Examine 
all the catalogues you can find and secure the best 
hive made. If your winters are severe extra protec- 
tion is needed, suc'h as cellar storing or, better, a close 
end frame. Having decided on the hive, order five. 
You will need a smoker. The following articles will 
equip 3'(iu for a start in a moderate way and at the same 
time yoi! will acquire the much-needed experience: 
Five I i-2-story hives, $9.75; five extra supers, $3.- 
75; one bee book. $1.25; one smoker, large size, $1.- 
25; one .'Spool tinned wire, 10 cents; one foundation 
fastener packer, 25 cents; five pounds e-xtra thin brood 
foundations, $3 ; two pounds extra thin comb founda- 
tions, $1.25; 500 No. I honey boxes, $2.50. Total, 
$22.55. 

"In ordering insist on brood frames being pierced 
for wiring. Tall sections sell better than square ones 
and the bees work in them quicker. A section, 4x5'' 
I 3-8 is now acknowledged to be the best. A bee veil 
may be made at home. 

"During the winter hives, frames, etc., may be as- 
sembled, the hives painted and all in readiness for the 
summer campaign. Do not buy hives of some local 
dealer, no matter how well recommended, until you ' 
have investigated them, as he may be anxious to se- 
cure fixtures of more modern make. If you do not 
own any bees, buy or swap something for two or 
three swarms in any old tub or box. Buy your stock j 
early in the spring and place them on a stand a 
foot from the ground in some shady spot facing flu- 
east. These must stand where vour new hives will i 



Study Carefully Every Movement of the Bees. 



285 



be placed later in the season. Just as the early flow- 
p-s begin to bloom your first lesson in bee culture is 
due." 

BEGINNING WITH BEES. 

Before beginning with bees you will find it to your 
advantage to visit some one who keeps bees and learn 
all from them that you can. If possible, I would ad- 
vise that you visit some one who is up-to-date, and 



very small scale. Remember that you are ignorant 
concerning bees, and that you must learn largely from 
experience. You sliould also remember that experi- 
ence is quite a dear teacher, and if you have a great 
many hives j'ou will have to pay dearer for your 
experience than you would otherwise have to do. A 
few stands will be enough for you to commence with. 
They should cost anj-vvhere from $2.00 to $0.00 per 
stand. 1l is advi-^able to get them in your own com- 
munity if possible. In starting with bees it is well 







^* 






'^- 



>f^. 















£ 



Extracting-house of J. M. Jenkins, Wetumpka, Ala. 



i not be satisfied with a visit to some one who does not 
know their business. If you expect to go into bee 
culture as a business, you can afford to go some dis- 
tance in order to find that man w'ho knows bee keep- 
ing. This is a small matter, but it is quite important. 

j You can get more information from a talk with an 
tip-to-date beekeeper than you can from a great deal 
of reading. 

In starting in the business vou want to start on a 



enough to get them in the hives that they are to re- 
main in during ihe year, for unless you have had ex- 
perience, it will ptove quite troublesome to transfer 
them from one hive to anotlier. Also get strong 
Tiives, for your experience will not be so bright if you 
have to feed them the first spring. After you have 
secured a start do not invest any more in the busi- 
ness until they have yielded a return. After you have 
started in the business the bees should pay their way 



2S6 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



the rest of tlie time. If they will not do this, of 
course, excepting some extraordinary accident or ca- 
tastrophe, you do not care to bother with them. 

HIVES. 

The questions of liives is one of importance to the 
man who has bees on his place. Unless you are so 
situated that freight rates are high, and unless you are 
a good mechanic, it will pay you to buy your bee 
hives, and not try to make them. There are com- 
panies that make a specialty of making bee hives and 
they can make them much better than you can. And 
then when you consider the whole thing, hives that 
are made in factories by machinery made for the bus- 
iness, operated by skilled workmen are cheaper in 




View W J, lU. jeuiiins iards, VVeUiiupka, A.1h. 

the long run than home-made hives. Of course there 
is some advantage in making hives, for there are 
many rainy days w'hen you will not be able to work 
on the outside, and you can without any practical 
outlay of money make the hives. But no matter how 
well made the hives are, or how perfect they are in 
every respect, hives in themselves cannot make honey. 
P. H. Elwood, of Starksville, N. Y., who has over 
1000 hives of bees said in Gleanings in Bee Culture 
in i8qi : "A good hive must fill two requirements rea- 
sonably well to be worthy of that name. i. It must 
be a good home for th.e bees. 2. It must in addi- 
tion be so constructed as to be convenient to perform 



the various operations required by modern bee-keep- 
ing. The first of these requirements is filled very 
well by a good box or straw hive. Bees will store as 
much honey in these hives as in any, and in the 
North they will winter and spring as well in a straw 
hive as in any other. They do not; 'however, fill the 
second requirement ; and to meet this, the movable- 
frame hive was invented." The Langworth hive, 
which is the standard in the United States, has a 
frame 17 5-8 long by 9 1-8 deep. As to the width, that 
depends on the number of frames that you desire to 
use. Some use eight frames, some ten, and some 
twelve. Where one runs for extract honey, ten 
frames, is perhaps best, but where one runs for comb 
honey, eig'ht frames are best. There are now in the 
United States two styles of hives, the square, and 
the oblong. There are advantages with each class of 
frames. Let us consider some of these advantage- 
looking at the square hive first. Bees have a ti-ii 
dency to make a brood nest in the form of a sphere. 
Therefore a circular hive would be better than a 
square, but since this would be impractical, the square 
comes nearer filling that requirement than an obi" 
hive. It is also claimed that the square hive is bet- 
ter on account of holding the heat better, in that it 
gives the greatest amount of cubical contents for 
given amount of lumber. These reasons are me! 
theoretic.-J than practical, and most of those that h;r 
tried the square hives have abandoned them for t' 
oblong hive. But what are the reasons for favorii 
the oblong hive? .By using a shallow frame it ju 
mits the use of low, flat hives that can be tiered uj) ■ 
two, three and four stories high. This is quite an a 
vantage when one is operating for extract honey, 1 
when the bees require more room, all he has to dn 
to add another story to his hive. And then the l^'i 
frame permits of being imcapped more easily than 1 
the square hive. The blade of the uncapping knife 
can reach clear across the oblong hive, which it con 
not do in the square. The shallow frame is morcj 
easily lifted out of the frame than a deep frame. Buti 
you will have to get a hive that suits your conveni- 
ence. As a rule I believe that the oblong hive is tin- 
better of the two. It will be 'hard for you to lean 
how to make a hive from what is given in a book, 
vou are going to make your hives, it will be belt' 
to send to the factory and get one of the kind tli 
you wanted in the flat, all complete. With the si> 
eral pieces to use as patterns you will know just Iv 
to make one. 



I 



Let The Bees Pay Their Own Expenses. 



287 



SWARMING OF BEES. 

One of the most interesting features connected 
with bee culture is the swarming of bees. As to why 
they swarm, there are several reasons given. When 
bees have filled the hives, and hbve no more room to- 
store honey, they begin looking out for new quarters. 
And t'hen they have a great many more bees in the 
hive than can be used successfully. In other words, 
too muc'h honey, and too many bees cause swarming. 
Excessive heat will also cause the swarming of bees. 
Sometimes they swarm without any apparent cause 
iwhatever. It is the old bees and queen tr.at leave 



day, but will be at rest. Very few bees can be seen 
going in and out the hive. Bees as a rule do not 
swarm until they have the hive pretty well filled, and 
multitudes of bees hatching out daily. The presence 
of queen cells is a pretty good sign that they are be- 
ginning to swarm. When the bees are beginning to 
swarm, or before, one should have everything in read- 
iness to hive them. 

"Have empty hives in readiness, and when a swarm 
is cast off if possiljle mark the hive from which it 
came. Ordinarily the swarm will soon settle, when it 
can be secured and placed in an empty hive. As soon 
as this is done, take the new swarm and place it where 




Worker. 



Queen. 



Drone. 



he hive to the young ones. They usually begin 
warming in May, and will keep it up until July. It 
epends, of course, upon the section t'hey are in, as 
the time they swarm. It so^metimes happens that 
y will swarm in August, but this is an exception, 
iid not the rule. 

Sometimes we are able to tell in advance when bees 
re going to swarm, but I do not believe that we can 
Iways do so. When the bees are clustering around 
n the outside of the gum, rthey will go in the hiv'fe 
ne day they intend to swarm, but this does not al- 
-lys work. When a hive of bees intend to swarm, 
ley will not be working like the rest of them that 



the old one stood, removing the old hive to as long a 
distance as convenient. Should the bees in the old 
hive have started work in the super give it to the 
new swarm; should be bees in the new swarm ap- 
pear restless and uneasy, the indications are that they 
have lost their queen. In such cases give them a 
fresh brood that has some newly laid eggs, when they 
will begin the construction of a queen cell, and usual- 
ly commence work. In all cases it is well to examine 
the new swarms in about nine days and should there 
be no indication of laying it is best to give a frame 
of new brood. After the old hive is removed to a new 
place it is well to examine it carefully and destroy all 



288 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



the queen cells but one of the best, or if there be any 
colonies in the yard that are queenless the extra cells 
may be used in requeening them. At the close of the 
honey season always shut up the entrance to the hive 
to about two inches, so that the bees may be able to 
protect themselves from outside robbers. About Oc- 
tober 1st begin preparing your bees for winter by plac- 
ing burlap over tlie top of each hive, putting on an 
empty super and filling it with chaff straw. It is well 
to place two half inch strips on top of the frames un- 
der the burlap, so that the bees may have space to 
travel over t'he top of the frames. Fasten the lid se- 
curely by weight or otherwise. Before putting on the 




Louis Scholl and his Texas Bee-Yard. Evergreen Shade 
on the left, and Prickly Cacti on the right. 

burlaps see that each hive has about twenty-five 
pounds of honey for winter use." 

It is a difficult matter to lay down specific direc 
tions for hiving bees. There are so many methods, 
and so man}' circumstances that alter these methods 
that 3-ou will have to use a great deal of common 
sense and tact. There are many automatic 'hivers on 
the market, and some of them good too. 

Sometimes it is desired to prevent bees from, 
swarming. It is claimed by some that by preventing 
them from swarming, and making them use all their 
efforts in the manufacture of honey, that they will 
produce a larger crop of honey than by swarming-. 



Whether t'his contentipn is true, is an open question. 
This is done by not allowing the queen bees to raise. 
Excessive swarming is generally brought about by a. 
large number of queen bees, that are not fertilized. By 
catching the queens and removing them, or by pre- 
venting the queen cells from hatching out. To keep 
the hive well shaded, or having the walls entirely 
protected from the sun will do much to prevent bees 
from swarming. Also give them plenty of room, and 
they will not be so apt to swarm. 

FEEDING OF BEES. 

The feeding of bees is a poor business. It is prac- 
ticed for two purposes. The first purpose is to stim- 
ulate brood rearing at times of the year when there 
is no honey coming in from natural sources, and to 
supply them with food when the winter supply is 
short. But it is a bad job, and is liable to cause the 
bees to rob other hives. Not only is it a messy job, 
but it is expensive. It is frequently true that feeding 
is made necessary on account of extracting the honey 
too close. It may be that in certain cases, you will 
find it necessary to feed bees. If such is the case, 
there is nothing that is better to feed with than gran- 
ulated sugar converted into syrup. There are certain 
forms of molasses and sorghum that may be used, 
but as a rule it is best to buy first-class sugar and 
make a syrup out of it. There are two processes of 
making syrup. One is the old-fashio;;! method of 
making it by artificial heat. 

When feeding bees to stimulate brood"rearing, place 
boiler on the stove and into it pour a mixture of sugar 
and water, using oiie-half siigar and one-half water. 
The heat should be aplied slowly while the mixture 
is stirred- It should not be heated higher than 180 
degrees, as it is liable to scorch, and burnt sugar is 
death to a colony of bees in the winter. Continue to 
stir the syrup until every particle of sugar is melted.' 
Sometimes it is simply mixed well together, but no' 
heat applied on account of the liabilitv of burning-. 
^^'hen this is the case, it will 'have to be stirred vig"'; 
orously. 

But we v.'ould advise that vou avoid feeding it 
there is anv possible chance of doing so, as it doesj 
not pay. There are many patented devices for feed- ' 
ing. ' 

STINGS. 
Most every one knows that bees sting. And theyj 



Do Not Anger The Bees. 



289 



know that it is not very pleasant to be stung either. 
The bee cannot kick like horses, nor can they hook 
like cattle, they cannot bite like other animals, but 
they can sting. And most people dread to be stung. 
However, much of the pain of stings is imaginary. 
One can bear a bee sting with a great deal of ease if 
they will not allow themselves to think of it. The 
mind has no little to do with the body. I do not 
mcnri to say that you can remove all pain by not 
thinking about it, for such is not the case. When a 
bee stings you, you are to a certain extent poisoned, 
and no amount of thinking or not thinking by the 
mind can remove that poison. As a rule bee stings 
should not stop one from their work. It is much bet- 
ter to keep on at work, for your mind will not be on 



which contains the bag of poison. Many recommend 
removing all parts, but this is based on theory and 
not on practice. Many remedies are recommended 
for bee stings, but they are as a rule no good. In fact, 
the best thing to do after removing the sting is to 
forget all about it. Indeed, most remedies are posi- 
tively harmful. The poison enters the flesh through 
a very small puncture, — one so small that the small- 
est cambric needle could not enter where the sting 
did, and there is no means of getting the remedy for 
stings in, except by rubbing, and this causes more 
trouble than it is worth, for il causes the poison to 
spread faster. It sonietimes happens that a great 
many bees sting a person or atiimal, and unless some- 
thing is done death results almost instantly. If you 




Scene in apiary of W. L. Wom'ble, Raleigh, N. C. 



the sting. Pay just as little attention to the matter 
as possible, and do not rub or irritate the stung por- 
tion. The sting should be removed as quickly as 
possible. There is a wrong way of removing the 
sting, and there is a right way. With the sting there 
is a bag of poison. To pull out the sting between the 
finger and thumb means to push the p6ison out of 
the bag into the wound. On the other hand, to re- 
move the sting by running a knife blade under the 
poison bag and lift the sting out, does the work so 
nicely that no more poison gets into the wound. If 
a knife is not convenient, take the nail of the finger 
and push it out. The sting should he removed as 
quickly as possible. Soraetimes the sting separates, 
in which case I would advise just to remove the part 



or your animal is stung a great many times, cover 
the affected parts with blankets or cloths dipped in 
boiling hot water. If you cannot possibly get the hot 
water, use real cold water, but the hot water applica- 
tion is better. 

HOW TO AVOID BEING STUNG. 

It is not very pleasant, to say the least of it, to be 
stung. In working around bees, I would advise that 
you never stand directly in front of the hive. Above 
all things don't let the bee know you are scared, for 
bees will do more harm when they find that you are 
afraid of them t'han otherwise. A single' bee never 
follows one into a house. A whole colony that is 
very much enraged may do so. 

20 



290 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



FOOD VALUE OF HONEY. 

"It is estimated that the food value of honey is 
equal to that of butter, and it is a typical sweet and 
universal luxury. The sources of honey come through 
nature's bounty on all fields and forests, and may be 
utilized at less expense than any other commodity of 
equal value. It is reasonable that the occupants of 
all rural 'homes are entitled to all of their products. 
People who rent the land pay no rent on the honey 
crop. Yet the vast flow of nectar is permitted to go 
to waste on the greater number of farms. Since the 
forests have been filled, and the fertility of the soil 
largely exhausted, bee pasturage has become too 



pily combined, so that the family apiary will be easier 
kept up than a stock of chickens for home supply, and 
really more profitable, when the expenses and atten- 
tions are fairly weighed up. 

"This is only one of the several small industries 
home comfort and independent living. 

"It is a reflection on Southern industry to see a 
family coming from more congenial climates and liv- 
ing in luxury on what is neglected or wasted by those 
who toil the year round to make cotton pay for gua- 
no! 

"While concentration of energies is essential to 
success, diversity of resources is the only chance for 




As bees are kept in the South. 



scant to warrant an elfort to make honey for market- 
ing purposes by the collective masses of inhabitants. 

"Failures on this line have been so common tliat 
many have abandoned the business entirely in dis- 
couragement, or gone back to the primitive plan of 
using 'gums' and killing out the weak colonies after 
the fall crop has been stored. Much as this plan is 
deprecated, it remains true that more honey is ob- 
tained on it than by unskilled use of modern hives, 
and uniting weak colonies. 

"The only families v.'ho keep up small apiaries and 
have Tioney on their tables every day in the year, that 
I know of, still keep shy of advance scientific schemes. 

"The practical plan lies in the exercise of inventive 
thought, by which the good features in improvements 
and the simplicity of ancient methods may be hap- 



the masses of people to make an independent living, 
and it will be found that there is no well beaten trail 
to a state of general prosperity for the population of 
the whole country." 

Let the beehives and chicken coops be in close 
proximity and ants will not annoy the bees, for the 
chicks will devour the little pilgrims as they wend 
their way to and from their homes. 

White Dutch clover is very desirable as pasturage 
for the bees, and the seed may be sown any time in 
March or April. It resists drouth much better than 
most of the grasses and forms a close green turf for 
the lawn if kept cut after it is well rooted- 

When feeding bees to stimulate brood'rearing, the 
difference in localities should be considered. In some 
parts, feeding the first of March would be all right 



Study the Life History of Bees. 



291 



In other localities, they are not throug'h the winter at 
this season and should not be disturbed. 

Bees, like all other creatures, relish salt and should 
have it placed before them occasionally in a diluted 
form. To give bees access to salt, just sprinkle some 
on the sawdust in front of the hive. The rain will 
dilute it properly and the sawdust will retain it for 
fhem. 

During winter queens stop laying eggs and often 
shrink so much in size that they look almost like the 
worker bees themselves, and a beginner looking 
through the hive might conclude that the bees are 
queenless. Of course, if you know that the queen is 
dead, then the sooner vou can introduce another to 
the bees, the better it will be for them. Queens can 
be procured from the South as early as April. 



THE QUEEN BEE. 

The queen bee is the most important bee in the 
hive. She is the mother of all the bees in the hive. 
In fact, the queen is so important that should the hive 
be deprived of the queen the workers go to work and 
raise another, if they have any worker larvae in the 
hive with which to do it. There are some cases 
where there is no queen bee, but these cases are very 
rare. It is safe to say that there is always a queen 
in every hive. The queen is the only perfect female 
bee in the hive. She is longer than either of the oth- 
er species, and is dark in color. She never leaves the 
hive except to meet the drone. She is treated with 
great affection bv the bees. The average age of the 
bee is three years, and no one should be allowed to 
become any older than that, for after that age they 
become barren, or if they do deposit eggs they only 
produce drones. 




A PAIR OP GOOD ONES OWNED BY OLTMANNS BROS., NORTH PT. WORT^, TEXAS. 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 



-BY- 



C. A. GARY, B. Sc., D. V. M. 



PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY AND VETERINARY SCIENCE AT THE ALABAMA POLY- 
TECHNIC INSTITUTE; VETERINARIAN OF THE ALABAMA EXPERIMENT STA- 
TION; DIRECTOR OF FARMERS' INSTITUTES AND STATE VETERINA- 
RIAN OF ALABAMA, AUBURN, ALABAMA. 



Introduction 



These chapters on the diseases of the horse are written that they may help fanners and horsemen who 

are not within reach of qualified graduate veterinarians. They may help the ordinary man who has not 

the technical knowledge of the graduate veterinarian. The more the farmer or the stockman knows 

the better he is able to see the necessity for employing a specialist or one who is expert in operating and 

]jl treating live stock. Much of the following pages is written in terms that are not considered scientific. 

But it has been my aim to leave out all technical terms as far as possible in order to make the meaning 

plain to the average man. The treatment suggested for the different diseases is not the only one that 

might be employed; but is one method selected, oftentimes, as the one that may be used with the least 

difficulty and expense, by the farmer. 

C. A. CARY, 

Auburn, Ala. 




EXPLANATIONS OF FIGURE i. 



n. — nostril. 

en. — end or extremity of nose. 

en. — chin. 

mb. — maxillary border. 

ch. — c'heek. 

t. — throat. 

pa. — parotid region. 

Te.^ — temple. 

so. — supra-orbit. 



Fd. — forehead. 

Fa. — face. 

Nk. — neck. 

Jf. — jugular furrow. 

W— Withers. 

Ijk. — back. 

lo. — loins. 

H. — haunch or hip point. 

Crp, — croup. 



rb. — rib region. 
Flk.— flank, 
abd. — abdomen. 
St. — stifle. 
Th.— thigh, 
but. — buttock. 
Ig. — leg or gaskin. 
hk. — hock, 
can. — cannon. 



Ft.— fetlock. 
Pn. — pastern. 
Co. — coronet. 
Ct. — chestnut, 
sh. — shoulder, 
am. — arm. 
fm. — forearm, 
k. — knee. 



Exterior Anatomy, or the Outer 
Form of the Horse 



This consists in a study of the good and bad points of a horse as indicated by his outer form or con- 
fonnatioii. In order to get a clear idea, we must first know and study the various parts or regions of the 
surface of the horse's body. 

The surface of the 'horse may be divided for convenience into — 

1. Head, 

2. Trunk, or body, 

3. Limbs. 









I. 


HEAD. (17 Regions 


•) 








Front Surface 




Back Surface. 






Side Surfaces. 




Lower End. 






Upper End. 


I. Forehead. 


4- 


Lower Jaw. 




/■ 


Ear. 


14 


Mouth. 




15- 


Poll. 


2. Face, or Nose. 


5- 


Space between 


the 


8. 


Temple. 




(a) Lips. 




16. 


Parotid Region 


3. End of Nose. 




branches of 
lower jaw. 




9- 

ID. 


Supra-Orbit. 
Eyebrow. 




(b) Teeth. 

(c) Bars. 




17- 


Throat. 




6. 


Chin. 




II. 


Eye. 




(d) Lingual 


Canal. 














12. 

13- 


Cheek. 

Nostrils. 




(e) Tongue. 

(f) Palate. 









2. BODY. (20 Regions.) 



Upper Surface. 


Lower Surface. 


Side Surfaces. 


Front End. 




Back End. 




Genital Organs. 


I. Neck. 


6. Xyphoid 


8. Ribs. 


II. Chest. 


M- 


Tail. 




(Male.) 


(a) Mane. 


region. 


9. Flanks. 


12. Interaxilla. 


15- 


Anus. 


17- 


Testicles and 


(b) Forelock. 


7. Abdomen 


10. Groin. 


13. Axillae. 


16. 


Perineum. 




envelopes. 


-■. Witliers. 


(belly). 




(arm pits). 






18. 


Sheath and Penis. 


3. Back. 














(Female.) 


4. Loins. 












19. 


Vulva. 


5. Croup. 












20. 


Mammary Glands 
(Bag or udder.) 







3. LIMBS. 


(15 


Regions.) 


Front Limb. 




Hind Limb. 


Regions Common to Front and Hind Limbs 


Shoulder. 


6. 


Thigh. 


10. 


Chestnut. 


Arm. 


7- 


Stifle. 


II. 


Cannon and Tendons. 


Elbow. 


8. 


Leg, or gaskin. 


12. 


Fetlock and Ergot. 


Forearm. 


9- 


Hock. 


13- 


Pastern. 


Knee. 






14- 
15- 


Coronet. 
Foot. 



2y6 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



HEAD. 
Front Surface. (See cut for location of regions.) 

1. Forehead. — This region should be wide, rather 
long and nearly straight. A large forehead indicates 
large muscles and large brain. When narrow, very 
convex or depressed, it is defective. 

2. Face or Nose. — This region presents for study 
a middle part and two latteral parts. The middle part 
should be straight and rather wide. If very convex 
or concave it is defective. The latteral parts slope 
downward and backward. The right and the left lat- 
teral parts are usually full and round in the colt or 
young horse. In the old horse thev are more or less 
flat or depressed. This is due to the variation in the 
length and size of the molar teeth in the young and 
the old horse. When the root of a molar tooth is dis- 
eased the part over that tooth will become enlarged ; 
this will occur usually on one side. In bighead both 
sides may be equally enlarged. A wide middle part 
of nose or face is an indication of large respiratory 
capacity. 

3. End of nose lies between the nostrils and abo\'e 
ie upper lip. It should be large and free from inju- 
ries. 

4. Lower jaw. — This corresponds to the borders of 
the lower jaw. These borders are thick in the young 
animal and thinner in the old animal; the variation 
here is also due to the difference in size of teeth. 

5. Space between the branches of the lower jaw. — 
This space should be concave, covered with thin skin, 
fine hair, and be free from swellings or enlargements. 
Abscesses form here when the horse or colt has dis- 
temper or strangles. Good width between the branch- 
es of the lower jaw is another indication of great re- 
spiratory capacity. 

6. Chin. — It corresponds to the place upon which 
the curb strap or chain presses. It should be free from 
injuries and harmonize with surrounding parts. 

7. Ear. — The ears should be relatively wide apart; 
neither too long nor too short ; relatively thin ; covered 
with fine hair and thin skin; and possess freedom of 
movement. A very short ear indicates nervousness; a 
long, heavy ear signifies sluggishness. Defective ears 
are sometimes classed as lop-ears, swine-ears, restless 
and "walking ears." The last name means that 
the ears move in unison with the walk of the animal. 
The ears may be broken, torn, cropped, split, or show 
scars from the action of the twitch. To hide defects 



dealers clip the coarse hair, apply hoods or nets, or 
use other means to deceive the buyer. A deaf ear is 
hard to detect ; such a horse does not respond to the 
voice of the driver and its ears do not move readily 
or remain relatively fixed. 

8. Temple. — This region should be free from blem- 
ishes and harmonize with surrounding parts. 

9. Supra-Orbit— It lies just above the eye; is full 
and round in the young animal and sunken or de- 
pressed in old horses ; this is due to the variation in 
the quantity of fat and muscle in the Supra-Orbit. In 
very poor animals it may also be hollow or sunken. 
Jockeys sometimes blow air under the skin to fill up 
this depression and make the animal look young. 

10. Eyebrows. — They are not distinct in old horses 
and only visible in very early life. 

11. Eye. — The eye is located in the orbital cavity. 
The eyeball or globe is surrounded by muscles and 
pads of fat which help fill the cavity and also protect 
the eye. The eyes should be wide apart ; fill the cav- 
ity full ; stand out fairly well, but not too much ; they 
should be equal in size; the pupil dark — nearly black 
in color. The cornea, which is usually clear and trans- 
parent, s'hould be free from white spots, or spots of 
anv kind that interfere with light. The size of the 




Fig. 2.— Regular or normal axis of front limbs viewed 
from in front. 







Bred by Giltmer Bros., Eminence, Ky. 



2y8 



It you are able to own stock, you are able to have good stables for them. 




Fig 3. — Ground or base narrow front limbs or the feet too 
close togettier. 



pupil should change quickly when the horse is brought 
from darkness to light, or from light to darkness; the 
pupil is large in t'he dark and small in the light. This 
can be tested by the use of a lamp or lantern, or by 
moving the horse from a dark stall out into the sun- 
light. The eyelids should be thin, fine, freely mova- 
ble, and without blemish. The lining or inside of the 
lid should be scarlet or light rose red in color. The 
tears should be clear and sufficient in quantity to keep 
the lids and eye moist. Finally, the eye should be 
large and expressive. Defective eyes are small, une- 
qual in size, concealed or hidden, very protruding, 
cloudy or opaque. The wall eye is one in which the 
color is almost absent. It is sometimes called a 
"white" or "glass eye." Such an eye is unsightly, but 
not necessarily defective in vision. A short sighted 
horse or a long sighted horse may be addicted to shy- 
ing; but such conditions are hard to detect by the 
average man. 

12. Cheeks. — It should be a plain surface, free 
from scars, swellings, and wounds. The skin should 
be thin, covered with fine hair, and t'he blood .vessels 
quite distinctly visible. Its defects may consist in 
wounds from the teeth, swellings, and distension from 



a collection of food between irregular teeth and th> 
inside of the cheek. 

13. Nostrils. — These are the external openings of 
the nasal passages. They should be large, wide apart 
and well separated from the upper lip. Largeness of 
nostrils means large lung capacity. The membrane 
lining the nasal passages should be clean, scarlet red', 
and smooth. The discharge from the nose should be 
clear, inodorous, and small in quantity. After exer- 
cise this lining membrane may be deep red in color. 
The movements of the nostrils should be regular to 
correspond with t'he respiration. If the nostrils are 
small the discharge abundant, puslike, green, yellow, 
or bad smelling, the nostrils or nose are defective or 
diseased. Usually, a bad smelling discharge is a sign 
of a diseased molar tooth, especially if the discharge 
is only on one side. Inspiration and expiration should 
be noiseless. 

14. Mouth. — This complex region may be consid- 
ered the beginning of the digestive canal. 

(a) The lips should be thin, relatively stiff and 
held closed when the animal is not eating. The cut or 
depth of the mouth sliould not be too great or too 
small. The lips may be paralyzed ; if the lower lip is 
paralyzed on both sides it hangs pendulous, and the 
animal cannot drink without plunging its mouth into 
water below the corners. If paralyzed on one side the 
lip is drawn to the opposite side. The lips may be 
cut by the bit. The quivering lip is one that cannot 
be held still, owing to nervous irritability. 

(h^ Three kinds of teeth are found in the mouth 
of the horse. The incisors or front teeth are twelve in 
number — si.x above and six below. The canines or 
tusks are found in the male; sometimes incompletely 
developed canines are found in the mare. They are 
four in number. The molars in a full mouth are twen- 
ty-four in number — six in each half jaw. In examin- 
ing a) horse always determine the regularity, length, 
direction, integrity, and soundness of the teeth, as we!! 
as the age. (The age of the horse, as indicated by 
the teetli, will be discussed in another place.) 

(c) Bars. — They occupy the space between the 
lower molars and the canines in the horse and the in- 
cisors in the mare. The bit rests on the bars. They 
should be free from injury; not over sensitive to the 
bit, but respond regularly and accurately to the im- 
pressions of the bit. 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



299 



(d) Lingual Canal. — In this space lies the tongue. 
Good width, with proportion to the volume of the 
congue, is to be desired. 

(e) Tongue. — The tongue aids in grasping, chew- 
ing, mixing, and swallowing the food. It should be 
relatively large, possess free movement, and be free 
from wounds. The most serious defect is the lolling 
tongue. In this the horse carries the tongue hanging 
3ut one side of the mouth, especially when the bit is 
in the mouth. This is the result of a habit, and in 
;ome cases it may be prevented by bits especially con- 
structed for that purpose. 

(f) Palate. — This is the superior wall of the mouth. 
ft has a series of ridges and grooves running from 
';ide to side. The ridges are sometimes erroneously 
ilhalled bars. The covering membrane should be rose 
j,;olored. When this hard palate is swollen the horse 
|!s said to 'have "lampas." The swelling may be caused 
||)y cutting teeth, rough, irritating food, diseased teeth 
I'md indigestion. Sometimes it may be caused by a 
.i'orm of sore mouth. As a rule, the hard palate should 

lOt be cut and never burned for this trouble. Re- 
,'nove the cause or wait until the colt gets over cutting 
ijieeth, and recovery will take place without treatment, 
jlrhe soft palate hangs down from t'he back part of the 
'jiard palate and closes the opening between the mouth 

iind the pharynx or throat. This soft palate is so 
jjarge in the horse, that it prevents air or food from 
Aoming back into the mout'h after reaching the throat. 

lience, when a horse vomits the food or water comes 

^ut through the nostrils instead of the mouth. 

15. PoU. — This is sometimes called the nape of 
he neck. It is the region injured by throwing t'he 
bead up against objects, or by a stroke with a club 
over the head. In some cases abscesses form as a re- 
Wit of such injuries ; then a large swelling will occur 
ind sooner or later the abscess erupts or breaks open 
liind discharges pus on the surface. The animal is 
jihen said to 'have "poll evil," a very serious and trou- 
plesome disease. It can only be cured by proper oper- 
ktion and correct treatment. This may require 
ilnonths. 

1 16. Parotid Region. — This lies below the ear, above 
he throat, and connects the side of the neck with the 
i'heek. It s'hould be neither too full nor too much de- 
oressed. 

17. Throat. — This unites the inferior border of the 
leck with the head. It should be wide, because great 



width signifies a large larynx, and that means a large 
air passage ; hence, large lung capacity. 

The Head as a whole. — All t'he regions of the head 
should harmonize with one another. It should be 
neither too large nor too small for the size of the 
horse. The length of the classic head is about two- 
fifths of the height of the horse. The direction of the 




Fig. 4. — Base wide Or ground wide or feet too far apart. 

head, or the position in which the head is carried most 
commonly, should be such as to make an angle of 
about forty-five degrees, with the horizontal or level 
ground surface. This position enables the horse to 
see better to the side and in front of him, and also en- 
ables it to support the bit with ease and execute move- 
ments readily and easily. If t'he head is carried more 
vertical, the horse is usually tender in the mouth. If 
it is carried more nearly horizontal the horse is us- 
ually hard in the mouth. 

BODY. 
Upper Surface. 

I. Neck.- — It presents for study an upper border, a 
lower border, a right and a left surface. The upper 
border supports the mane, and should be t'hin in geld- 



30O 



Don t depend too much on hired help to look after yo _r stock. 



ings and in mares. In stallions it is usually quite 
thick. It should be nearly straight or slightly curved 
from above to below. The inferior border is round 
from side to side and relatively wide. Its width meas- 
ures in a degree the width of the wind pipe. A large 
wind pipe means a large lung capacity. The side sur- 




pig, g. — Regular or normal axis of front limb. 

faces are convex from above to below, with the thick 
or heaviest part being nearer the lower than the up- 
per border. Along the lower part of the side surface 
runs the jugular furrow, in which lies the jugular vein. 
The direction of the neck should be such as to make 
an angle of forty-five degrees with the level or hori- 
zontal. If the head makes a similar angle with the 
liorizontal, then the head and neck will make an angle 
with each other of ninety degrees, or a right angle. 
In form, the neck should be nearly straight, or but 
slightly arched, except in the fancy riding horse the 
swan neck may be desired. This means a high head 
and a compressed throat, but not speed. The mane 
and forelock grow out from the upper border of the 
neck. If the mane is long, coarse and stiflF, it signi- 
fies common, breeding. In well bred horses the mane 
is fine, silky and not overabundant; in fact, many well 
bred horses are deficient in quantity of mane. Some- 
times this is due to a disease of the skin and not to 
breeding. 

2. Withers. — This is located between the top of 
the neck and back, and between the tops of the should- 
ers. The withers should be high and extend well to- 
ward the back. As a rule, the withers represent the 
highest part of the body, except the head and neck. 



The withers should be well defined, neither too thick 
nor too thin, never too low, and free from scars and 
diseases. The most common disease of the withers is 
known as fistulous withers. This consists in a deep 
seated abscess, which sooner or later opens to the sur- 
face. Very like poll evil, it requires correct surgical 
and medicinal treatment, with months of time to pro- 
duce a cure. It injures the value of the horse from 
twenty-five to seventy-five per cent. 

3. Back. — It is limited in front by the withers, be- 
hind by the loins, and on each side by the ribs. It re- 
ceives the saddle and transmits the propulsive power 
of the hind limbs to the front part of the body. It 
should be straight, long — never too long — and in width 
correspond to regions in front and behind. The con- 
cave or swav back is weak and defective ; the convex 
or roached back makes a rough rider, an unsightly 
horse, and often throws the front and hind limbs too 
close together. 

4. Loins. — These are located in front of the croup, 
behind the back, and between the flanks. The loins 
should be wide and short ; as a rule, thev are never too 




Pig. 7. — Foot and lower part of limb too far in front of 
the normal. Defective because it weakens the limb as a 
column of support; throws an excess of weight on the heels 
and flexor tendons and suspensory ligament and leads to a 
long toe and low heel. 

Pig. s.; — Knee too far back of the normal; thi.s weakens 
the limb as a column of support and puts excessive strain 
on the posterior ligaments and tendons. 

Pig. 9. — The limb regular or normal except the foot is to 
far forward; this leads to long toe and low heel and in- 
creases the strain on back ligaments and tendon at the fet- 
lock. 



\ 



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301 



wide and rarely too short. A long back and short 
loins are always in order. Great width is desired, be- 
' cause it strengthens and supports the region. The 
loins usually take the same direction as the back, and 
should be straight. 

5. Croup. — This is sometimes called the rump, and 
is a very powerful, muscular region. The croup is 
measured in length from the hip point or "haunch" to 
the buttock point. For speed, the croup is never too 
long. Width of croup is measured from right hip 
point or haunch to left hip point. Also from right 
buttock to left buttock point. For speed, the croup 
can be too wide, because it then produces too much 
wabbling or lateral motion. It can also be too nar- 
row, and then throw the legs too close together, pro- 
ducing interfering. For the draft horse, other things 
being equal, the croup is rarely too wide. The thick- 
ness of the croup is indicated largely by the volume of 
the muscles. The direction for speed should be near- 
ly horizontal ; that is, the direction of the length line 
of the croup should approach a horizontal or make an 
angle with the level of twenty to thirty degrees. In 
the saddle horse this angle may be twenty-five to thir- 
ty-five degrees. In the draft horse, this angle may be 
from thirty to forty-five degrees. The square croup is 
one that is about as wide behind as in front. The 
pointed, mule-shaped croup is one that is much nar- 
; rower behind than in front. In rating the good quali- 
ties of the croup, consider first the length, then the 
width, then the direction and the thickness. The term 
j| haunch is commonly applied to the hip point, or what 
''some may call the hip. It is a part of the croup. It 
is the part broken when the animal is "hipped." 

Lower Surface of Body. 

6. Xyphoid. — This region corresponds to the back 
end of the breast bone. It is of no special importance. 
7- Abdomen. — It corresponds to the inferior wall 
of the abdominal cavity. It is commonly called the 
ibelly. The wall of the abdomen is elastic, and yields 
lor stretches when pressure is applied from without or 
within... The size of the abdomen varies with the 
breed, with the sex, and with the way the animal is 
fed. The draft horses generally have larger abdomens 
!jthan the lighter breeds. The mare, especially when in 
; foal,. has a large abdomen. Horses and colts at pas- 
ture, where they eat large quantities of bulky food. 
'have a large abdomen. All greedy horses, that are 



fed large quantities of forage or hay, have a large ab- 
domen. The size of the abdomen may be changed by 
reducing the bulk of the food. The grey hound, or 
tucked-up abdomen is indication of a very light eater 
or feeder. This condition of abdomen may be seen in 
the running horse as it is prepared for the race, but if 
a constant condition it is a sign of poor digestion. 
I'he most serious trouble about the abdomen consists 
in the various forms of rupture. In the colt the most 
common rupture is at the naval. This is usually 
present at birth. Ruptures in other parts of the abdo- 
. in on are caused by injuries from horns or pointed ob~ 
jtcts, and sometimes bv kicks. Ruptures from inju- 
ries are always very serious, and should be treated at 
once by pressing back the abdominal organs and ap- 
plying a broad bandage around the abdomen pressing 
firmly over the ruptured place. A smooth thick layer 
of cotton may be piaced over the ruptured place under 
the bandage, in order to increase the pressure. 

Side Surfaces. 

8. Ribs. — The rib region has for its base the last 
twelve ribs. The size of the rib region has some in- 
dication of the size of the thorax or lung cavity, and 
the size of the lung cavity determines the size of lung 
capacity. The length of the thorax is indicated by the 
spring of the ribs, and the separation of the ribs from 
one another. In other words, if the ribs are well 





Fig. 10. — The lower part of the limb is back of the nor? 
mal and the pastern Is too upright or too near the perpeii-.- 
dicular; this leads to a short toe and high heel (club footy 
and by increasing concussion predisposes horse tto ring btofrj 
liavicular "disease and splints. ,, , . . j 

Fig. 11.— The lower part of limb back of the normal .iiiil 
the lirte-e is sprung; it weakens the llmib as a column ofl 
support and predisposes the horse to falling on its knees. 



302 



Rotten corn, oats and hay make poor stock tool. 



sprung and well separated, the thorax is long, and a 
long thorax is always desirable. Depth of thorax is 
measured from above to below and depends upon 
tile length and curvature of the ribs. Great depth is 
desirable. The widt'h or thickness of the thorax is 




Fig. 12. Regular or normal axis of 
iind limbs viewed from behind. 



hollow above from the movable portion below. The 
movable portion is the part t'hat moves outward dur- 
ing inspiration and inward during expiration. When 
the horse is "bellowsed" or has the 'heaves, there is a 
double inward movement during expiration. 

10. Groins. — The groin corresponds to the fold of 
skin along the line of union, between the inside of tlii- 
thigh and the trunk or body. It is of no special im- 
portance, except it should be free from skin tumors, 
wounds, injuries and swellings. 

Front End. 

11. Chest or Breast. — This region lies between the 
arms, below the lower border of the neck, and in front 
of the inter-axilla. The breast is sharp when the front 
end of the breast bone is prominent. The breast 
hollow or sunken when there is a depression just in- 
side of the upper end' of each arm. This indicates 
poorly developed muscles or bad position of frort 
limbs. The breast may be quite wide in draft horses, 
but it can be too wide for speed horses, because a very 
wide beast means wabbling or lateral motion. The 
breast may also be too narrow and throw the front 
limbs too close together, thus favoring interfering. 

12. Interaxilla. — It is limited in front by the 
breast, behind by the xyphoid region, and on each 
side by the axilla or arm pit. It may be concave, con- 
vex or straight, according to the volume of the mus- 
cles. 



measured from side to side, and depends upon curva- 
ture and length. Therefore, a large thorax or lung 
capacity depends upon great length, depth, and width, 
which as a rule, we never find too great. Large lung 
capacity is desirable in any kind of a horse ; good wind 
as commonly understood is essential to a good horse. 
Defective ribs are short and flat, and close together. 
In big head fhe ribs may be bent out of shape, or be- 
come indented. 

9. Flanks. — The flank is located below the loins, 
above the abdomen, behind the ribs, and in front of 
the stifle. It presents for study the hollow, the cord, 
and the movable portion. The cord extends from the 
hauncTi or hip point obliquely downward and forward 
to the lower border of the last ribs. It separates the 



13. Axillae or Arm Pits. — Each arm pit corresponrls 
to the fold of skin that imites the inside of the front 
limb to the trunk. It is a favorite location for skin tu- 
mors. 

Back End. 

14. Tail. — This long, flexible appendage is an orna- 
ment as well as a tiseful organ to keep away flies. It' 
should be attached 'high up on the croup and be carried^ 
relatively high when the horse is in motion. If the'. 
tail is attached low it can never be carried high. Therej 
seems to be a close relation between the direction of 
the croup and the attachment and carriage of the tail.' 
A horizontal croup usually carries a high and well at' 
tacted tall. An oblique croup usually carries a low 
and poorly attached tail. The practice of docking 01 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



303 



cutting off the tail, leaving it about six inches long is 
prohibited by law in many of the States. Sometimes 
a tail is carried to one side. This can be remedied by 
an operation, but must be done by a qualified veteri- 
narian. A rat-tailed horse is one in which the hair 
has nearly all dropped out or fell out, giving the ap- 
pearance of a rat's tail. This is usually caused by a pa- 
rasitic skin disease. When of long standing it cannot 
be remedied. 

15. Anus. — This is the posterior opening of the ali- 
mentary canal. This opening is guarded by a circular 
or sphincter muscle. When this muscle is broken or 
torn t'he opening gapes all the time. The tearing is a 
jresult of some form of injury. The constant gaping 

permits continual or frequent passage of air when the 
animal is driven, and this is most annoying to the dri- 
ver. It cannot be easily remedied. 

16. Perineum. — This extends in the female from the 
jinus to the vulva ; in the male from the anus to the 

lack part of the testicle bag. In the female the peri- 
neum may be torn from the vulva to the anus, produc- 

ng a condition in which manure and air can contm- 
lially pass from the rectum without the control of the 
ijinimal. Operations to relieve this trouble are success- 
'I'ul in about one percent of the cases. 

Genital Organs. (Male.) 

17. Testicles and Envelopes. — It is important to 
■xamine the horse for the presence or absence of the 
esticles. If the horse be a stallion the testicles should 
le down and more or less prominent. Sometimes on- 
y one is down, where the other may be as high up as 
he abdominal cavity. This makes t'he operation of 
astration more difficult and dangerous. Also examine 
his region for sores, enlarged or suppurating cords 
ind swellings. 

18. Sheath and Penis. — Even in a gelding it is well 
> examine these parts, for occasionally one or both 

ijnay have a tumor, which may seriously interfere with 

!|ne health of the animal. Some of the tumors are ma- 

I'iignant and possess the nature and danger of a cancer. 

In the stallion it is important to see that these parts 

■re healthy and in no wise injured. Sometimes the pe- 
: lis may be greatly swollen or paralyzed, thus throw- 

ng a stallion out of service. 



Genital Qrgz-z. (Female.) 



19. Vulva. — This organ should be examined closely 
for discharges, ulcers and tumors, any of which might 
seriously interfere with her as a breeder. 

20. The Mammary Glands. — These may be injured 
in such a way that the animal cannot suckle its young, 
and in consequence be useless as a breeder. 

LIMBS. 
Front Limb. 

The functions or uses of the front limb are, first: a 
column of support ; second : to disperse concussion ; 
third : to aid in propulsion, especially when pulling at a 
slow gate. The two front limbs support about five- 
eights of the weight of the body. 

1. Shoulder. — The bony base of the s'houlder is the 
scapula or shoulder blade. This bone is covered both 
inside and outside by muscles. The shoulder should 
be long and well ihcHned backward. Some claim 
that it should make an angle of forty-five degrees with 
the horizontal, but this much inclination will rarely be 
found. As a rule, the angle will be somewhere be- 
tween fifty and sixty degrees in the speed horse, and 
between sixty and seventy degrees in the draft horse. 
The shoulder should be well covered with muscles, be 
free from injuries, scars or blemishes. In short, t'he 
shoulder should be long, well inclined backward, pos- 
sess well developed muscles, and be free from disease. 

2. Arm. — It has for its bony base the humerus. 
The direction of the arm should be such as to m.ake 
an angle of fifty to sixty degrees with the horizontal or 
level. It should be of medium length; if too long, the 
step will be shortened ; if too short, the step may also 
be short. The medium length permits complete ex- 
tension without stumbling. The volume of muscle 
should correspond with the parts above and below. 

3. Elbovir. — It is located between the arm and the 
forearm, and the top of the ulna forms its bony base. 
The bony process should extend well upward and 
backward, and be of good length. The elbows should 
not extend inward or outward, but directly upward 
and backward. This is the favorite seat of what is 
known as "shoe-boil." This is caused bv the horse 
lying down on his feet like a cow. The foot or tlie 
shoe injures the elbow. 



304 



Don't forget to have plenty of warm beJding in the winter. 



4. Forearm. — The base of the forearm is the radius. 
The forearm should be absolutely long, especially in 
speed horses. A long forearm means long muscle. 
and long muscles mean relatively long or great con- 
traction. The muscles that move all the parts of the 
limb below the knee are found in this region. There 
is one exception where a short forearm mav be de- 
sired. A short forearm and a long cannon seem to be 
desirable when high knee action is wanted, but in all 




ng. 14. — This side view of hind limb Is regarded by some 
as normal, but by others as being defective because it is too 
crooked. 



Other cases a long forearm and a short cannon are best. 
The forearm should always be vertical or perpendicu- 
lar. The width is measured from in front to behind at 
the upper end, lower end, and middle ; this gives you 
an idea of the volume of the muscle. Thickness is 
measured from inside to outside at the same places as 
for width; this gives an idea of the size of the bone. 

5. Knee. — This region corresponds to the wrist of 
man and not to his knee. Its bony base consists of 
seven small bones. The knee should be fine, wide, 
thick, and vertical, always in harmony with the parts 
above and below. The height of the knee will depend 
upon the variation in the relative length of the fore- 
arm and the cannon. A long cannon and short fore- 
arm usually means a high knee and also high knee 
action but not speed. A short cannon and a long fore- 
arm means a low knee, with low knee action and speed. 
The defective knee is one that is too small, out of po- 
sition, or diseased. If the knee extends back of the 
normal, it is called the lamb knee; if it extends in front 



of the normal, the horse is said to be knee-sprung; if 
it e.xtends inside of the normal toward its opposite, the 
animal is knock-kneed ; if it extends outward the ani- 
mal is bow-legged. 



Hind Limb. 

The functions or uses of the hind limb consist, first, 
in its power for propulsion, which is much greater 
than in the front limb; second, as a column of support, 
the two hind limbs supporting about three-eights of 
the weight of the body. 

6. Thigh. — Its bony base is the femur. This re- 
gion is sometimes divided into thigh and buttock. The 
thigh should make an angle of about eighty degrees 
with the horizontal or level, and its lower end should 
e.xtentl slightly outward. The length of the thigh is 
measured from the hip joint to the stifle. It should al- 
ways be long, especially for speed. Its width and 
thickness will determine the volume of muscles. It is 
well that the muscles extend well down on the thigh 
and buttock toward the leg or gaskin. 

7. Stifle. — The stifle corresponds in height to the 
elbow. It is the place where the peliella or the knee 
cap plays over the lower and front part of the femur. 
It should be rather distinctly outlined, neither too 
close nor too far away from the abdomen. This i< 
the location of what is commonly known as the "sti- 
fled" place. This is usually an upward dislocation of 
the knee cap. In this case the little bone catches 
above the upper lip of the articular surface of the fe- 
mur; then the hind limb is locked or stiff and immov- 
able until the bone slips in place. Sometimes the 
small bone slips out over the outside lip ; then it can 
be felt with the band. This last trouble is more diffi- 
cult to cure than the former. 

8. Leg or Gaskin. — The tibia is the bony base of 
this region. The bone is covered by muscles ait all 
places except the inside surface. It corresponds in 
position to the forearm of the front limb. Like the 
forearm, it should be long for speed. A long leg and 
a short cannon form the best combination for speed. 
A short leg and a long cannon may produce high hock 
action. The leg should form an angle of sixty-five to 
seventy degrees with the horizontal. It should he 
wide and thick when measured at its upper end when 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



305 



end and middle ; these measurements will determine 
the volume of the muscles and the size of the bone. 

g. Hock. — In the hind limb this region corresponds 
'n location to the knee of the front limb. Its bony 
3ase consists of six small bones. The hock should be 
/ertical in direction, neatly outlined, wide, thick, and 
.vithout any degree of fleshiness. The hock is said 
o be the key of the hind limb. It is here that the 




'Fig. 15. — (1) This is the normal or regular side view axis. 
jl. liip joint; B. buttock point; s. stifle joint; h hock joint; 

fetlock joint. Pa. perpendicular or plomb line dropped 
■cm stifle to the ground; He plomb line dropped from hip 
:)int; Bt plomb line dropped from the buttock point. These 
iiree plomb or perjiendicular lines are parallel and Pa and 
t are equidistant from He in the normal or regular axis. 
,1 (2) The greater part of limb is too far in front of the nor- 
jial; it weakens the hock; predisposes to over-reaching 
I'orging); and often leads to a long toe and low heel. 
I' (3) The greater part of the limb is too far back of the 
imial; it increases concussion and predisposes the horse 

ring bone. 

l\ 

'net of the propulsive power is often concentrated. 
1 consequence this region is more frequently diseas- 
^ than any other part of the hind limb. It is here 

jjiat we find bone spavin, curb, enlargement of the 
movial sacs, commonly called "bog spavin" and 
horoughpin," and also diseases of the skin are not 

hcommon about the fold of the hock. 



Regions Common to Front and Hind Limbs. 

10. Chestnuts. — In the front limb the chestnut is 
tuated about the middle part of the inferior third of 
e forearm on its inner surface. This is said to be 
e remnant of the internal digit, corresponding to the 



thumb of man. It is of no special importance. In 
the hind limb the chestnut is found on the internal 
surface of the hock. It is a rudiment of the great toe 
of the hind limb. 

11. Cannon and Tendons. — The bony base con- 
sists of the large cannon and two split bones. 
There are no muscles in this region. These parts 
act only as levers and columns of support. The can- 
non should be vertical. For speed it should be short ; 
for high knee or hock action it should be long. It 
should also be relatively wide and thick. The ten- 
dons should stand out distinctly and well separated 
from the cannon bone. The tendons should run par- 
allel with the cannon. The cannon of the hind limb 
is a little longer and narrower than that of the front 
limb. The cannon region is a favorite seat for splints 
and diseases of the tendon. 

12. Fetlock and Ergot. — The bony base is formed 
by the lower end of the large cannon and upper end 
of the first phalanx and two sesamoid bones at the 
back part of the articulation. The fetlock should be 
wide, thick, fine, and free from blemishes and diseases. 
It is here that a change in the direction of the limb 
takes place. The cannon above is vertical and the 
pastern below forms an angle with the horizontal of 
fifty to sixty degrees. The fetlock supports on its 
back part a bunch of coarse hair, in the middle of 
which is a small horny growth called the ergot. 
"Wind galls" or distensions of the synovial sacs are 
quite common at the fetlock. 

13. Pastern. — It lies below the fetlock and above 
the coronet. The direction of the pastern will vary, 
the angle forms being somewhere between fifty and 
sixty degrees with the horizontal. If the fetlock is 
too much inclined an excess of weight is thrown upon 
the back tendons and ligaments, especially at the fet- 
lock. If the pastern is too upright or too nearly ver- 
tical, too much concussion is thrown upon the bone, 
and this predisposes the animal to bone diseases. The 
pastern should correspond in width and thickness to 
the parts above and below. The length of the pastern 
will vary somewhat with its direction. A short pas- 
tern is usually very upright ; a long pastern is gener- 
ally very much inclined. It is said that t'he horse 
with an inclined pastern is an easy driver or saddler. 
The pastern is frequently the location of disease. 
Ring bone, skin disease and wounds are found here. 



21 



3o6 



Don't let your stable be muddy. 



14. Coronet— It lies below the pastern and above 
the foot. Its bony base is the second phalanx. It 
should take the same direction as the pastern and be 
relatively wide, thick and fine. At the coronet may 
occur ring bone, quittor, side bones, grease heel, and 
wounds. 




Fig, 5.— Shows live front views of front limljs. Beginning 
on the left. 1. Regular, normal standing iwsitlon or axis. 
2. Toe-narrow or pigeon-toed. 3. Base wide or ground wide. 
4. Toe-wide or toes pointing outward. 5. Limbs down to 
fetloeks too close together and toe wide. 

15. Foot.— The foot is formed by the third phalanx 
or coflin bones and the navicular bones, ligaments, 
tendons, soft tissues, blood vessels, nerves, and the 
horny hoof. The front foot is more nearly round, 
wider, and less concave at the sole than the hind foot. 
The frog of the front foot is larger and nearer the 
ground than in the hind foot. The wall of the hoof 
at the toe is more inclined in the front foot than in the 
hind; in the front foot the toe line makes an angle of 
fifty to fifty-five degrees with the horizontal, while 
the toe line of the hind foot makes an angle of fifty- 
five to sixty degrees with the level. The toe line of 
the front foot is twice as long or high as the heel. In 
the hind foot the heel is about one-third as high as the 
toe. \'iewing the foot from behind, the heels should 
be well separated, equal in size and height. Viewing 
the bottom of the foot, the sole should be concave and 
thick, the frog strong and healthy, the bars neither 
too straight nor too much inclined, and the bearing 
border of the wall and the sole should be perceptibly 
worn from usage. The horn of the standard foot is 
black or dark gray; the wall is smooth and shiny, 
showing its fibre structure. 

Defects of the Foot. — ist. The foot may be too 
large or too small for the size of the horse. 

2nd. The foot may be too flat, not sufftciently con- 
cave in the sole. 

3rd. The toe may be too long or the toe may be 
too short and the heels too high. The high heel and 
short toe form what is called the club foot. 



4th. The foot or hoof may be crooked, the inside 
part of the wall may be higher or lower than the out- 
side. 

5th. The quality of the horn may be deficient; it 
may be too soft, too dry and brittle and too easily 
split or broken. 

Diseases of the Foot are as follows: Punctures or 
snags, thrush, canker, wall cracks, corns, founder or 
laminitis, horny tumors of the wall and sole, and va- 
rious other wounds and injuries. 

All the directions mentioned in the preceding par- 
agraphs apply to the position of regions or parts 
when the horse is standing square on all his feet. 

THE NORMAL AXES OR BEST POSITIONS OF 

THE LliVIBS. 

Front Limb. 

1. Viewed from one side, a plomb line dropped 
from the middle of the arm should strike the center 
of the hoof, and be equally distant from a plomb line 
dropped from the point of the shoulder and one 
dropped from the point of the elbow. Any deviations 
from this normal position are more or less defective. 

2. Viewed from in front, a plomb line dropped from 
the point of the shoulder divides all the lower part 
of the limb into outer and inner halves, and separates 
the right foot from the left foot a distance equal to 
the width of one of the feet. All deviations from the 
normal axes are more or less defective. 

Hind Limb. 
I. Viewed from one side, a plomb line dropped 
from the hip joint obliquely crosses the middle of the 




Fig. 22. — (a) Shows a foot where the axis is "broken" at 
the coronet, and the toe is relatively too long or high for 
the height of the heel. The dotted line along tlie lower Ijor- 
der shows how much more the toe must be rasped away than 
the heel in order to bring the axis back to its normal posi- 
tion and establish the proper relation between the toe lengtll 
and the heel length or height. 

(b) Shows the normal or straight axis and the correct rel- 
ative height or length of toe and heel. 

(c) Shows the axis broken at the coronet in the opposite 
direction to that at a. The toe is too short and the heel is 
too liigh. The dotted line along the lower border shows 
how much more the heel must be rasped away than the toe 
in order that the defects of axis and toe and heel lengtlis 
may be partly corrected. It may take two or more "show- 
ings" to correct completely these defects. 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



307 



leg or gaskin and strikes the center of the hoof; this 
line is equally distant from a plomb line dropped 
from the stifle and one dropped from the buttock 
point. The plomb line dropped from the buttock 
point usually touches the back border of the hock, the 
tendons, and the fetlock. All deviations from the 
normal axes are defective. 

2. Viewed from behind, a plomb line dropped from 
the point of the buttock divides the hind limb into 
cuter and inner halves, and separates the right foot 
from the left foot a distance equal to the width of the 
fetlock. Deviations from the normal axes are defec- 
tive. 






Fig. 18. — (a) Toe wide feet, front view. The outside halt 
of wall of hoof is longer and higher than the inside half. 
The axis deviate outward from the fetlock to the ground. 
This predisposes horse to interfere with the inside heel, c 
strikes usually at e. This detect may be relieved .by rasp- 
ing away more of the wall than the inside half at each 
time of shoeing until the inside and outside halves of the 
wall are of equal height. Then the toes should point direct- 
ly forward. 

(b) Toe-wide feet, back view. 



Shoeing the Healthy Foot of 

THE Horse 



Bearing in mind the relation between the toe line 

! and the heel, the inside and the outside height of the 
hoof, prepare the foot for the shoe, keeping these re- 
lations normal, or trying to make them normal. As a 
rule, it is best to use the rasp and not the knife in lev- 

Ircling and sinoothing off the lower border of the wall 
of the hoof. If the sole and the frog are healthy, they 
should never be pared or cut away with the drawing 
knife. The lower border of the "wall is to be kept 

' level and rasped down until the rasp begins to cut 

..away a little of the sole. 

I' 

I The size of the shoe should be determined by the 
size of the animal and the kind of shoe. A steel 
shoe is always better than an iron shoe, becarse a 
small steel shoe will wear longer and do better ser- 
vice than a large iron shoe. The smaller the shoe, 
the better for the animal, providing it will stand the 
wear and protect the hoof. 

In fitting the shoe to the hoof, see that the outline 

fjof the shoe corresponds closely to the outline of the 

[jhoof or wall. The heel may project back of the heel 

of the foot one-fourth to one-half inch. The nail holes 

in the shoe should be well toward the toe, because 



nails in the heel or back part of the wall prevent 
healthy expansion of the foot. Heel calks and toe 
calks are unnecessary, and injurious to the healthy 



u 



u 



c; 



u 



u 




Fig. 19. — (a) Shows the direction of the flight of the reg- 
ular, normal or straight feet In walking. 

(b) Shows how the feet move when is toe-wide. 

(c) Shows the line of movement in a toe narrow horse. 



3o8 



Don't let and Jackleg Shoe your Horses and Mules. 



feet of horses in the Southern States. The plain, 
level, or furrowed shoe is far better than a shoe stand- 
ing up on stilts (calks)-. After the shoe has been 
made to fit the prepared foot, as accurately as possi- 
ble, heat the shoe red hot and touch it to the prepared 
foot at the exact place it should go for about five 
seconds. This makes t'he shoe fit exactly and closes 
the porous openings in the freshly rasped wall. Re- 
member that it is not well nor wise' to hold the hot 
iron on the foot longer than ten seconds. Now the 
cool shoe is ready to be nailed on with as small nails as 



consistent with the size of the shoe and the foot. 
Three nails on each side toe should be sufficient. The 
nails should come out one-half to three-quarters of 
an inch above the lower border of the wall; then 
clipped off and clinched. The outer surface of tihe 
wall should not be rasped away, because it is natural- 
ly covered with a protective varnish that prevents ex- 
cessive drying out of the foot. 

The toe of the shoe being firmly fixed to the toe of 
the wall prevents wearing away of the toe of the wall, 
but the heels being free are worn away by rubbinsT 




Fig. 13. — ShoTfs four positions of tiie Tiind limb from pos- 
terior view. Beginning on the left. 1. Toe-wide or toes point- 
ing outward. 2. Toe-narrow or pigeon-toed. 3. Base nar- 
row or ground narrow or limbs and feet too close together. 
4. Base or ground wide. Limbs and feet too far apaa-t, es- 
pecially for a speed horse. 







Fig. 16. — (a) Regular or normal foot, front view. 
(b) The same with back view. 





Fig. 17. — (a) Toe narrow or pigeon-toed feet, front view. 
Inside half of wall of hoof higher and longer than the out- 
side. Piredisposes to inerferring with the inside part of toe 
which strikes usually the inside part of the opposite fetlock, 
as c strikes e. The axis Inclines or deviates Inward from 
the fetlock to the ground. This defect can sometimes toe 
remedied toy rasping down the Inside half of the wall more 
than the outside half, at each time of shoeing, until the in- 
side and outside halves of the wall are of equal length and 
height, (to) The back view of toe — narrow feet. 




Fig. 20. — Lower or ground surface of front foot. 

(a) Middle left of the frog. 

(b. c, d) Inferior or bearing iborder of the wall of the 
hoof. 

(b) Toe; c and d quarters; e sole; f-f body of the frog; 
k-k branches at base of frog; h joint or apex of frog; 1-1 
lateral clefts of frog; letters i-i are on the base. 




Fig. 21. — Lower or ground surface of hind foot. Notice 
thai the toe (b) is more pointed and the width (c to d) are 
narrower than the same parts in the front foot. The frog 
is smaller and the sole is more vaulted or concave than In 
the front foot. 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEAiSUKK. 



309 



on the upper surface of the shoe. As a result, in the 
course of three or four weeks the toe becomes long and 
the heels too short. In order to remedy this, the 
slioe should be removed, the toe rasped off to its nor- 
mal length, and the old shoe reset or a new one put 
on. Thus it will be seen that it is necessary to re- 



set the shoes on the horse at least once a month, in 
order to keep the feet in a nomal, healthy condition. 

Remember that the frog, t'he sole, and the wall 
should not be rasped or cut away, except the wall at 
its lower border, upon which to fit the shoe: because 
the hoof will dry out. become smaller, harder and 
inflexible if these parts are cut away. 



Thf Age of the Horse Deter- 
mined BY THE Teeth 



The teeth are made up of hard substances. The 
outer part that is readily seen by the eye is enamel. 
This is very hard ; in fact, the hardest substance in 




-Three 
\ lew s> ot colt's mouth ^9 
about 1 week old. '""^ 



the body. It is white and ivory-like in appearance. 

In the young tooth just cut this may be covered by 

a soft yellow layer called cement, which soon rubs ofif 
1| or wears away. In the old horse this may be covered 
Hvith a yellow tartar-like substance, which makes the 

iteeth appear yellow. The color of the teeth is no in- 
jJdex to age. This enamel dips down into the table 
jljsurface of the incisors and forms a cup-like cavity in 
'pthe new tooth on this surface. In the molar tooth it 
(dips down into the tooth on the table surface several 
'jtimes. The bulk of the tooth is made up of a softer 

I I 

substance called dentine. It surrounds the pulp cav- 
ity and lies just inside of the enamel. The enamel 
dips down into it on the table surface. When the 
teeth wear away on this surface, the dentine wears 
aster than the enamel, which keeps the table surface 
'ough and with sharp projections of enamel. Thus 




nature keeps or niaintains a sharp and rough surface 
for cutting and grinding purposes. 

The horse, like man and many other animals, de- 
velops two sets of teeth. The first set may be called 
temporary teeth ; the second set are called permanent 
teeth. 

The temporary teeth of the horse are all of the in- 
cisors and the first three molars in each half-jaw, mak- 
ing twenty-four in all. The permanent teeth consist of 
six incisors above and six below, two canines above 
and two below, and six molars in each half jaw, mak- 
ing forty permanent teeth in the mouth of the horse. 
In the mare the canines are usually absent. 



3IO 



Don't have a man to shoe for you because he does his work cheap. 






Fig. 25. — Three views of colt's mouth at three uonths old. 



The names of the incisor teeth must be known in 
order to understand the signs and changes that ap- 
pear in them. The two central incisors, above and 
below, are called nippers. The two incisors touching 
and next to the nippers, one on each side, above and 
below (four in all), are called dividers. The remain- 
ing four incisors located each one on the outside of a 
divider, above and below, are called corners. The ca- 
nines are designated by their location. The molars 
are numbered in each half jaw, beginning below at 
No. I and running upward and backward to No. 6. 



From birth to the time the horse is five years old 
the age is indicated chiefly by the eruption or cutting 
of temporary and permanent teeth. The colt may be 
born with temporary nippers, but if not present at 
birth they appear in five to nine days. The dividers 
v.'ill be cut in about seven weeks after birth; the cor- 
ners in si.x or seven months after birth. The first 
three molars in each half jaw are the only molars that 
are temporary. They may be present at birth, but if 
not present then, they will appear in seven to ten 
days. The fourth molar in each half jaw will appear 







Fig. 26. — Three views o£ colt's mouth at one year old. 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



3" 






^ • AAiiw" 



1 Fig. 24. — Three views of colt's mouth at one month old. 

in ten to twelve months after birth ; this is the first 
Ipermanent tooth in the horse, and serves to fix the 
liage of the yearling. No more changes in the way of 
jeruption of teeth will occur until the colt is two and 
ia half years old. From the time the colt is one year 
JDld until it is two and one-half years old, the age must 
he determined by the condition and wear of the tem- 
iporary incisors. 

ri At two and one-half years the temporary nippers 
Ijire shed or drop out and permanent nippers come out 
|;|n their place ; the upper and lower permanent nip- 
l^ers will meet each other by the time the horse is 





three years old. At this same time the first and sec- 
ond temporary molars in each half jaw are shed and 
their places taken by permanent molars. Also the 
fifth permanent molar in each half jaw is cut at this 
time. 

At three and one-half years old the temporary divid- 
ers are shed and replaced by permanent ones; these 
permanent dividers, above and below, will meet each 
other when the horse is four years old. 

At four and one-half years old the temporary cor- 
ners are shed and replaced by permanent corners; the 
permanent corners, above and below, will meet by 





Fig. 27. — Three views of colt's mouth at 2 years old. 



Fig. 2S.— Three views of 2 1-2 year old mouth. 



312 



Cheap prices very often mean cheap work. 




pjg 29.— Three views of the 3 1-2 year old mouth. 

the time the horse is five years old. During this 
same period the sixth permanent molar in each half 
jaw is cut; also the canines in the male appear at this 
time. The five year old horse has a full mouth of per- 
manent teeth. 

At six years old the cup on the tahle surface of the 
lower nippers is worn away, and this surface is nearly 
level. 






Fig. 30.— Three views of he 4 1-2 years old mouth. 



Fig. 32.— Three views of 6 years old mouth. 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



313 





Pig. 33. — Three views of seven year.s old mouth. 







Fig. 3.5. — View of table or "wearing surfaces of incisor or 
front teeth of horse 9 years old. 






Fig. 35. — Three views of a horse's mouth at 10 years old. 




Fig. 34. — Three views of eight years old moufll. 



'Fig. 36. — Three views of a horse's mouth at 11 years old. 



314 



Horses and mules need good feet to do good work. 







Fig. 37.-Three views of a horse's mouth at 12 years old. . ^'- '^--T'lf t ^'^ws of a 13 years old horse's mouth of 

incisor or front teeth. 



At seven years old the dividers have lost t'he cup 
and are nearly level. 

At eight years old the cup has disappeared in the 
corners. 

At nine years old the outline of the table surface of 
the nippers is slightly oval or nearly round, and the 
dental star or white line appears in the nippers. The 
dental star or white line is a w'hite chalky spot or line 
near the outer border of the table surface and is the 
beginning of the obliterated or remnant pulp cavity. 
In front of this white line is the round, hard rem- 
nant central enamel. The location and form of the 
dental star and the central enamel may be seen by re- 
ferring to some of the illustrations. 




Fig. 39. — Three views of the incisor or front teeth of a 
horse 15 years old. 



At ten years old the lower nippers are still more 
nearly round, the central enamel is distinctly triangu- 
lar, and t'he dental star more prominent. 

At eleven years old the outline of the wearing sur- 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



315 



face of the dividers is round and the white line or den- 
tal star has made its appearance in the dividers. 

At twelve years old all the inferior tables are round. 
The dental star in the nippers and dividers becomes a 
yellow spot. In some cases the central enamel may 
disappear in the nippers; also in the superior corners. 

At thirteen years old the inferior tables are still 
round, t'he central enamel in the lower nippers is gone, 
and sometimes it has disappeared in the dividers ; the 
central enamel is always gone in the superior corners. 
The dental star is round in the lower nippers and 
nearly round in the lower dividers. It is usuall}' 
round in the upper corner. The central enamel in the 
upper nippers is round. 

At fourteen years old the table or wearing surface 
3f the lower nippers is more or less triangular. 

At fifteen years old the lower nippers are triangu- 
lar. The superior tables are becoming triangular. 






Fig. 41. — Three views of a 19 years old liorses's mouth. 

and the central enamel is present in t'he upper nip- 
pers. 

At seventeen years old all the inferior tables are 
triangular. The superior tables are becoming trian- 
gular, and the central enamel is very small in the up- 
per nippers. 




■Fig. 40.— Three views oi 17 years old horse's mouth of 
ont teeth. 




At nineteen years old the inferior tables begin to 
appear somewhat quadrangular or four-sided in out- 
line. The lower corners may yet remain triangular. 
The central enamel in the upper nippers is gone or 
very small. 

'At twenty-one years old the tables of the superior 
nippers and dividers are triangular and usually the 
central enamel has disappeared in all the upper inci- 
sors. 

As the horse grows older from year to year, the in- 
cisor teeth become shorter and narrower from side to 
side and more widely separated from one another. Al- 



3i6 



Bad stables make bad feet. 



so, as the horse grows older the angle, which the teeth 
make with the jaw, changes. The older the horse 
the more nearly the teeth appear to extend out 
straight from the end of the lower jaw. In judging 
the age of a horse be careful to distinguish between 
temporary and permanent teeth. Temporary teeth 
are always smaller and shorter than permanent teeth. 



Moreover, always examine the thickness of the lower 
jaw and remember that the lower jaw is thick in 
young animals, and thin or sharp in old animals. Al- 
so observe the degree of depression in the supra-or- 
bit. Never neglect to observe the direction of the in- 
cisor teeth and the condition of the molars and ca- 
nines. 



<yL 




Fig. 43. — I.s a section outline, the tooth being cut or saw- 
ed throTigh its middle from before to behind. It shows the 
pulp cavity in its central part; around it is the dentine and 
outside of the dentine is tlie enamel. C is the cup made by 
the dipping downward of the enaTuel on the table surface 
into the dentine. The deeper part of this enamel is called 
the "central enamel." When this lo'wer nipper tooth wears 
down to a-a the cup is gone and the horse is 6 years old. 
When the lower nipper wears to b-b is about 10 or 11 years 
old. When the lower nipper to d-d the horse is 13; at n-n 
the horse is 20 to 25 and at x- about 30. 




Fig. 42.— Three views of a 21 years old horse's mouth. 




JO 



n 



fi- 



l3 



/s- 




^ Q Q 



Fig. 44. The above series of outlines show the outline of the table or wearing surface of the left lower nipper 
at the ages indicated by the figures above each one. Notice how the diameter a-b decreases and the diameter m-n 
increases as the animal grows older. At 13 the two diameters are nearly equal and at 15 m-n becomes greater than 
a-b. The outline at 5 approximates an ellipse or oval; at 11 or 13 it becomes nearly round; at 15 to 21 it becomes 
triangular and at 30 it approaches a quadrilateral. 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



317 



Lameness and the Diseases Asso- 
ciated WITH It. 



Lameness means weakness, and is a sign or symp- 
tom of disease rather than a disease itself. In exam- 
iining a horse for lameness it is essential to locate the 
,llame limb and then the seat of the lameness in that 
I limb. In locating the lame limb it is best to have the 
:;horse free from harness or rider and trot in a way 
jthat it can have free movement of the head. If the 
Uameness is in the front limb, the head will nod or rise 
I when the lame limb strikes the ground ; the well limb 
will drop or strike the ground with more force than 
j|usual. If the lameness is in the hind limb, the croup 
jon the lame side will rise excessively when the lame 
jlimb strikes the ground ; the well limb will also drop 
iexcessively or strike the ground with greater force. 
l|If both front limbs are lame, the horse will walk as 
jiif on stilts; the steps will be short; there is a lack of 
"elasticity ; the feet are kept close to the ground ; the 
jiind feet are raised higher than usual; the head is 
|:arried higher than common ; the loin region may be 
irched; the shoulders appear stiff and the animal may 
■efuse to trot. If both hind limbs are lame, the step 
js- short and awkward; the front limbs may be kept 
rarther under the body than usual, and raised higher 
ihan normal when in action ; the head is usually held 
bwer than common ; backing is difficult and the ani- 
pal may refuse to trot. If the animal is lame in all 
jOur limbs it may refuse to walk or want to lie down, 
|nd if forced to walk, the gait will be wabbling and the 
oiimal will appear as if sore in the loins. If the horse 
i lame in both right legs there will be a see-sawing ac- 
jon between the head and the haunch, due to the rais- 
pg of the head when the lame limbs come to the 
.round and dropping of the croup when the well 
;mbs strike the ground. These motions are present 
1 the trotter. If the animal is a pacer the head and 
le lame croup go up together, and the head and 
en croup go down together. If the animal is lame 
< diagonal limbs, as a right front and a left hind, the 
itire body rises as the lame limbs strike the ground 
id drop when the well limbs strike the ground, 
hen the horse is trotting. 
After locating the lame limb or limbs, then locate 



the seat of the lameness in that limb. This can only 
be done by the study of special diseases and their at- 
tending symptoms. 

PUNCTURES OF THE FOOT. 

Sharp objects like nails, snags, etc., may pass 
through the sole or frog, injure the soft, vascular and 
sensitive tissues above and infect them with pus or 
other disease-producing germs. The nail or other sharp 
object usually passes through the sole or the frog near 
the point of the frog or along the sides of the frog. 
In most cases the nail is pulled out when the foot is 
lifted by the animal, but in some cases it may re- 
main until removed by man. If the snag or nail is 
out, the hole may partially close or be filled with dirt 
and sand and the animal may not show any lameness 
for one or two days. 

Symptoms.— Usually the lameness is more or less 
intense, showing signs of great pain. The pain may 
be so great that the animal refuses to place the foot 
on the ground. Close examination of the sole or the 
frog with the drawing knife or pen-knife may locate 
a black spot, and this may be the point where the nail 
or snag entered the foot. By using a clean darning 
needle or an awl, one may determine whether this 
hole passes down to the quick or not. By the use of 
hoof searchers or the blacksmith's nippers, one may 
produce pressure over various parts of the sole and 
the frog to determine the sensitive place; when a 
place is found where the horse flinches on pressure 
there is likely to be found the place of entrance of the 
nail or snag. Sometimes this place cannot be found 
by the ordinary observer; then pus forms above the 
sole and frog, producing great pain and finally break- 
ing out and discharging at the back part of the foot 
between the frog and the sensitive tissue above it. In 
some cases the punctures will injure the bones and 
the tendons, and this may result in a serious and pro- 
longed form of lameness. In other cases the articu- 
lation may become diseased and often result in a stiff 
joint. 



3i8 



It does not cost much to haul straw and leaves in the winter. 



Treatment. — As soon as the location is found, cut 
through the sole or the frog around the puncture 
down to the quick, making an opening one-half to one 
inch in diameter. Now use clean cotton and boiled 
and cooled water to clean out the place; then smear 
tar round over the sides and bottom of the hole and 
plug the opening with cotton. The tar will hold the 
cotton in place, act as a disinfectant, and prevent 
germs from getting into the wound. The next day 
remove this cotton, clean out the pus with wads of 
clean cotton, and put in more tar and cotton. Repeat 
this daily until recovery takes place. As a rule, this 
simple treatment will cure all ordinary cases, but if 
the bones, the articulation or the tendons are injured 
and infected, recoveries may be slow ; yet it is well 
to follow this line of treatment. 

THRUSH. 

This disease involves the frog and may extend to 
the sensitive tissue above the frog and the sole. It 
may be caused by injuries to the frog, but it is most 
frequently produced by permitting the horse to stand 
in manure and urine. The germs in manure and 
urine disintegrate or rot the frog, and in some cases 
the entire frog is destroyed. This disease may be as- 
sociated with nail puncture, grease-heel or canker. 

Symptoms. — The frog exhibits signs of decaying; 
gives off a bad smell or odor, and pieces of it may be 
readily torn away. If any of the sensitive tissue is 
exposed, lameness will be present when a hard object 
strikes that tissue, but as a rule lameness is not pres- 
ent in the early stages of this disease. 

Treatment. — Remove the cause ; if the horse is 
standing in filth, get it into a clean stall ; clean and 
disinfect the feet, and many cases will get well with- 
out further treatment. Coal tar or pine tar may be 
applied daily to the diseased frog. If the sensitive 
tissue is not exposed, powdered zinc sulphate or calo- 
mel may be dusted over the diseased frog after it has 
been cleaned. If associated with another disease the 
other disease must also be treated. 

CANKER. 

It involves the sensitive or velvety tissue above the 
sole and the frog. The exact cause is unknown, but 



it is very likely due to some irritating germ. It is 
often associated with, or a sequel to, nail puncture, 
or an old standing case of thrush. 

Symptoms. — A soft fungus-like growth may ap- 
pear through an opening in the sole or frog; some- 
times this growth appears at the back of the frog be- 
tween the frog and the sensitive tissue above it. This 
growth is well supplied with blood and appears like 
"proud flesh" or exuberant granulations. Often it 
grows to enormous size and sometimes there may be 
more than one of these growths. 

Treatment. — First clean up the parts with water 
that has been boiled and cooled, to which has been add- 
ed some creolin or carbolic acid (one tablespoonful 
of creolin or carbolic acid to one quart of water) ; now 
take a sharp knife or a pair of curved scissors, and 
clip off this growth down level with the upper sur- 
face of the sole or the frog. With some cotton apply 
strong carbolic acid or creolin, and if possible apply 
bandages around the foot so as to produce pressure 
upon the spot or place from which you clipped this 
growth. Pressure may be obtained over this place 
by applying a shoe to the foot with a broad piece of 
leather above the shoe. Then cotton may be stuffed 
m from behind to produce pressure on the place. 
The last method makes it somewhat difficult to dress 
the place when that is required. But if the place is 
thoroughly disinfected when first dressed it may not 
require another dressing for a week or ten days. 
Many times at the end of that time we find that an- 
other growth has made its appearance. If so, cut it 
away again and be more careful in applying plenty of 
strong creolin or strong carbolic acid, and be sure to 
get plenty of pressure over it with the cotton. In 
some instances this disease may appear in all four 
feet and the growth may come out all over the sole 
and the frog. Such cases are usually hopeless when 
it comes to treatment, especially in the hands of the 
ordinary man. 

CORNS. 

They may involve the velvety or sensitive tissue 
above the sole at the heel, between the bar and the 
outer wall. They may also involve the sensitive tis- 
sue on the inside of the bars. Corns occur usually 
in the front limb, and more frequently at the inside 
heel than the outside heel. 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Causes.— Flat feet are predisposed to injury of the 
velvety tissue of the sole at the heel. High heels are 
predisposed to injury of the sensitive tissue inside of 
the bar. Paring away the sole at the heel and leaving 
the shoe on too long pulls the shoe forward and off 
of the wall on the sole at the heel, which finally in- 
jures the sensitive tissue above the wall at this point. 
Cutting away or thinning the bars often leaves too un- 
I even pressure at the heels, resulting in corns. Exces- 
I sive drying out and contraction of the hoof often lead 
j to corns. In some cases horses seem to be predis- 
' posed to corns in such a degree that it is difficult to 
determine the cause. 

Symptoms.— As a rule, there is more or less lame- 
ness; it is intensified on hard ground or pavement, 
and when the foot becomes dry. Producing pressure 
with hoof searchers or the blacksmith's pinchers will 
usually produce pain and flinching. If the shoe is 
removed, cutting or rasping away the sole at the heel 
may show red spots in the sole at this place. Cutting 
away the sole down to the quick may show nothing 
||but blood stain or moist horn; yet in some cases pus 
I may be found, and when this pus is not liberated it 
'I may work its way up inside of the wall to the top of 
jthe heel and escape between the skin and the upper 
(Iborder of the wall of the hoof. 

|| Treatment. — It is wise to prevent this trouble by 
proper shoeing and removing the shoe and re-setting 
;it at least once a month; also use hoof ointment in 
I hot and dry weather to prevent excessive drying out 
,|of the hoof. Moreover, avoid rasping away the wall 
tor cutting away the sole at all. The curative treat- 
jment in the early stages consists in removing the 
ishoes, poulticing the feet at night, or standing the 
horse m water which just covers his hoofs until the 
hoof becomes soft and flexible. On removing the 
jpoultice or taking the horse from water, clean the 
jihoof and when nearly dry apply all over the hoof 
some of the following ointment : 



Tar 



I pound. 



I Lard ^ pounds. 

Melt the tar and lard together and 
mix thoroughly, and let cool before ap- 
plying. 

In. some cases it may be necessary to poultice or 
ioak the feet every night for a week or ten days ; also 



319 

apply the ointment every morning. In shoeing a 
horse with corns, or one subject to corns, the heels 
should be rasped down so that they do not press on 
the shoe ; the shoes should be removed and re-set as 
soon as the heel grows out and begins to press on the 
shoe. In such cases it is well to apply every day the 
hoof ointment all over the hoof. 

If pus is found it must be liberated by cutting a 
free opening, then disinfect with carbolic acid or cre- 
olin solution and apply tar and cotton as for nail 
puncture. Repeat this treatment every day until no 
more pus appears and new sole is formed, then apply 
hoof ointment and shoes as previously directed. 

LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER. 

It is an inflammation of the sensitive laminae ; this 
membrane is very vascular and sensitive; it lies just 
inside of the wall of the hoof and covers the front 
surface of the third phalanx or coffin bone. It cor- 
responds to the inner sensitive part of the skin; in 
fact, it is a modified form of skin. 

Causes.— Young animals, unaccustomed to hard 
work, are predisposed to this disease. Overwork or 
exhaustive exercise may cause this trouble. Often 
It results from prolonged slow work, in which the feet 
become exhausted; rapid work or excessive exercise 
for a short period may produce the trouble in a horse 
unaccustomed to work. When the feet are exhaust- 
ed and the animal is hot from overwork, drinking an 
excess of cold water or eating an excess of food will 
cause this disease. In some cases, eating too much 
corn, rye, barley, wheat, or any concentrated food 
may produce founder instead of colic ; but sometimes 
this will produce both colic and founder. Occasion- 
ally excessive purgation will in some way result in 
founder. In rare instances founder may be a sequel 
of, or be associated with, lung fever, pleurisy, or in- 
flammation of the bowels. 

Symptoms.— In severe and acute cases the temper- ' 
ature may be as high as 102 to 105 degrees Fah.; and 
the appetite may be entirely lost; the animal may 
show signs of intense pain, and rapid breathing; re- 
fuse to move unless forced, and prefer to lie down 
most of the time. Close examination of the feet will 
find them warmer than usual ; and they also may be 
relatively dry. Pressure with the hoof searchers or 
pmchers, especially at the toe, will produce pain and 



320 



It tahes just a little more time to give fresh water, than old water. 



flinching. When the animal is forced to move and the 
disease is in only the front feet, the hind feet will be 
advanced under the body and both front feet will be 
raised and carried forward at the same time, and the 
horse will try to rest the weight on the heel by throw- 
ing the front feet forward. If the hind feet alone 
are involved, which is very rare, the front feet will 
be placed back under the body, in order to take as 
much weight as possible off of the hind feet. At the 
same time, the hind feet may be pushed forward so 
as to rest most of the weight they bear on the heel. 
If all four feet are foundered then the 'animal may re- 
fuse to move and desire to lie down most of the time. 
In some cases a foundered horse may persistently 
stand in one place until it drops from exhaustion. 
A horse with this disease will move with less pain 
over soft ground than over hard ground. 

In a chronic case, or one where repeated attacks 
of acute founder have occurred, a change in the forrn 
of the hoof will take place. At first, there will be a 
series of more or less rough rings appear round the 
top of the wall. The sole will become depressed or 
bulged downward ; this is due to the separation of the 
sensitive from the insensitive laminae at the toe, and 
in consequence the third phalanx or coffin bone drops 
down at its front part upon the sole ; the space be- 
tween the sensitive and insensitive laminae may be 
filled up with blood or organized material resulting 
from the inflammation. In the course of six to nine 
■months the toe line or front part of the wall becomes 
concave or depressed from above to below, rough and 
softer than common ; the sole in some cases may be 
worn through by contact with the ground and pres- 
sure from the bone. A chronic condition like this 
is very difficult to remedy, and in many cases never 
can be cured. 

Treatment. — Ordinary acute cases should be placed 
where the feet may remain in moderately cold water 
for hours immediately after the disease is discovered. 
In case the animal cannot be placed in water, wrap 
rags or cloths around the feet and keep them wet 
with cold water. Some prefer to apply poultices of 
bran, corn meal, or any clean material that will hold 
moisture on the feet ; but poultices should be changed 
frequently to prevent souring and filth. If the ani- 
mal is sufi^ering intensely, apply hot water to the feet, 
using it just as hot as you can hold your hand in. 
Apply this with rags around the feet and keep it up 



for several hours. After the animal is over the in- 
tense pain, cold water may be used instead of the hot. 
If at any time the horse is taken out of the water, or 
its use is discontinued, let the feet partially dry, ap- 
ply hoof ointment all over the hoofs, using the same 
ointment as recommended under the subject of 
"Corns." In the course of two to five days, many 
cases will appear to have completely recovered; the 
pain will have disappeared and the animal walk as if 
sound and well. Yet it is unsafe to put that horse to 
work ; it should rest with light feed or in pasture for 
10 to 15 days, and during all this time apply the hoof 
ointment all over each hoof every day. When the 
horse is put to work it should be done with care and 
frequent rests. Remember that one attack predis- 
poses a horse to another, and repeated attacks lead to 
incurable chronic cases. 

In cases where the animal has overeaten and shows 
signs of indigestion or colic, it may be necessary to 
treat the colic or indigestion at the same time the feet 
are being treated. Some persons are anxious to treat 
these cases by drawmg blood from around the coro- 
nets, but this should not be practiced, because it is 
liable to lead to serious injury to the foot. In a 
horse in good condition one to three quarts of blood 
might be extracted from the jugular vein. In some 
cases partial relief might be secured by making an 
opening through the toe of the sole, near the line of 
union between the sole and the wall; this opening 
should be made down to the quick ; it will let out any 
blood that may have accumulated there, but will not 
do any good unless there has been some escape of 
blood into that part. If this is done, plug the open- 
ing with tar and cotton, and treat it thereafter as for 
nail puncture. 

Chronic cases cannot be treated in the same way 
that acute cases are handled. The chronic case 
should be placed in a large box stall or paddock 
where the floor or ground is kept well littered and 
soft. Apply the hoof ointment daily and once every 
three or four weeks rasp down the heels about one- 
fourth of an inch ; also rasp away the point of the toe 
from above to below, cutting only the toe part of the 
wall. Never pare away the sole for fear of making 
an opening and allowing the bone to protrude. The 
feet or legs should be rubbed well two or three times 
per day ; the animal should be fed so as not to be kept 
too fat, making the weight on the feet as light as pos- 
sible. If recovery takes place it will require 12 to 18 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



321 



nonths of this careful handling and treatment. A 
lew hoof must be grown, and in its normal condition, 
.0 that the sensitive and insensitive laminae (leaves) 
nay be normally united, the wall in its proper direc- 
ion, and the sole and the bone in their proper con- 
litions. 

QUITTOR. 

This term is applied to designate mortification, de- 
ay, or death of a limited part of tissue anywhere be- 
llow the knee in the front limb, or below the hock in 
Ijhe hind limb. It may involve the skin and some of 
||he tissue immediately vmder it, then it is called skin 
; uittor. It may involve a coronet, and then it is 
jialled caronary or sub-horny quittor ; this is a variety 
i||f skin quittor. It may involve the tendons, about 
jlie foot, then it is called tendinous quittor. It may 
! Iso involve one or both lateral cartilage, then it is 
Mailed cartilaginous quittor. 

j Causes. — Injuries which bruise the skin or injure 
Ijie deeper parts give opportunities for germs, such as 
me necrosis bacillus, to enter and destroy cells and 

ssue. Wounds made by shoe calks, by interfering, 
il'ruising of any kind, and punctures may lead to this 
I I'ouble. 

Symptoms. — If the skin is involved, there will be 

lore or less swelling, and in the course of a few days 

le dead parts will lose heat, the hair on it may stand 

1 end, this dead skin may crack, and finally a line 

I separation will appear between it and the living 

'issue around it. In the course of several days, some- 

mes weeks, this dead part will slough out, leaving a 

j,?ep pit-like ulcer, which should heal with proper 

ure, leaving a scar with no hair on it. If the 

jury is at the cornet, passes down under the upper 

'prder of the wall, there will be considerable pain and 

"meness; this is due to the fact that the horny wall 

events swelling, and this increases pressure on the 

■rve ends and pain. If a tendon is involved, a 

tlier deep opening is found and at the bottom of it 

ay be seen and felt a more or less ragged soapy- 

e tendon. Parts of this tendon may come away in 

reds. In some cases only part of it may be de- 

royed. It is important to note that the tendons 

n along the front and back surfaces of the cannon, 

tlock, pastern, and coronet. 

The latteral cartilages are two in number, an inside 

22 



and an outside one. They are attached to the lat- 
eral angles of the coffin bone. The front end of each 
one begins just inside of the upper border of the wall, 
about one inch from the middle part of the upper bor- 
der of the wall. Each one extends backward along 
this border, and its back end curves around the back 
end of the fatty cushion above the frog. The lateral 
cartilage in health is flexible.' It can be felt above 
the border of the wall at the heel. When this carti- 
lage is injured by a bruise or wound, and it begins to . 
decay, as a result of the action of germs, it may con- 
tinue to decay until the entire cartilage is removed. 
This may go on through a period of several months. 
The parts around the injury will be swollen and en- 
larged, causing considerable pain and lameness. A 
small opening through the skin may remain imme- 
diately over the decaying parts of the cartilage. This 
opening in the skin is usually surrounded by button- 
like granulations. When the part of the cartilage 
immediately under this opening is destroyed, anoth- 
er opening may occur in front or behind the first 
opening. Then the first opening will close. Thus a 
successive series of openings will appear and disap- 
pear in the skin over the cartilage along and above 
the upper border of the wall of the hoof. 

Treatment. — In skin quittor and coronary quittor 
cleanse the part with boiled water containing creolin 
and carbolic acid, then apply some strong creolin or 
carbolic acid immediately over the dead tissue; next 
cover it and the surrounding skin with carbolized vas- 
eline, then with a layer of cotton, and over this ap- 
ply a bandage. In some cases this must be dressed 
every day; in others, it may be dressed every three or 
four days, or once a week. When the injury extends 
under the upper border of the wall of the hoof, it may 
be necessary to rasp the wall away immediately over 
the injury, until it gets quite thin; this will permit it 
to distend and relieve the pressure and pain. In treat- 
ing tendinous quittor clean out the wound with clean, 
boiled cotton and water with creolin or carbolic acid 
in it, and remove all shreds or loose pieces of tendon ; 
now apply, on a piece of bandage or some cotton, a 
small quantity of ointment made by mixing two 
drams of red iodide or mercury with two ounces of 
vaseline ; then apply, vaseline around the opening, 
clean, boiled cotton and a bandage. Repeat the use 
of the ointment every other day until the wound 
stops discharging pus, then use less in quantity of 
the ointment and dress less frequently, being careful 



322 



Stock cost too much, not to attend to them properly. 



to keep the wound well protected with clean cotton 
and bandages. It may require several weeks to ef- 
fect a cure. 

In treating cartilagenous quitter good results are 
more difificult to secure, and many times it is impossi- 
ble to do effective work witnout a complicated surgi- 
cal operation, but this can only be done by an expert. 
However, the farmer can try the following method : 
Secure some good, stiff cord about 1-16 of an inch in 
diameter; soak this cord in a saturated alcoholic so- 
lution of bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) ; 
this solution can be made by adding the drug to alco- 
hol as long as it will be dissolved; let the string soak 
in this for one or two days ; remove it and hang upi 
until it dries. Clean the foot round the opening 
through the skin, take a small piece of this dry cord 
and push it down into the opening as far as you can 
clip off the end even with the skin. In the course 
of three or four days remove this and insert another 
piece of this cord. Repeat this until the opening 
closes. This may not remove the enlargement or the 
lameness, but may stop the decay of the cartilage. 
Applying hoof ointment to the hoof every day will 
make it more flexible and permit greater expansion, 
thereby reducing the pressure and consequent pain 
and lameness. 

CRACKS IN THE WALL OF THE HOOF. 

Wall cracks are designated toe cracks and quarter 
cracks, according to their location. A toe crack is 
located at the toe of the wall and extends from the 
upper to the lower border, or from the lower to the 
upper border. A quarter crack usually lies behind 
the widest part of the foot in the side of the wall ex- 
tending from above to below. 

Causes.^The condition of the horn often deter- 
mines the presence or absence of a crack. If the 
wall or entire hoof becomes excessively dry as a re- 
sult of the blacksmith rasping away the protective 
covering of the wall or paring away the sole and frog, 
normal contraction and expansion may not occur 
without splitting the dry and brittle hoof at some 
weak point. The hoof may become weakened and 
partially disintegrated by standing the animal for a 
long time in manure and urine, or any wet, muddy 
place. Such a hoof is liable to crack with ordinary 
■expansion and contraction. It is possible that horses 
with high knee action or high hock action may pro- 
•duce sudden and violent expansion upon hard pave- 



ment or road and suddenly- produce a crack in a rath 
cr strong hoof ; but this is not common. 

Symptoms. — The most prominent symptom i5 th 
visible crack, which opens and closes when the foo' 
is used. A toe crack closes when the foot is on th 
ground and opens when the foot is off the groundl 
A quarter crack opens when the foot is on th 
ground and partially closes when the foot is taken 




Fig. 45.— This illustrates two methods of closing cracV 
in the wall of the hoof. One with horse-siioe nails and tV 
other with clamps that are applied with a special force/ 
like instrument. 



from the ground. This opening and closing pinche 
irritates and injures the soft tissues (sensitive leave; 
which press up into the crack. Germs readily ent" 
the tissue and produce inflammation and pus. Whi; 
the pinching occurs it produces great pain. 

Treatment. — If the crack can be closed in the earj 
stages before inflammation and pus appear, the pa, 
will cease. The crack may be closed at the toe by u 
ing small horse shoe nails and driving them throuf 
from one side of the crack to the other. Usual 
three or four nails are sufficient. It is well to cut- 
little opening or hole 1-8 to 1-4 of an inch deep abo; 
1-2 an inch from the crack; these holes can be ma 
on each side so that the nail can enter the wall at 
and come out at another directly opposite it. It, 
well to keep such a foot shod constantly. These n^ 
should hold the crack closed until a new hoof grov, 
this will require 12 to 18 months. In many cases 1, 
wall at the quarter is too thin to permit the use, 
nails in closing the crack. In that case apply a si ■ 
that is about half way cut in two at the toe ; have 1 : 
nail holes run back to the heel ; also an inside clip tl : 
will catch on the bar at the inside of the heel next > 
the frog. Nail on this shoe after preparing the foot ^ 
for normal shoeing: if the foot is very dry and hanl t 
may be necessary to pare away some hard part of - 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



323 



bar and cut down the heel a little more than common. 
When the shoe is nailed on use the blacksmith's tongs 
between the heels of the shoe and press them out- 
Iward slowly and gradually until crack is closed. In 
'some cases it may be necessary to partly close the 
:rack the first time and in three or four days complete 
t. The objection to the use of such a shoe is that it 
nust remain on, being re-set every three or four 
vceks, for 6 to 12 months. This seriously interferes 
,vith the expansion and health of the foot. 

When pus and inflammation are so great that the 
rack cannot be closed, it is well to cut away the horn 
)n each side of the crack, until it is so thin that it will 
;iot pinch the soft tissue. Now cleanse the part, apply 
tar and cotton or hoof ointment and cotton and a ban- 
dage so as to produce pressure. Repeat this applica- 
'ion every day until no more pus is present, then re- 
)cat it only about once a week. During this treat- 
nent the animal must have rest, and in the course of 
I month or six weeks it may be in such a condition 
hat a normal shoe may be applied and the animal put 
work. 

|| HORNY TUMOR of the WALL. 

J This involves the wall of the hoof, the sensitive and 
Insensitive leaves, and the third phalanx, os pedis or 
foffin bone. 

■ ' Causes. — It may be a sequel of toe crack or quar- 
ter crack; the nail of the shoe may be driven too 
■lose to the quick and long continued pressure cause 
jhis trouble, toe clips and quarter clips may also in- 
luce it by long continued pressure; clefts or openings 
n the white line at the union between the sole and the 
ivall may permit dirt, sand and small pebbles to work 
jpward and produce pressure that would in time 
;ause this trouble. 

I'; Symptoms. — At first there appears an obscure 
ameness, which is hard to locate ; later, by applying 
ressure with the hoof searchers or the blacksmith's 
jippers, a sensitive place may be found. Closely ex- 
mining the white line will show that this line at the 
ensitive place is obscure or bent inward toward the 
rog. Sometimes an opening may be found which is 
'^lled with dirt. After locating the place involved, 
!ake a small, narrow, and long knife, a small pointed 
"rawing knife is best, clean out the part from the 
I'hite line up on the inside of the wall, going up as 
pr as any dirt or soft, white, leafv insensitive tissue 



may be found. This will require much care and pa- 
tience, and sometimes it will be necessary to cast the 
animal before it can be done. When completely 
cleaned plug the hole with tar and cotton; repeat the 
dressing daily and apply hoof ointment every day. If 
not completely removed, the tumor will return in the 
course of a few months ; then it may be removed 
again. Sometimes it may be necessary to remove a 
strip of the wall from its lower border to the upper 
border, about 1-2 inch wide, immediately over the tu- 
mor. Then the entire tumor can be removed ; after 
its removal, apply cotton and hoof ointment or tar 
and bandage so as to apply pressure. Repeat the 
dressing every day for three or four days and there- 
after about once a week. In the course of two 
months the shoe may be applied and the animal put 
to light work. It will require 12 to 18 months be- 
fore a new hoof will be developed. 

SIDE BONES. 

The lateral cartilages, which are diseased in the 
cartilagenous quittor, are sometimes involved in an- 
other disease called Side Bones. In this lime salts 
are deposited in the cartilage in sufficient quantity to 
make the cartilage become larger, harder and inflexi- 
ble. This trouble is more frequently found in the 
front than in the hind foot. It is also more frequent-, 
ly found in mules than in horses in the South. 




Fi?. 4K. — Shows side bones, a ring bone at pa.stern joint 
and two furrows in the toe of the third phalanx produced 
by pre.ssure of a horny tumor of the wall. 



m 



324 



If you can't feed and water your own stock, have a responsible man do so. 



Causes. — In health the back and upper part of the 
cartilages are pressed outward when the foot expands 
at the time it is on the ground and bearing weight. 
If the nails in the shoes are back in the quarter and 
heel, as is so commonly the case in shoeing mules, 
this form or kind of shoeing prevents expansion and 
increases pressure on the lower part of the cartilage. 




Pig. 47. — A photograph of a left front foot of a mule show- 
ing two side bones extending above the outer parts of the 
superior border of the wall of tlie hoot. 

Long continued work under such conditions produces 
a low and slow form of inflammation, which finally 
results in the formation of a side bone. Excessive 
drying out of the hoof also contracts the wall, makes 
it harder, less flexible, and thus increases pressure, 
which may result in side bone. It is possible that 
overwork and over expansion of the lateral cartilages 
might lead to inflammation which would result in 
lime deposits in the cartilage. Sometimes side bones 
may be associated with navicular disease, quarter 
cracks, cartilagenous quittor, ring bones and occa- 
sionally it is said to be a sequel to founder. Again it 
is possible that a direct injury which might not cause 
an open wound might result in side bone; this, how- 
ever, is very infrequent. 

Symptoms. — The lameness will be more intense on 
hard than on soft ground. In the early stages there 
may be distinct sensitiveness or flinching when the 
cartilage is pressed by the thumb or finger. In the 
later stages the cartilage will be hard, inflexible and 
large. Sometimes the enlargement is so great that it 
makes the mule foot appear as if it had bunions, and 
wider above than below, this is especially so if both 
cartilages are involved. 



Treatment. — In the early stages apply cold water 
or soak out the feet in water to reduce the fever.ll 
When the animal is removed from the water and the 
feet nearly dry, apply hoof ointment all over the hoof.l 
See that the shoes thereafter are not nailed at the 
heel or quarters and that the foot does not dry outjj 
or become too hard in dry weather; excessive dry 
ness of hoof may be prevented by frequent applica-i 
tion of hoof ointment. In old standing cases, where 
the cartilage is large, hard and inflexible, try to in-| 
duce greater expansion at the heel by frequent soak-' 
ing the feet and frequent applications of hoof oint- 
ment. This may not cure the trouble or remove the! 
enlargement, but may relieve the pressure and the] 
pain, and thus enable the horse or mule to do consid- 
erable work on the farm. It is a good plan to keep 
such an animal off the hard road, and work it only on 
the farm in the soft fields where the animal will not 
suffer so much pain. It is possible to relieve the 
pain entirely by taking away the nerve supply to that 
part of the foot; this can only be done by an expert, 

NAVICULAR DISEASE. 

The navicular bone, the flexor tendon, which play; 
over the back surface of this bone, and the sheatl' 
that covers this tendon are the parts involved in 11 
icular ■ disease. These parts are somewhat deeplv 
situated and cannot be felt or seen ; hence the change; 
that occur are not visible on the surface 

Causes. — It is probable that a tendency to navicn 
lar disease is inherited from some near ancestni 
Deep punctures that may reach the sheath, the ten-j 
don, or the bone may cause this trouble. It is possi 



) 




Fig. 4S. — N is the navicular bone showing conditions as 1' 
navicular disease. 3 is the os pedis with bon.v and rotii-t 
growths from osteitis and s is the second phalanx with 
ring bone. 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



32s 



■At that excessive strains on the tendon may result 
n navicular disease. Some persons claim that bruises 
)r bruising strokes over the region of the frog might 
ause it: this is very doubtful. If the foot becomes 
Iry, contracted or hard, there is little expansion and 
ittle dispersion of concussion; the navicular bone is 
lirectly under the gravity line of the limb, and as a 
esult it receives this increased shock or concussion ; 
tow if this condition of excessive concussion on the 
avicular bone be continued indefinitely on a hard 
oad, it is very likely that the bone will suffer ; or it 
ill result in some form of inflammation of the bone, 
'his seems to be the most common cause of navicu- 
ir disease. It is said that horses which have rheu- 
[Patism or big head are very liable to have navicular 
[|iisease. Horses with short, upright pasterns and flat 

;et usually have excessive concussion on the bone ; 

i 

(pd this may be one of the predisposing causes of nav- 

lular disease. 

: I Symptoms. — At first there will be obscure lame- 
ess, and it will be difficult to find any swelling, in- 
iry or change in the limb to account for this lame- 
;ss. The lameness may d'sappear and recur again 
j two Or three weeks. After a few days it may dis- 
ppear and return in a few weeks. This periodic 
|)ming and going of lameness may be kept up for 
'le or two years before the horse becomes contin- 
j'busly lame. If the foot or hoof is not already con- 
lacted smaller than its opposite, it may become so in 
tjje course of six months or a year; this is partly due 
non-use of that foot. In some cases the muscles 
the shoulder will shrink, a result of non-use, on ac- 
unt of the lameness in the foot. Very rarely is this 
juble found in the hind foot, but it is more frequent 
the front foot ; and sometimes it may be in both 
ant feet. If in both front feet, the horse will shift 
t weight from one foot to the other, and try to keep 
2 feet when standing, in advance of a normal posi- 
n. Backing is rather difficult ; the steps are short, 
d the animal walks as if on stilts. Except in rare 
JiSes the animal is more lame when it is first taken 
it of the stall than it is after being driven some 
le. The lameness is more intense on hard ground 
; pavement than on soft ground. Occasionally a 

(sstep will produce violent pain ; and the animal for 
Tietime may be unable to bear weight on that foot 
thout great pain. If one foot is involved the posi- 
n of that limb or foot may indicate something of 
■ character of the disease. Some say the foot will 



be extended in front of its opposite, others that it will 
be held back on the toe; but it is more probable that 
the animal will shift the position of the foot from one 
place to anotlier, in order to secure rest and relief 
from pain. It is often asserted that pressure in the 
hollow of the heel with the thumb will produce pain 
and flinching; this is not to be relied upon, because 
many horses are excessively sensitive to this pressure. 
If the animal is shod, it will be noticed that the toe 
of the shoe is worn away much faster than the heel. 
If it is not shod, the toe of the wall is worn away fas- 
ter than the heel. Sometimes the foot may be picked 
r.p and twisted or wrenched with the hand from side 
to side, and this will cause flinching or pain. In 
making a diagnosis all other parts of the limb must be 
carefully examined in order to see tliat there is no 
other cause for the lameness. Remember that a 
horse lame with navicular disease is quite often said 
to be lame in the shoulder. 




Fig. 49.— Same as Fig. 48 except tlie first and secoad 
phalanges are in their natural position. 

Treatment. — In the early stages give the animal 
rest with slight and regular daily exercise; soak out 
the feet and apply hoof ointment to prevent contraction 
and induce expansion. Sometimes it may be neces- 
sary and useful to rasp away the wall over the quar- 
ters and heel, until it is so thin you can make an im- 
pression by pressure with the thumb ; also rasp down 
the heels and lower border of the wall, and cut away 
the bars until they are quite thin. Now apply hoof 



326 



Good judgment is a good thing in the management ot stock. 



ointment and let the animal take exercise every day 
in a pasture. A soft and wet pasture if possible. 
The hoof ointment should be applied to that foot 
every day. In the course of two or three months 
that foot should have become as large and as well ex- 
panded at the heels as its opposite. In old standing 
cases the only means of relief is to "nerve" the foot. 
This operation removes a section of the nerves that 
supplies the foot whh sensation; this can only be 
done by an expert. However, it must be remem- 
bered, that with proper care and juaicious handling, 
a horse with navicular disease may do considerable 
slow work on the farm if kept off the hard roads. 

RING BONE. 

This disease usually involves the first and second 
phalanges, and sometimes the third phalanx or os pe- 
dis is also involved. The regions enlarged may be 
the pastern and the coronet. An inflammation in the 
bone or involving both bones and the pastern articu- 
lation, usually results in a bony enlargement. Ring 
bone may occur in any limb, but it is more common 
in the front limbs than in the hind. 

Causes.— A tendency to ring bone may be inherit- 
ed. A bad conformation may also be inherited. A 
short upright pastern predisposes a horse to ring bone, 
because it increases concussion. Some assert that a 
long oblique pastern increases the weight to such an 
extent on the tendons and ligaments that they are lia- 
ble to be torn loose or become diseased at their points 
of attachment ; this would in turn produce inflamma- 
tion in the periosteum, the vascular membrane that 




Fig. 50.— A ring bone at the pastern joint. The joint is 
stiff and tlie bony growth is large. 1 is the first phalanx 
and 2 is the second phalanx. The fetlock is at the upper 
end of (1) and the coffin laone or os pedis is below (2). 



covers the bone, and finally result in a bony enlarge 
ment or ring bone. Rheumatism and big head are, 
said to be predisposing causes of ring bone. The real! 
exciting cause of ring bone is excessive concussion, re-| 
suiting from short, upright pasterns, high stepping, 
hard roads and pavements, an excesively dry, hard, 
and inexpansible hoofs. 

Symptoms.— In the beginning a small enlargementj 
may apear somewhere along the front or latteral sidesj 
of the pastern or corners. The enlargement may bej 
so small that it is hard to detect. Lameness may be 
more or less severe, according to the -extent and lo-'| 
cation of the inflammation. If the pastern articulaj 
tion is involved, the lameness may increase with exj 
ercise. If there is no enlargement on t ae back sur| 
face of the pastern or coronet of the front limb, th' 
animal will try to bear most of the weight on t\w 
heel ; often the heel will be placed on the ground first 
and then on the toe. In the hind limb the aninia 
will usually put most of the weight on the toe. Ii 
cases of some standing the enlargement will be mon 
prominent, it will be hard and bony, and the aninia' 
may be more lame or more stiff; the pastern join 
may become obliterated or in other words the I 
and second phalanges firmly united by a bony ■'.' 
posit. 

Treatment.— Rest is very essential in this disca- 
If there is much fever and pain it may be well i 
apply cold water for several hours each day until tl 
fever is reduced; then apply some of the followin 
ointment : 

Mercuric Iodide 4 drams. 

Vaseline ^ ounces. 

Mix thoroughly and apply all around the 
pastern over the ring bone after clipping on' 
the hair with the scissors or clippers. This 
should be rubbed in well ; it is best to apply 
it at night and tie the halter strap so short 
that the animal cannot reach the foot with 
its lips; keep the anim'al thus tied for 24 
hours. The ointment will blister and make 
the part swell and become more or less sore 
on. the skin. In the course of two or three 
days the pastern may be washed with water 
and soap, and a little vaseline applied. In 
two or three weeks, if the animal is still 
lame, make a second application of this oint- 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



327 



ment in the same manner. Remember that 
rest for a considerable time — from one to four 
months — is very essential to the treatment 
of ring bone in its early stage. 

In old cases, where the bony growth is large, the 
listering treatment may not do much good. Then 
be only means of relief is to remove the nerve supply 
p that part of the limb. In all cases it is well to note 
lie condition of the hoof; if it is dry and hard, soak 
i| up and apply hoof ointment regularly. 

11 SPLINTS. 

r 

!|Bony enlargements along the lateral borders of 
le cannon bone, at the line of union, between the 
plint bone and the cannon, are called splints. In 
jjung animals a splint bone is united to the cannon 
'one by a ligament. In some cases this ligament be- 
omes injured and inflammation appears, which re- 
lUts in bony enlargement and union of the two 
■j)nes. Sometimes the union is made without an ex- 
|rnal enlargement. 

ji 

1 1 Causes. — Splints occur in young horses far more fre- 
|!|iently than in old ones; this is especially true if the 
nmg horse is put to severe work on a hard road or 
ivement. The concussion becomes so great that 
e interosseous ligament uniting the two bones he- 
mes partly separated from the bone, or the perios- 
m becomes injured and consequently inflamed; 
is results in the formation of a bony growth to 
lOre firmly unite the bone. It is during this period 
■ inflammation and bony growth that the animal is 
lie. As a rule, a splint that is present in an old 
Tse rarely produces lameness ; because that splint 
IS formed when the animal was young. 

jSymptoms. — In the very beginning lameness is 

^ only symptom of the disease; in a short time an 

largement may appear along the border of the splint 

' lie or the cannon. This may be quite small at first 

1 afterwards become more prominent. In some 

-es more than one small enlargement may appear 

>ng the border of the cannon ; then the animal is 

d to have a beaded splint. The lameness during 

,; growth of a splint increases with exercise and is 

)re intense on hard roads than on soft ground. Oc- 

;ionally an enlargement may appear along the inner 



border of the splint bone near the tendons and sus- 
pensory ligament. This cannot be seen but may be 
felt by lifting up the foot and pushing the tendons to 
one side. This form of splint is often called a peg- 
splint. Splints occur most frequently on the inside 
border of the front cannon ; occasionally they occur 
on the outside border of the front cannon and quite 
rarely appear in the hind limb. Sometimes a splint 
on the inside of the front limb will cause the horse to 
throw his foot outward when in motion. The most 
serious form of splints are those that are high up near 
the knee in the front limb, or near the hock in the 
hind limb ; also the peg-splint is liable to cause severe 
and sometimes incurable lameness. 

Treatment. — Rest is important in the treatment of 
splints, but not absolutely necessary. The blistering 
ointment recommended for beginning ring bone may 
be applied to a splint. It will not remove the enlarge- 
ment, but may remove the lameness after one or two 
applications. The cause of pain in a splint is often due 
to pressure of the bony enlargement against the per- 




Fig. 51. — Shows the bones of sound hock, o is the os- 
calis which forms the point of the hock and to which is at- 
tached the large ham-sti-ong tendon; a is the astragalus 
which articulates with the lower end of the tiba; sc is the 
scaphoid, sometimes called the middle cuneiform; Ic is the 
large cuneiform; c the cuboid; s the external splint bone; 
can is the cannon bone. Between the scaphoid (sc) and 
the larger cuneiform (Ic) is the i^lace where a bone spavin 
usually begins. 



328 



Horses and mules do not know everything. 



iosteum. In order to relieve this pressure, a needle- 
pointed firing iron may be pressed down through the 
skin and periosteum when the iron is red hot. This 
serves in place of blister and also relieves the pressure 
on the periosteum. Some surgeons use a knife and in- 
sert it in a small opening under the skin and cut the 
periosteum ; but this can only be done by the qualified 
expert. It is never advisable for an ordinary man to 
attempt to chisel away or cut off splints. As a rule, 
an expert veterinarian does not cut off a splint. 
Remember that old splints which do not produce lame- 
ness are not considered as causes of unsoundness. 
Old splints are generally regarded as only unsightly 
and a slight blemish. 

BONE SPAVIN. 

In most cases this disease is confined to the four 
small bones on the lower part of the tarsus or hock. 





Fig. 52. — The lelt liock showing a well developed bone 
spavin. 

In other cases it may involve also the two upper bones 
of the tarsus, the lower end of the tibia, and the upper 
end of the cannon, and one or both small splint bones. 

Causes. — Narrow hocks and crooked hocks are pre- 
disposed to bone spavin. The narrow hock is too 



small to withstand the pressure from concussion and I 
the pressure from the pinching action in extreme flex- j 
ion of the hock while in motion. It is possible that i 
rheumatism and big head predispose a horse to spav- 'J 
in. It is also very probable that a tendency to bone I 
spavin is inherited. Young animals, race horses, hunt- 1 
ers are said to be predisposed to bone spavin ; but in ii 
many cases this may be due to the violent and severe, 
work required of the hock in these kinds of work. The 
exciting causes of spavin are excessive concussions, 
great pinching action and possibly the partial tear-: 
ing of ligaments of the hock. Concussion when exces^ 
sive and prolonged produces inflammation in the small j 
bones, where it is most severe. The pinching action 
occurs when the hock is excessively fle.xed ; then they 
small bones are pinched very like the nut in the nut I 
cracker. The tearing of ligaments may occur whenj 
the foot is caught and the animal pulls to get loose:] 
this seems to be very rarely the cause of bone spavin 
In fact, it is about as rare as the production of b^nn 

spavin by direct strokes or injuries. 

I 

Symptoms. — In many cases a small enlargemenl(^ 
first appears on the inner and front aspect of the low] i 
er part of the hock. At first this enlargement will bi| 
so small that it is difficult to detect. Rub down tin' 
hair on both hocks and compare one with the other! 
using the fingers and the eyes. In cases of somi| 
standing this enlargement will be sufficient in size t" 
be seen and felt quite easily. In other cases there m ' 
be no outer enlargement, and yet there will be a bo 
spavin present ; in this case the inflammation is con 
fined to the articular surfaces between the small bone- 
The bone spavin with an outer enlargement is calle 
a periosteal spavin. One without an outer f 
largement is called an occult or hidden spavin. Tlij 
lameness in spavin is peculiar. In periosteal spavi 
the lameness usually gets worse with exercise. Tli 
length of the step in the limb with spavin is shor! 
than usual. In moving the foot forward in flexing t 
cannon and hock of the tibia there is often a kind ' 
hitching, double movement. This is not always preser'f* 
and it is hard to observe, when it occurs. If the foot 
held up in the position in which the blacksmith lioli 
the hind foot while shoeing it, for five or six minuti 
then the animal is immediately forced to trot the lam 
ness will be greatly intensified ; often the animal w 
start off on three limbs, holding the lame limb fro' 
the ground. In some cases the animal will raise tl 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



329 



limb upward, and higher than usual, somewhat in the The farmer can best use blistering applications. 

manner indicating stringhalt. Pushing the animal from The following is one of the many that may be tried : 

one side of the stall to the other, may produce signs 

of lameness. Red Iodide of Mercury 4 drams. 

Pulverized Cantharides 3 drams. 

Treatment. — With proper treatment over 50 per Turpentine i fluid ounce 

cen.t. of the cases should recover from the lameness. Vaseline 3 ounces 

The enlargement may not disappear and a little stiff- ivr- 1 

Tj ^ ■ ^- 1 • <. ..• ^. ■ J^l'-^ thoroughly and apply some of it all around the 

ness may remam. Rest is essential in treating this , , . , ^^ -^ 

,. ■□ • . I r j:- • u u J • "°'^'^ covering the enlargement; it may be well to clio 

disease. Point and line firing have been used in many ^ ^ , y uk. w^-h lu ^.np 

instances with success. If point firing is used, the 

small point should be pushed down into the enlarged 




Fig. 5o. — Two hocks showing two different bone spavins. 

bone, through the periosteum, over the entire enlarge- 
jiiment; the points should not be closer than 1-2 inch to 
jjione another. In line firing the lines are about 1-2 inch 
i|from one another. Some advise cutting the tendon 
which runs obliquely down over this region, and re- 
moving a section of the tendon. Others advise in- 
; serting a curved knife under the skin and cutting the 
periosteum over the bone in one or two places. As a 
rule, the firing and the operations above suggested can 
3nly be done by the expert. 




Fig. 54. — Hind view of hoclv showing a well developed 
bone spavin (sf). This is sometimes called a "periosteal" 
bone spavin. 

the hair before applying; always rub it in well. Tie 
the halter strap short, so that the animal cannot reach 
the hock with his lips. Keep him thus tied for 24 
hours. The application should not be repeated under 
three or four weeks. During this time the animal 
should have rest in a box shall or small pasture. 

DISEASES OF THE TENDONS AND LIGA- 
MENTS. 

Most commonly this involves the back tendons in 
the cannon region; also the suspensory ligament and 
the sub-carpal tendon, or check ligament, may be in- 
volved. If the back or flexed tendons at the cannon 
region are injured by sprain or a stroke from kicking, 
and sometimes from the single-tree or plough, they 
may become inflamed. It is believed that over-work 
and exhaustion of the muscles will lead to sprain and 
inflammation of the tendons. 

Symptoms. — As a rule, tlie enlargement of the ten- 
dons may be seen and felt. The enlargement may not 



330 



In bad weather see to it that the stock have exercise. 



be very great, and a swelling in the skin should not be 
mistaken for an enlargement of the tendons. The 
lameness usually gets worse with exercise and with 
work. In old, standing cases the inflamed and enlarg- 
ed tendons may contract and become shorter; this will 
pull back the foot in varying degrees and likewise 
push forward and over the fetlock. Thus the horse 
may become "cock-ankled," and in some cases may be 
so bad that the animal walks on the toe or on the 
front wall of the hoof, instead of the sole and frog. 

The suspensory ligament begins on the back sur- 
face at the upper end of the cannon bone, between the 
heads of the two splints bones : it runs downward on 
this surface to about the lower third of the cannon ; 
here it divides into an inner and an outer branch. 
Each branch runs downward and forward over the 
fetlock of its corresponding sesamoid bone, and then 
bears downward and forward until it unites with the 
anterior extensor tendon. This ligament helps hold 
u]) the fetlock and is the one pressed by the thumb 
and inger when we wish to make the horse raise its 
and finger when we wish to make the horse raise its 
foot. If injured, it occurs usually along one of the 
branches just above the fetlock, and the enlargement 
may be seen and felt. 

The sub-carpal tendon or check ligament is a down- 
ward extension of the back ligament of the carpus or 
knee ; it runs downward from the back part of the knee 
between the back tendon and the upper part of the 
suspensory ligament. It unites with the deep flexor 
or hack tendon about the middle of the cannon region. 
It may be injured by sprains and possibly by direct 
strokes. If injured, it is enlarged and the enlargement 
may be felt. In determining enlargements of these 
tendons or ligaments always compare the tendon or 
ligament with the same in the opposite limb. 

Treatment. — There is no disease producing lame- 
ness in which rest is more essential than in inflamma- 
tion of the tendons and ligaments. 

Secure a woolen flannel bandage 4 to 5 yards long 
and 2 or 3 inches broad. It may be well to have two 
or three of these. Wet this bandage and put it on 
from the pastern up to the knee ; it may be drawn mod- 
erately tight, but not too tight. As it dries out it con- 
tracts and produces pressure. The water also reduc- 
es inflammation. When it has become dry, remove it, 
wet it again, or use another, and apply as before. Re- 
move, Avet, and re-apply this or another bandage six 
to ten times a day. In cold weather four to five times 



a day may be all that is necessary. This should be 
kept up a least two weeks. If at the end of that time 
the enlargement and lameness have not disappeared, 
apply over the enlarged part some of the blistering 
ointment recommended for beginning ring bone. Do 
not repeat this blister for two or three weeks. If the 
tendons have contracted, the ankle thrown forward, 
and the foot backward, the only means of relief is an 
operation that cuts one or both of the tendons and per- 
mits the limb to become straight. This can only be 
done by the expert. 

Tendons in other parts of the limbs may become 
inflamed. For example, the tendons back and above 
the knee may become contracted and produce the 
"knee sprung" condition. Sometimes this may be 
remedied by an operation. Occasionally the "ham 



Splint bone 
Cannon Done 




Check ligament 
Flexor perofiaus 
Flexor perfoi-atus r, 



Suspensor.v 
i-igament 



Fig. 55 — Shows the position and relations of some of the 
parts of the front limb. Along the line of union between 
the splint bone and the cannon is the location of splints. 
The location of the suspensory ligament is also clearly de- 
fined. The check ligament or subcarpal ligament is visible. 
The back tendons, here designated flexor perforans and flex- 
or perforatus, are known respectively as the deep flexor and 
the superficial flexor tendons. 



■ 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



331 



string" tendon above the hock may be injured ; but 
this is rare unless there be a distinct wound, such 
as a cut or bruise. If the "ham string" tendon is com- 
pletely severed, little can be done by the ordinary man 
to produce recovery. 

CURB. 

Any enlargement along the back border of the hock 
from just below the point of the hock down to the 
cannon is said to be a curb. Usually a curb involves 
a ligament running along beneath the tendons at this 
border. Sometimes is involves the tendons and occa- 
sionally it may be associated with enlargement of the 
bone. 

Causes. — Crooked hocks or crooked hind limbs and 
young horses are predisposed to curbs. No doubt ex- 
cessive strain on a weak hock will injure the liga- 
ment or the tendon. A tendency to this disease, es- 
pecially a crooked hock, may be inherited. In fact, 
some instances a stroke against a single-tree or other 
hard objects might produce this trouble ; but this is 
extremely rare. Curbs are produced in young horses 
when they are over-worked or when they are being 
broken, and they rear up frequently, throwing exces- 
sive weight and strain up on the hocks. 

Symptoms. — A distinct enlargement or bulging 
along the back border of the hock is a positive sign 
of curb. This may be best observed by standing at 
one side. In the early stages there may be some lo- 
cal fever and some sensitiveness on pressure with the 
thumb or fingers. Generally the lameness increases 
with exercise ; yet in some cases the lameness appears 
to be better after the animal is warmed up. 

Treatment. — In the early stages apply cold water 
bandages for a week or more. Then apply the mer- 
curic iodide blister (see treatment for ring-bone for 
this blister). If the horse is still lame at the end of 
three weeks, repeat the blister. Some fire in lines and 
blister at the same time. Rest in a box stall is very 
essential. If the animal is a colt or young and playful, 
he should be restrained from running, jumping and 
rearing. In old horses a curb may be present which 
is of long standing and not attended with lameness. 
Common law would hold such an animal as unsound, 
yet the animal may never go lame from the curb. 



DROPSICAL CONDITIONS OF THE 
SYNOVIAL SACS. 

These conditions are commonly called "wind galls." 
However, the soft, puffy enlargements never contain- 
ed air or gas, but nearly alway-; contain an excess of 
synovia, the lubricating material of joints and tendons. 
The synovial membrance becomes injured or chang- 
es in such a way that synovia is secreted faster than it 
is absorbed; this results in an excess of thick and ab- 
normal synovia, which distends or dilates the synov- 
ial sac, producing the enlargement. 

Causes. — Injuries of the synovial membrane may 
be so slight that the changes come on very gradually. 
Sometimes the slight pinching or pressure on the se- 
creting cells of the synovial membrance may result 
in their destruction. Over-work in many cases may 
account for this trouble by causing over stimulation 
and secretion by the synovial membrane. Occasion- 
ally this trouble may be associated with rheumatism 
or big head. It also may be a sequel to severe inflam- 
mation of an articulation or tendon. 

Symptoms. — In the early stages there may be 
lameness, but as a rule lameness is absent. When the 
weight is off the limb, the enlargement is soft and 
puffy, but when the weight is on the limb it may feel 
hard and tense. This variation is due to the varia- 
tion in the pressure of the liquid against the wall of 
the sac. In very old, standing cases, as in old horses, 
lime salts may be deposited in the tissues around the 
sac, and thus it may become hard and bone-like; in 
these cases lameness may be more or less severe. The 
most common one of these synovial distensions is 
found at the fetlock, it is just above the fetlock, along 
the inner and outer border of the back tendon ; this is 
a distension of the sac of the deep flexor tendon. 
Another is found just in front of the branch of the 
suspensory ligament; this is a distension of the synov- 
ial sac of the fetlock articulation. Another is found on 
the front surface of the fetlock. This is a dilatation of 
the sac of the anterior extensor tendon. On the front, 
the outside, and the back surface of the knee may oc- 
cur five different synovial distensions of sacs of ten- 
dons and the articulation. Occasionally one may oc- 
cur at the point of the elbow, and also at the point of 
the shoulder. In the hind limb three may occur at the 
fetlock as in the front limb. At the hock one may oc- 



332 



Some horses need whipping; some don't. 



cur at the point of the hock. Another may occur on 
the back part of the hock ; this shows a soft, puffy en- 
largement that is larger on the inside than the out- 
side; it lies on the back surface some distance from 
the point of the hock and the "ham string" tendon, 
and the inside enlargement often extends down along 
the back part of the inside surface of the hock. This 
is a distension of the deep flexor tendon synovial sac 
of the hock. It is sometimes called a tendinous 
thoroughpin. The distension of the articular synovi- 
al sac at the hock may occur in three places ; one at 
the internal, upper and front aspect of the hock, com- 
monly called "bog spavin ;" another on the back sur- 
face and internal part, and a third on the Ijack sur- 
fa'ce and external part. The last two are called an ar- 
ticular thoroughpin. The distensions called "bog 
spavin" and articular thoroughpin may be changed 
by pressure. Pressing on the bog spavin will enlarge 
the distensions on the back surface of the hock, and 
pressing on the inside or outside of the back surface 
will enlarge its opposite or the "bog spavin." Some- 
times the bog spavin enlargement is present without 
any enlargements on the back surface. At the stifle 
a synovial enlargement may appear, but this is not 
common. Another may occur just over the upper 
'end of tlie femur directly over and to the outside of 
the hip joint. This is a distension of the synovial sac 
of the tendon of a muscle. 

Treatment — As a rule, it is unwise and dangerous 
to open the sac of an articulation, because it may lead 
to inflammatiort of the articulation, and result in a 
stiff joint. Moreover, it is not wise or safe to open 
all synovial sacs of tendons. The following synovial 
sacs of tendons may be opened with some degree of 
safety ; the sac of the anterior e.xtensor tendon at the 
fetlock may be opened at its lower part. The synovi- 
al sac distension at the point of the elbow may be 
freely opened. The distension at the point of the 
hock, commonly called "capped hock,'' may be open- 
ed on its back part low down and to one side. After 
opening any of these sacs keep them cleansed by us- 
ing boiled and cooled water and creolin or carbolic acid, 
and as a rule it is well to let the animal have some ex- 
ercise every day. The other tendinous sacs may be 
treated by applying blisters and sometimes by using 
an aspirating needle and drawing off the excess of 
thick and abnormal synovia. This is a hollow, sharp- 
pointed needle, like a large hypodermic, and is pushed 



into the sac and the liquid allowed to escape; it can 
be done every day for a few days and then the follow- 
ing blister mav be aplied. 

Pulverized Cantharides i ounce 

Turpentine i fluid ounce 

Vaseline 2 fluid ounces 

Mi.x thoroughly and apply once every three or four 
weeks. 

All operations on articular sac distensions, and most 
of those of the tendons, should be put in the hands of 
the expert. Pressure is often applied by the use of 
specially constructed trusses and bandages ; these 
must be bought at instrument houses. When used 
they must be kept on all the time the horse is at rest 
and taken off when the horse is at work. This must be 
kept up in some cases for months, and even then the 
pressure treatment is not always productive of a per- 
manent cure. 

INFLAMMATION OF AN ARTICULATION. 

This is sometimes called arthritis or an open joint. 
However, the joint is not always open in cases of in- 
flammation of articulation. 

Causes. — Open joints are caused by penetrating 
wounds. A severe injury of the joint may lead to in- 
flannnation and pus formation in an articulation, but 
it sooner or later opens to the surface. It is possible 
that infection of a joint may occur in connection with 
pvaemia (an excess of pus in the blood forming or 
resulting in abscesses in numerous places in the 
body). In some cases of distemper or strangles py- 
aemia mav occur. In inflammation or infections of 
the navel cord of a young colt or calf may also result 
in a general disease similar to pyaemia. 

Symptoms. — At first an ordinary wound with a 
slight lameness may be all that is observed. In 24 
hours the tissues around the articulation will become 
swollen, warmer than usual, and the animal will suf- 
fer intense pain. If the joint is open a watery secre- 
tion, streaked with blood, may be all that is observed 
during the first 24 hours. Later, the secretion may 
collect about the opening in grayish colored, jelly-like 
masses ; this is coagulated abnormal synovia. Later 
pus may be discharged, usually from one opening, 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



333 



but sometimes two or more openings may appear 
around tlie articulation. If tlie joint is not open, it 
will become greatly swollen, warm, very painful, and 
usually, if infection has occurred, it will open at some 
point in the course of a week or ten days, and then 
discharge pus. The discharge of pus is usually kept 
up for weeks, and the trouble may finally result in 
an obliteration of the articulation and a stiff joint. 
This is especially true if the treatment is not begun 
early and continued correctly. 

Treatment. — If discovered immediately after the in- 
jury, the wound should be thoroughly disinfected 
with boiled and cooled water and boiled cotton, using 
some creolin or carbolic acid in the water. Saturate 
some cotton with a mixture of equal parts of linseed 
oil and turpentine : apply this in and over the wound, 
then bandage to hold in place. If no infection has 
occurred this will protect and prevent infection. If 
infection has occurred and the joint is inflamed and en- 
larged, then it is more difficult to destroy the infec- 
tion. If it is possible, boil three or four gallons of 
water and add to it after boiling one part of bichloride 
of mercury to every 2,000 parts of water (15 grains of 
bichloride to every quart of water). Place this in a 
glass vessel or a glazed earthen vessel (never in a 
metal vessel), or use a large glass funnel, to which 
may be attached a rubber tube. A large rubber fam- 
ily fountain syringe may be cleaned up with boiling 
\vater and used for this purpose. After filling the 
rubber bag of this syringe, or the other vessel, hang 
it or place it above the horse and near enough so that 
the rubber tube and nozzle will reach the diseased 
joint. Place the nozzle in the wound that opens into 
the articulation and let this bichloride solution slowly 
pass into this joint as long as the five or six gallons 
of the solution will last. Then cover the wound as 
previously directed and bandage. Repeat this treat- 
ment the following day, providing pus is formed in 
the intervening 24 hours. If no pus is formed, use 
the other dressing and wait until the next day. If no 
pus is then present, repeat the dressing with the tur- 
pentine and raw linseed oil mixture, and do not re- 
dress for two or more days. During the treatment 
keep the animal at rest ; do not lead him out to water. 
H you have an enlarged joint, and are uncertain 
whether or not infection has occurred, apply cold wa- 
ter to reduce the inflammation; keep this up for one 
or two days and then apply the mercuric iodide blis- 



ter around that articulation. If necessary, repeat the 
blister in 8 to 15 days. Remember great patience and 
much time and extra care in boiling and disinfecting 
all the water and the cotton used about this articula- 
tion, will be required to effect a cure. 

DISEASES PRODUCING LAMENESSES AT 
THE SHOULDER. 

Muscles, nerves, blood vessels, the synovial mem- 
brane, and the articulation may be diseased when 
there is shoulder lameness. The muscles about the 
shoulder, especially those on the external surface of 
the shoulder blade may shrink or become smaller in 
size as a result of non-use, due to injury of the mus- 
cle or to lameness in which the limb is not used ; this 
is commonly called "swinney." It must be noted that 
this is a symptom of disease rather than a disease in 
itself ; it may occur as a secondary result when the 
primary disease is in the foot. Injury of the muscles 
of the shoulder may be caused by kicks, strokes, run- 
ning against objects, or by an ill-fitting collar. Young 
and soft horses are especially liable to injury of the 
shoulder by the collar. 

Symptoms. — If a muscle or muscles are injured, in 
a short time thereafter the part becomes swollen, 
warm, and sensitive. The lameness will vary accord- 
ing to the muscle or muscles injured and the extent 
of the injury. Usually it is difficult for the aninlal 
to throw the shoulder forward or raise the foot from 
the ground ; as a rule, the lameness is greater on soft 
ground than on the hard road. After the inflamma- 
tion subsides, the muscles may shrink ; this is largely 
due to the non-use of the muscle. 

Treatment. — In the early stages, during the inflam- 
matory period, apply cold water ; or if the animal is 
in great pain, appW hot water, but do not scald the 
part. In chronic cases, or when the muscle has be- 
come shrunken, rub the skin over the shrunken mus- 
cles for thirty minutes two or three times a day with 
a good, stiff horse brush. At the same time give the 
horse light exercise, using light breast harness or the 
saddle. 

PARALYSIS OF NERVES OF SHOULDER. 

The supra-scapular nerve passes over the front 
border of the scapula, just below its middle part, and 



334 



Horses are like children; what will suit one, may not suit another. 



supplies the external scapular muscles. This nerve 
may be injured by running against objects, by kicks, 
and possibly by other strokes. If paralysis follows 
the injury, the muscles will become paralyzed. 

Symptoms. — When weight is placed on the limb, 
the point of the shoulder suddenly flies outward, and 
to the ordinary observer this appears as if the shoul- 
der was dislocated. Scotch and English veterinari- 
ans at one time called it "shoulder slip." It is more 
common in young horses than old ones, and is often 
seen in the colt at pasture. In the course of a few 
weeks the muscles will shrink and another case of the 
so-called "swiimey" is developed. 

Treatment. — Rest the animal in a box stall, small 
pasture or paddock, rub the shoulder well three or 




Fig 56. — Represents an outline made from a photograph 
taken of a case which had the ulna (olecranon) at the point 
of the elbow broken. Notice how flat it is at the elbow (e) 
also the flexed position of the knee. This front limb could 
not support weight. The position of the limb is also char- 
acteristic of paralysis of the radial nerve. 

four times a day with a good, stiff brush, or apply 
the following blister over the middle part of the shoul- 
der, from the side of the neck to its back border: 

Pulverized Cantharides 4 drams. 

Turpentine i fluid ounce. 

Vaseline 4 ounces 



Mix well and rub in well over the iniddle part of 
the shoulder as above directed. Tie the animal for 24 
hours so that it cannot rub this part with its lips or 
against any object. In 2 to 4 weeks repeat the blister. 

In old cases of several weeks' or months' standing, 
and especially in old horses, treatment will do little 
or no good. In fact, many cases cannot be cured 
when treatment is begun soon after the injury. 

PARALYSIS OF THE RADIAL NERVE. 

This is a branch of the brachial nerve, and it sup- 
plies all the extensor muscles that lie between the 
l)ack border of the scapula and humerus and termi- 
nate at the elbow point on the top part of the ulna; 
these muscles extend the radius on the humerus and 
are very powerful. The nerve is injured in some way, 
but in some instances it is impossible to tell just how 
it is injured. Sometimes it is injured when the first 
rib is fractured. At other times it may be injured in 
casting an animal, possibly the pressure applied upon 
this nerve when the animal lies for a long time on the 
side may injure tlie nerve. 

Symptoms. — The animal seems to be unable to fix 
the elbow and knee to bear weight ; often, when the 
foot is placed on the ground the knee and the elbow 
quickly pass forward. In some cases the animal may 
bear weight, and after weight is put on the limb the 
limb will give way at the knee and elbow, (see fig. 
56). 

Treatment. — Rest and apply same treatment as for 
suprascapula nerve paralysis. The place to apply 
the rubbing or the blister is between the back border 
of the shoulder and the upper border of the arm. As , 
in the other form of paralysis, this form is many times 
incurable. 

DISEASE OF THE LARGE BLOOD VESSELS 
AT THE SHOULDER. 

In rare instances the brachial artery becomes so dis- 
eased that its opening may become partially or en- 
tirely closed. Then the lower part of the limb must 
receive its arterial blood and nutrition by way of the 
small collateral arteries. The causes of this are \cry 
obscure. It may begin as an inflammation of the lin- 
ing membrane of the artery. It might be a result of I 
an injury, but this seems impossible, because the ar- 
tery is so deeply situated and well protected. 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



335 



Symptoms. — When the animal is put to work in the 
course of a short time this Hmb gets cold, ahnost com- 
pletely immovable, the animal seems to suffer great 
pain, while the other parts of the bodjr may be cover- 
ed with sweat. After the animal stands a while this 
trouble will apparently pass away, but when put to 
exercise or work it begins as before. As a rule, this 
condition will be maintained as long as the animal 
lives. No remedy has been discovered for its cure. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE MUSCLE THAT 
WORKS OVER THE POINT OF THE 
SHOULDER. 

This muscle is called the flexor brachii ; it extends 
from the lower front part of the scapula, down over 
the point of the shoulder, along the front and lower 
border of the arm, and terminates or is attached to the 
vpper end of the radius. It may be injured by run- 
ning against objects, by strokes or kicks, especially 
at the point where it passes over the shoulder articu- 
lation. 

Symptoms. — If the lameness is intense, the animal 
will drag the foot forward on the toe or swing it out- 
jward and forward. In some cases, if the animal is 
Iforced to move, it will not place any weight on that 
ilimb. At rest, the limb is held backward, the foot 
llresting on the toe. At the place of injury there is 
:'ltisually very little swelling. Sometimes it is impossi- 
ible to observe any distinct change in the part. In 
[Ifact, one is surprised at the amount of lameness and 
j|pain coming from so little apparent injury. 

Treatment. — Apply mercuric iodide blister over 
lthe point of the shoulder once every three weeks, giv- 
jring the animal rest. If the muscles in the upper part 
jjiof the shoulder shrink, rub them as previously direct- 
lied. 

DEEP SEATED ABSCESSES NEAR THE 
' POINT OF THE SHOULDER. 

These are caused sometimes by an ill-fitting collar, 
or by bruising the shoulder in hauling over rough 
roads or ploughing in new land among roots. It is al- 
/so possible that the lymph glands of the shoulder be- 
come infected with pus-forming germs that are car- 
ried from some other part of the body. 



Symptoms. — At first there may be a small swelling 
at the lower part of the shoulder. With rest this may 
nearly disappear, but with the use of the collar again, 
or with work, it swells up, and in time a hard, deep 
seated enlargement is formed that will not go away 
with rest. This is a deep-seated abscess with consid- 
erable hard tissue formed around it. As a rule, it does 
not cause lameness when the collar is not working 
against it. 

Treatment. — It should be opened with a sharp point- 
ed knife, cutting from below upward. After opening, 
clean out the pus cavities with strong creolin and car- 
bolic acid and fill up the cavity with a piece of 
bandage saturated with equal parts of linseed oil and 
turpentine. In one or two days pull out this bandage 
and put in another. Keep the outside washed up 
with boiled water and boiled cotton containing car- 
bolic acid or creolin. After this cavity closes up by 
healing from the bottom and sides, it is best to keep 
the collar off for two to four months, and when the 
animal is put to work be careful to have a good pad 
under the collar; also let the work be light for some 
time. In some cases this abscess cavity will be sur- 
rounded by an immense tumor-like development; it 
should be removed by an expert. 

DISEASES OF THE HIP REGION. 

As at the shoulder, the muscles, nerves, blood ves- 
sels, and articulation may be involved. At the hip 
are numerous muscles, and in order to study the 
lameness attending injury or disease of all of them 
would require more space than at our disposal. In- 
juries of these muscles usually, but not always, pro- 
duce manifest swellings. As a rule, the treatment 
should be cold water applications in the early stao-es 
and later rubbing or blisters. 

PARALYSIS OF NERVES. 

The nerve that supplies the muscles in the front 
part of the thigh, the one that supplies the muscles in 
the back part of the thigh, and another that supplies 
the muscles from the back part of the gaskin may be 
paralyzed. The symptoms attending these different 
forms of paralysis are difficult to describe to a per- 
son who does not understand the physiology of the 
muscles of the region. It may be sufficient here for 



3.36 



Common sense is necessary in the management of stock. 



us to say that obscure lamenesses in which the ani- 
mal has lost the power of moving the muscles of the 
region, and to some extent the sensation of the skin 
is a result of some form of paralysis. Moreover, in 
old standing cases the muscles of the thigh may shrink ; 
then what is called "swinney" of the thigh is present. 
It must be remembered that the muscles of the thigh 
may shrink from other forms of lameness in the hind 
limb. In handling and treating these cases confine 
your treatment to rubbing three or four times a day 
for one-half hour the entire thigh and gaskin. If 
medical treatment is desired, secure the services of an 
expert. 

HIP JOINT DISEASE. 

The hip joint is deeply seated. It is almost impos- 
sible for it to be injured from the surface, yet some- 
times it is diseased or inflamed as a result of some 
obscure cause. It is possible for it to be diseased in 
rheumatism, big head, or pyaemia in some form. 

Symptoms. — There is more or less lameness pres- 
ent when the leg is brought forward. The foot is 
usually swung outward and forward. In some cases 
the animal or the leg gives way when the animal is 
suddenly turned around. In lameness of long stand- 
ing the muscles shrink around the hip and croup, and 
occasionally an enlargement about the hip joint can 
then be seen. 

Treatment — Outward applications are several inch- 
es away from the seat of the disease, hence they do 
little or no good. Some have advised very deep 
point firing; this should be resorted. tovxinly by the 
expert, since more injury may be done by the ordi- 
nary man than good produced. 

DISEASE OF THE BLOOD VESSELS. 

The arteries that supply the hind limb may also 
become plugged partially or entirely, produciiig 
symptoms just like those produced in the front limb 
by the plugging up of the brachial artery. If the an- 
imal is put to work in a short time, it suffers great 
pain, sweats over all parts of the body but the hind 
leg involved, and this leg is colder than usual, ^^'ith 
a short rest these symptoms disappear and return 
again with exercise. There is no treatment for this 
trouble. 



THE HIPPED ANIMAL. 

This consists in a fracture of the bone at the 
haunch or hip point. It is caused by running against 
the door, gate post, tree or some other hard object. 
In one case I knew it to be caused by the bite of a 
stallion. 

Symptoms — The haunch or hip joint on that side 
is lower and more flat or less pointed than on the op- 
posite side. For some time after it is done the animal 
is lame. The part may be sensitive or swollen. The 
piece of bone broken from the large pelvic bone, is 
pulled downward by the muscles and held there per- 
manently. It cannot be replaced, and sometimes an 
abscess may form, requiring a surgical operation to 
remove that piece of bone before recovery can take 
place. As a rule, in one or two months, the animal 
recovers except the bone is never replaced and it al- 
ways shows the hip point knocked down, or the hip 
point less pointed than its opposite. 

DISEASES OF THE STIFLE. 

Dislocation of the Patella or knee-cap. — When the 
patella is dislocated and caught on the upper lip of 




Fig. 57.— Shows the characteristic pcsition in which the 
hind limb is held (most of the time) when a mule has acute! 
intlammation (gonitis) of the stifle joint or joint formed by 
the femur and tibia or leg bone. This outline drawing was 
made from a photograph taken of a mule which had the rheu- 
matic form of gonitis. It was killed and the diagnosis con- 
firmed by post mortem examination. 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR 

the articular surfact on the front part of the lower 
end of the femur or thigh bone, the leg is locked ; no 
articulation can be flexed until that bone slips into 
place. In fact, the leg remains stiff and extended 
backward, resting with the toe on the ground. 

Good authorities now believe that the bone is not 
displaced but that the spasmodic contraction of the 
muscles locks the limb. They recommend forced ex- 
ercise as a cure. 



ligament 



Causes. — A loose condition of the 
that holds the patella or knee-cap and muscles 
in place permit it to becomes dislocated. It may oc- 
cur in loose jointed, rapidly growing colts ; it may al- 
so occur in draft horses or mules that are over- 
worked As a rule, it occurs in draft horses after be- 
ing worked regularly for several days and then rested 
one or more days. Draft horses subject to this dislo- 
cation will have it occur more frequently on Monday 
mornings or after a day's rest than at any other time. 

Treatment. — Place a rope or a hobble around the 
pastern and pull the foot forward. This forced flex- 
ion of the limb will permit the bone to slip into place ; 
then give the animal exercise immediately. Never 
put what is called a strifle shoe on such an animal 
However, that foot may be shod with the shoe that is 
twice as thick at the toe as at the heel. If the animal 
is a colt a sharp blister may be applied over the stifle 
to stimulate the muscles and ligaments in that re- 
gion. If the patella becomes thus dislocated once it 
is liable to recur: one dislocation predisposes the ani- 
mal to another. 

OUTWARD DISLOCATION OF THE PA- 
TELLA. 

In this case the patella slips to the outside, possi- 
bly as a result of stretching or breaking of the inter- 
nal ligament. The patella can be left on the outside. 
The horse can hardly support weight, because all the 
articulations are extremely fiexed. 

Treatment. — Xo ordinary treatment will give relief 
in this case. Sometimes surgical treatment by ex- 
perts produces good results. 

Inflammation of the Articulation Between the 
Lower End of the Femur and the Upper End of the 
Tibia Gonitis. — This articulation may become injured 
1 y a kick or direct stroke, sometimes ' bv overwork 



PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 337 

at heavy pulling. In other cases, the foot may be 
caught and in the struggle to get loose the animal 
may injure some of the lateral ligaments of this arti- 
culation. Trouble at this joint may be associated 
with rheumatism or big head. 

Symptoms. — In some cases, where the lameness is 
severe, the limb is held fle.xed and raised upward and 
outward. In other cases an enlargement may be felt 
and seen in tl.e front part of the stifle. Sometimes 
this enlargement is not very distinct, or it is absent. 
The leg is carried forward slowdy and stiffly, the step 
becomes short, and sometimes the animal trips in the 
forward movement of the leg. When both right and 
left joints are diseased, the animal will shift the lame- 
ness from one leg to the other, and in severe cases 
this shifting will occur quite frequently. In some in- 
stances the lameness comes and goes something like 
the lameness of rheumatism, changes dependin'^ on 
the condition of the weather. (See fgure 57.) 

Treatment — Some advise firing in lines from above 
to below on the outside, inside and front, and imme- 
diately after firing applying a good, stiff blister. In 
some cases this is followed by good results. 

The farmer might try the following blister: 

Mercuric Iodide 6 drams, 

Pulverized Cantharides 2 drams, 

Turpentine 2 fluid ounces, 

Vaseline 4 ounces. 

Mix thoroughly, apply and rub well over the out- 
side, front, and inside of the articulation; for the first 
24 hours the animal must be tied so that he cannot 
lie down ; also apply some lard over the abdomen 
next to the stifle, or apply a bandage around the 
abdomen. This is to prevent blister from getting on 
the abdomen. Repeat the application of this blister 
in the same manner in three or four weeks. If both 
limbs are involved, do not treat both limbs at the 
same time, but apply the blister on the one about a 
week after applying it on the other. It should be re- 
membered that many of the old standing cases of this 
trouble cannot be cured. 

SHOE BOIL. 

This occurs at the point of the elbow, and is caus- 
ed by the horse lying down on his feet like a cow. 
The hoof or the shoe injures the tissues at the elbow. 
At first there is a soft swelling, which in Ihe course of 



23 



338 



If your horse gets sick, don't wait, but doctor him. 



weeks develops into a fibroid tumor. This tumor will 
vary in size, according to its age and rapidity of 
growth. Usually it is about the size of a man's fist, 
but sometimes it becomes much larger. 

Treatment. — In the early stages it is best to try to 
prevent the animal lying down in that way and con- 
tinually injuring the part. Some apply a large leath- 
ed pad around the pastern; the animal lies down and 
the weight rests on the pad instead of the foot. Oth- 
ers apply a padded boot for the same purpose. But 
these methods are troublesome and are often neglect- 
ed. Others use some short strips one inch thick, i 



1-2 to 2 inches wide, and two to three feet long; these 
are nailed across the middle front part of the stall; 
when the horse lies down on his feet these strips 
hurt his cannons and he rolls over on his side, taking 
the weight off the feet. It works very well as long as 
the horse is kept in his own stall. The habit is very 
difficult to break. The injured part in the beginning 
will very soon get well if the cause is removed. If a 
tumor is present it must be removed by the use of 
the knife. During the time the wound is healing the 
horse may learn to lie down in the proper way. But 
some horses produce another tumor in the same old 
way. 



Fractures. 



The breaking of any bone of the body into two or 
more parts is a fracture. They are caused by violent 
contacts and in rare cases by powerful action of mus- 
cles. An old animal, one with big head and some- 
times animals with other bone diseases become pre- 
disposed to fracture of bones because the bones are 
weaker than normal or healthy bones. Fractures are 
classified under several heads, but here only a few of 
the most important will be considered. A simple 
fracture is one where the bone is broken without an 
external woimd opening down to the bone. A com- 
pound fracture is one where there is a wound extend- 
ing down to the fractured bone. A comminuted frac- 
ture is one in which there are a number of small pieces 
of bone at the place of the fracture. We may have a 
simple comminuted fracture, as well as a compound 
comminuted fracture. The fractured bone may be 
broken squarely across its long axis, or obliquely or 
lengthwise of the bone. The bone may be broken 
partly into two parts but usually it is entirely bro- 
ken into two parts. The fracture may extend into an 
articulation, then it is called an articular fracture. 

Symptoms. — Increased motility of the part is very 
prominent in places where the bones are not deeply 
covered by muscles. If the scapula, the humerus, the 
pelvis, and sometimes the femur are broken it may 
be difficult to detect it by the motility of the parts. 
Then we must depend upon the grating or crepita- 
tion caused by the moving of the broken pieces in 
contact with each other; often this grating sound or 



motion can l^e heard and felt. Sometimes the parts 
are dislocated or displaced, and this will enable one 
to defect a fracture. In the course of a day the tis- 
sues around the fracture will be greatly swollen and 
it will then be more difficult to determine its prc^ 
ence or absence. Fractures of the ribs may be cl 
tected bv the soreness of the part, by~ the absence ■' 
thoracic breathing, sometimes by displacement of the 
parts, and in a few instances a knowledge of the 
cause of the injury may help. A fracture of the back 
or one of the spinal vertebrae will usually cause pa- 
ralysis of the hind limbs. If a horse becomes injured 
and is so paralyzed that he cannot stand on his hind 
feet, and there is no other explanation of the trouble, 
it may be safely regarded as a fracture of one of the 
bones of the back. However, before killing the ani- 
mal, it may be best to secure the diagnosis of a veter- 
inarian. 

Treatment — In old horses and horses of little val- | 
ne, it is doubtful whether it. pays to treat fractures of 
the limbs in such animals. Young horses, especially ■ 
those that are not extra heavy, may in many instances 
• be successfully treated. In treating a fracture it is 
important to get the horse in a position where exces- 
sive movements and use of the fractured limb can be 
prevented. As a rule, it is best to place a horse with a 
fractured limb in slings. Slings can be improvised on 
the average farm at little expense and in a short time. 
Secure some cotton bagging and fold it over in four 
or five foot lengths, making at least three layers. Se- 




"Slddoo," owned by Miss Otitley, of Atlanta, Ga. 



340 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



cure four pieces of 1x4 plank about eight inches long- 
er than the cotton bagging is wide. With one of 
these pieces make one roll on the end of the cotton 
bagging and nail another piece to this ; fix the other 
end of the three layers of cotton bagging in the same 
way. Holes may be made in the end of these pieces, 
into which ropes one or two feet longer than the piec- 
es may be tied. A tripod derrick may be made by 
tying together the small ends of three pine poles (not 
less than 6 inches in diameter and about 20 feet long) 
with a strong rope or chain ; a few strong hands can 
raise this tripod, spreading the legs in a triangular 
position. Now attach a block and tackle to this tri- 
pod. It may be well to place the tripod over the 
horse or near the horse, so that the horse may be 
placed under it without much trouble. With the 
horse under the tripod, pass one end of the cotton 
bagging under the horse, letting the middle of the 
bagging fit up around the body. With a strong sin- 
gletree or a heavy neck yoke attached at its middle 
to the rope of the block, the end ropes of the bagging 
sling may eacli be attached to its respective end of 
the singletree or neck yoke. Now by putting the rope 
in the block the horse may be raised and held in a 
standing position with its feet on the ground. It may 
be necessary to arrange a sort of a breast strap from 
one edge of the bagging around in front of the breast 
to the other ; also another rope or strap may 
be passed from one edge of the bagging around 
behind the buttock to the other. These ropes or 
straps will prevent the animal froin falling out, in 
front or behnid. The horse is now ready to have the 
fracture set, or the bones put in their natural pos- 
iHon, and bandages and splints applied to keep them 
in that place. It is well to have plenty of clean cot- 
ton and a great number of bandages. Bandages can 
be made by buying 5 to 10 yards of cheap cotton 
sheeting ; this raay be rolled up into one solid roll, and 
with a sharp butcher knife it may be cut into seg- 
ments 2 to 3 inches long; when cut the bandages will 
be 2 to 3 inches wide and already rolled. It may be 
well to have 3 or 4 pounds of plaster of Paris. Also 



secure some pieces of paste-board, some thin strips 
of soft wood, and if possible, some pieces of sole 
leather. If the fracture is anywhere below the upper 
third of the forearm, or the upper half of the leg or; 
gaskin, it can be readily held in position by the prop- 
er application of splints and bandages. After get- 
ting the bones in position, apply a layer of cotton, 
holding it in place with bandage from the pastern up 
above the fracture. See that the cotton is smooth 
and that plenty of bandages are used. 'Now apply 
strips of paste board all around the fractured place 
and confine them there with banda.ges. In some I 
cases it may bg well to wet the bandages and then, 
apply some wet plaster of Paris with the hand. A 
thin layer of plaster of Paris may be put on all 
around the fracture and some distance above and' 
below. Now put on more strips of pasteboard 01 
thin strips of wood and apply more bandage. Then' 
apply another layer of plaster of Paris. Over this 
may be applied more bandage. It is always well tc 
see that the ends of the wood strips and the uppei 
and lower Ijorders of the layers of plaster of Pari;' 
are well protected with cotton. If it is a simple frac 
ture, and the dressing does not change its place 
get out of position it may remain undisturbed i<<v 
to 6 weeks, when it may be removed and no otlie 
replaced if the bones are united. If the bones ar 
not united, it may be necessary to apply the band 
ages and other materials so that an opening will 1' 
left just over the wound that opens down to the frai 
tured bone. This opening may be enlarged while tli 
dressing is fresh and before the plaster of Paris lia 
set. Sterilized cotton may be inserted around tli 
wound and over the opening to protect and to cleans 
the wound. The wound may be dressed and cleanse 
with boiled water, boiled cotton, and other antisept; 
dressings. This may be done once a day or as ot'te 
as necessary. It should be remembered that con 
pound fractures will require more care and <I 
not recover as readily or as frequently as do simpl 
fractures. 



Wounds. 



An incised wound is a clean cut wound made with is usually small and deep. It is made by a shar] 
a sharp instrument. A lacerated wound is one that pointed instrument. A contused or bruised wound 
is torn and its lips are ragged. A punctured wound made with a blunt object that does not cut but crus 



M 



Don't wcit f;r a more convenient time to do anything about the stock. 



341 



s. A gun-shot wound is very like a punctured 
vound, except it is usually deeper. A poisoned 
vound is one that is made with a poisoned instrument 
ir by the bite of a poisonous animal. Wounds Ileal 
y what is called first mtention and by granulation. 
Vhen a wound heals by first intention its lips must be 
rought as near as possible into the natural position 
nd union takes place without leaving very much, if 
;ny scar. When a wound heals by granulation, the 
iraulations fill up the space between the open lips of 
tie wound and form the scar; this scar contracts and 
;; usually very much smaller than the original gap- 
jig wound. 

Treatment. — In some cases, it may be necessary to 
op the bleeding. This is best done by picking up 
le vessel v^'ith sterile forceps, and then tying the end 
' the vessel with a thread that has been sterilized by 
JDiling it in water. But if this cannot be done, the 
lound may be packed with cotton or bandage that 
lis been sterilized by boiling it in water with some 
'icolin or carbolic acid. Over the cotton packed in 
e wound firmly pressing against the bleeding ves- 
Is, a bandage may be tied. This dressing may be 
lift until the following day, when it may be removed 
jid another applied if necessary. In some cases 
jessure above or below the wound will show the lo- 
tion of the blood vessel by stopping the flow of 
ood; then a piece of cork or a knot in a bandage 
ay be made to press over this spot by the use of 
indage, and thus stop the bleeding. If the wound 
not bleeding excessively, it may be dressed with 
ly good antiseptic, being careful to have all the 
itton, the bandage and the water completelv steril- 
|ed by boiling and using in the water some carbolic 
^d, creolin or bichloride of mercury. Some wounds 
li ybe benefited by using stitches to close them. If 
pre is no filth or dirt in the wound, and you are 
rtain that it is clean, do not wash it, especially if 
lu cannot use sterile material in cleaning it. Stitch 
jbp without washing. The stitches may be deep or 
kllow, according to the depth of the wound. Sin- 
• or separate stitches about 1-2 inch apart may be 
id; or the whip stitch may be used, which is con- 
luous from one end of the wound to the other. It 
•well to leave the lowest part of the wound slightly 
pn. so that it may drain. Be sure to boil the thread 
Iwater for about one hour before using it to stitch 
I a wound. It is best to use silk thread. Remember 
't where muscles are cut and pull the wound open. 



stitches will not hold with any degree of satisfaction. 
If a wound becomes infected, discharging pus, it 
should be thoroughly cleansed with carbolic acid or 
creolin in boiled and cooled water and packed with 
stronger creolin and carbolic acid on bandages or in 
cotton each day, until the pus ceases to form. Then 
the wound need not be dressed every day. A wound 
that is not discharging pus should not be washed, be- 
cause washing removes granulations and retards heal- 
ing. Punctured wounds that are made -with old, dirty 
instruments, especially if such instruments have soil 
on them, are liable to lead to tetanus or lockjaw if 
they are not opened and thoroughly cleaned. This 
is especially true of nail punctures about the foot. 
Sometimes deep punctures may be cleansed by insert- 
ing a small and long nozzle and washing out the 
wound with sterile water or with a good antiseptic so- 
lution. If in doubt about a punctured wound, inject 
some tincture of iodine or a solution of potassium io- 
dide down into the bottom of the wound. After an 
hour or so this may be washed out with sterile water. 
If no syringe can be secured, saturate a small strip of 
bandage with the tincture of iodine or some strong 
carbolic acid or creolin, and with a darning needle or 
some other long, small instrument, push one end of 
tliis saturated bandage strip down to the bottom of 
the wound and leave it there until the next day. In 
dressing wounds that cannot be bandaged a protective 
and antiseptic dust powder is often useful. A good 
dust powder may be made as follows: 

Tannic Acid 2 ounces. 

Boracic Acid 2 ounces. 

Iodoform 1-2 ounce*. 

Mix thoroughly and dust over the 
wound at least once a day, using enough 
' to cover the entire wound surface with a 
thin layer of the powder. 

Another good powder can be made of equal parts 
of sub-nitrate of bismuth, oxide of zinc, calomel and 
air-slacked lime. This is applied in the same manner 
as the other dust powder, and has the advantage in 
that it does not smell so bad. 

The following may be used instead of the dust pow- 
der as a protective and antiseptic lotion for wounds : 

Zinc Sulphate 2 ounces. 

T.ead Acetate 2 ounces. 



34- 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Carbolic Acid i fluid ounce. 

Boiled Water i quart. 

Mix and shake well just before using. 

SNAKE BITES. 

The treatment following- the bite of a poisonous 
snake must be given quickly after the bite. In some 
cases, depending upon the location, a piece of the tis- 
sue may be cut out all around the bite. Some advise 
applying the mouth and sucking out the poison, spit- 
ting it out and rinsing out with water and an anti- 
septic solution. This mode of treatment has proven 
very successful in snake bites of man. Sometimes it 
may be benefited by using stitches to close them. If 
above the bite; it can only be done wh.en the bite is in 
the lower part of the limb. Strong caustics, as 
strong ammonia, nitrate of silver, caustic soda, have 
been applied, and if used immediately and all parts 
of the wound are reached by the caustic, the results 
may be good.' Some claim that strong solutions of 
permanganate of potash, or tincture of iodine may be 
applied and worked into the wound. Local treatment 
may not do much good after the poison is absorbed; 
yet it may be best to apply the local treatment so as 
to destroy any poison that may remain unabsorbed. 
The swelling resulting from a snake bite may be 
treated by local applications of antiseptics once or 
twice per day. If necessary some stimulants may be 
given internally to keep up the strength of the ani- 
mal during the action of the poison. 

FISTULOUS WITHERS. 

A deep-seated injury (A the withers leads to a deep- 
seated abscess. In some cases the injury may be on 
the surface and infection extend from this to the deep- 
er parts and result in an abscess. It is possible that 
pus germs might be transmitted by way of lymph or 
blood vessels to the deep structures in this region and 
result in an abscess. Some injuries of the withers 
may produce a serous cyst, in which there are no in- 
fected germs ; but when this is opened pus germs may 
gain admission through the opening. In such cases 
the liquid that escapes when the swelling is opened 
is a kind of thick lymph, slightly stained with blood. 
Sometimes when the cavity is opened pieces of dead 
tissue and pus or serum escape. 

Treatment. — It is essential to establish by opera- 



tion free openings to all the cavities and to thorough 
ly clean out and remove all pus and dead tissue. I, 
may be necessary to make one or more openings oi 
each side of the withers. These openings should b 
made so that the resulting wound will not gape tO' 
much. In the front part of the withers it may be besj 
to cut from below obliquely upward and forward; i 
the back part cut from below obliquely upward an 
forward. Never cut across the top of the wither; 
Using boiled water containing creolin or carbolic aci 
(i ounce to the quart of water), and cotton that ha 
been sterilized by boiling in water, thoroughly cleai 
out the cavities. It would be well to have a goo( 
clean, hard-rubber, or metal syringe with a capacit 
of 2 to 6 ounces. This will be useful in forcing liqui^ 
to the bottom of the cavities. A pair of curved sci: 
sors are useful in cutting away pieces of dead tissi 
in and around the cavity. Now saturate some bai 
dage with a mixture of equal parts of raw linseed c 
and turpentine. Pack the cavities full with this bai 
dage, leaving one end lying in one of the openings, s 
that it can be readily picked up when it is necessai 
to remove th.is packing. In one or two days remoi 
the packing, thoroughly wash up the outer surfaC' 
with water containing boiled cotton and a little ba 
ing soda. If pus is coming from the cavities pack 
again aS before, and repeat this dressing every day ' 
every other day until pus is not formed in the ca\ 
ties ; then the internal dressing or packing may not ! 
repeated more frequently thaji. once a week. It 
important in treating these cases that great care 
observed in keeping out all the infection by usiii , 
materials that have not been thoroughly sterilized Ij 
boiling or otherwise. Also regular and consta'it en' 
and observation are necessary. When the parts Ii.i 
healed keep all pressure of collar or saddle from 
withers for several months. During treatment i: 
not best to work the animal, but if necessary, > 
breast harness. 

POLL EVIL. 

This occurs at the poll and has similar causes, pr 
sents similar symptoms and conditions to fistul' • 
withers. The treatment is quite similar, except |i 
opening the cavities at the poll the openings shot I 
be made nearly parallel with the top border of t? 
neck. The opening should be made large and to • 
side, but never across the top. Apply the same trr • 
ment as for fistulous withers 



Good horses are the cheapest. 



343 



Diseases of Digestive Organs. 



The Mouth. — In the mouth diseased teeth and in- 
flamed or ulcerated mucous membrane may occur; 
the tongue may also be wounded or paralyzed. If 
the teeth are diseased, it may be necessary to extract 
one or more. This can only be done by some one 
who has had experience and is equipped with the 
proper instruments. If the mucous membrane be- 
comes inflamed or ulcerated, we may have small ul- 
cers on the tongue or other parts of the mouth ; this 
may be attended by excessive slobbering and difficul- 
ty in eating and swallowing. It may be treated by 
washing out the mouth with water and then applying 
a mixture of — 

Tannic Acid i ounce. 

' Carbolic Acid I fluid dram. 

Glycerine 4 fluid ounces. 

I ■ Water 4 fluid ounces. 

I After washing out the mouth apply 

I this by means of a cotton swab, or inject 

I .a small quantity into the mouth with a 

small syringe. This can be done two or 

three times a day. Feed the animal on 

soft food ; cut the hay or fodder and 

steam it or scald it with hot water to 

|i make it soft just before feeding. 

n 

If the hard palate is swollen and the animal has 
I lampas, resulting from cutting teeth, hard food, indi- 
ij, gestion or sore mouth, remove the cause or treat the 
ji disease that is causing this trouble, or wait till the 
jl*) animal gets over cutting teeth. It is not best to cut 
'I the hard' palate or to burn it for this trouble. Change 
I the feed and wait till the cause disappears and re- 
covery will occur. 

If the tongue is cut by rope or by bit or by the 
teeth, remove the cause and treat the wound with the 
prescription advised for sore mouth. If the teeth 
are cutting the tongue, or the upper teeth are cutting 
the inside of the cheek, they should be clipped and 
floated or filed down. This can be done by the prop- 
er use of a chisel and float that may be secured at 
instrument houses. 



CHOKE. 

This is an obstruction in the pharynx or throat or 
in the oesophagus or gullet. In the horse it is usually 
caused by the animal eating greedily and bolting dry 
food, such as oats or peas in the hulls. Sometimes it 
may be caused by a cob or corn and cob meal. In 
the cow and pig, choke results from an attempt to 
swallow old piec*.>s of turnips, potatoes or apples. In 
a dog it occurs with an attempt to swallow bones, es- 
pecially fish bones. In some cases the gullet may be 
dilated and food collect in this dilitation in such a 
mass that it cannot be passed on into the stomach. 
In other cases the gullet becomes contracted, and this 
predisposes the horse to choking. 

Symptoms. — The animal makes violent efforts to 
swallow. If water is given one or two swallows may 
be ctarted but usually the water comes out through 
the nostrils, and may be followed by coughing. In 
some cases you can feel and see the enlargement of 
the gullet along the left side and upper border of the 
wind pipe. But if the choke is in that part of the gullet 
that lies in the thorax it cannot be seen, and, as a rule, 
the horse dies in a short time. The cause of the 
death may be due to pressure on the heart, the large 
blood vessels, or upon nerves. When the choke is in 
the neck portion of the gullet, or in the throat, the 
horse may live three or four days and die from sys- 
temic infection, originating in the gullet or throat. 

Treatment. — Let the animal have free access to 
good, clean water. The water which he attempts to 
swallow will soften up the obstructing material and 
help to remove it. Some advise giving mucilaginous 
or oily drinks to soften up the material and make the 
surfaces slippery. Whatever may be used it should 
not be forced down the animal, except in very small 
quantity, and then not too frequently. In some cases 
the long stomach tube, called a probang, may be pass- 
ed into the mouth and down the oesophogus; when it 
reaches the obstruction do not push heavily, or you 
will injure the oesophagus. If light pressure does not 
start the obstruction to move onward remove the pro- 
bang. In some cases the mouth of the horse or the 



344 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



cow may be held open by means of pieces of board or 
specially constructed iron placed between the teeth to 
keep the mouth open ; the hand may be passed 
through the mouth and into the throat or pharynx to 
remove the obstructing object. There is some dan- 
ger in this, but with care it can be done. Sometimes 
when the obstruction is in the neck part of the gullet 
it may b6 worked loose with the fingers carefully 
pressing on it from the outside; it is usually best to 
try to work it back toward the mouth. Jt is inad- 
visable to use whip stocks, fork handles, or other like 
objects to force the obstruction into the stomach ; 
such implements usually injure the parts beyond re- 
covery. Sometimes a piece of smooth wire, about lo 
feet long, may be bent in the middle, the two ends 
being brought together, then twist the wires on each 
other, leaving a small loop at the middle end. If this 
wire is very smooth it may be oiled with vaseline or 
raw linseed oil and passed down to the oljstruction 
and with care in working the wire the obstruction 
may be dislodged. The wire should not be too large, 
a No. ID or 12 wire is about the right size. If the 
choke is not readily dislodged by a mild use of any 
of the instruments suggested, stop using them at once, 
for more harm will be done than good by violent use 
oi any of the instruments. Many cases recover by 
the use of nothing but plenty of water, and keeping 
all feed, unless it be fresh gruel, away from the ani- 
mal for 2 to 4 days. 

INDIGESTION AND COLIC IN HORSES. 

These terms are used together because these trou- 
bles are so frequently associated in actual practice. 
Indigestion is often the forerunner of colic. It may 
be acute or chronic. Acute indigestion is often con- 
fined to indigestion in the stomach proper, and 
sometimes it may be intestinal indigestion. It is 
caused by irregular feeding, improper feed, sudden 
changes in food, greedy eating, and sometimes an ex- 
cess of cold water. It may be associated with or a 
sequel of any systemic disease that weakens the ani- 
mal. 

Symptoms. — The appetite is capricious or absent, 
the mucous membrane of the mouth may be dry, the 
breath smell sour, and the tongue coated. The ani- 
mal's abdomen may become small and tucked up, the 
feces or manure may be passed frequently, and in 



small quantities. Later it may pass into spasmodic 
or wind colic, as a result of the irritation or fermen- 
tation of the undigested food. 

Treatment. — In many cases, when the animal first 
loses its appetite, proper care and proper feeding may 
result in a recovery in the course of a few days. In 
other cases it may be necessary to give a drench, con- 
sisting of one pound of Epsom salts, and one or two 
tablespoonfuls of table salt, both of which are dissolv- 
ed in one pint to one quart of warm water. In giving 
this as one drench, do not choke or strangle the ani- 
mal. 

CHRONIC INDIGESTION 

is accompanied by prolonged changes in the diges- 
tive action in the stomach or intestines. Sometimes 
structural changes may occur in the mucous mem- , 
brane of the stomach or intestines. It is also caused 
by improper feeding, greedy eating and feeding de- 
cayed, rough and indigestible food. It may be asso- 
ciated with other diseases in which the system is re- 
duced in strength. 

Symptoms. — At times the appetite is good and at 
other times it is bad. Usually the animal is poor and 
weak, the skin is rough and dry, the tongue is coated, 
more or less red around the edges, and the mouth is 
sour and stale. In some cases the animal may have 
loose bowels; in others, the bowels are more or less 
constipated. 

Treatment. — Give small quantity of the very best 
ot feed, and feed regularly. If the animal is greedy 
spread the feed over the bottom of a large box, so 
that it cannot be eaten quickly. Always water the 
animal before feeding it, and salt the animal at least 
three times a week. The following prescription may 
be given: 

Pulverized Gentian 4 ounces. 

Pulverized Digitalis Leaves . .2 ounces. 
Pulverized Copper Sulphate . . . i ounce. 

Pulverized Sulphur 2 ounces. 

Linseed Meal i pound. 

Mix thoroughly and give one table- 
spoonful in the ground feed two to three 
times per day. 



Always remember that horses and mules have feelings. 



345 



SPASMODIC COLIC. 

This is usually regarded as a disease of the intes- 
;ines, and is that form in which no appreciable quan- 



the colic, give a purative. One pint of raw linseed oil, 
or I pint of castor oil, or cotton seed oil may be given 
at one dose, being careful not to choke or strangle the 
animal. Never drench the horse through the nose. 
ity of gas is formed. But it must be remembered One pound of Epsom salts dissolved in one pint of wa- 



;hat colic is not always confined to the intestines, nor 
is there no gas formed when it is not apparent to the 
observer of the living animal. In actual colic condi- 
tions fast and hard lines are not drawn. By many 
'aersons any form of abdominal pain is called colic. 

i 

Causes — Over eating, especially on rest days, decay- 
ed food or other indigestible food may also produce 
:olic. Acute or chronic indigestion may precede an 
ittack of colicy pain. In some cases chilling the sur- 
face of the body, as exposure to a cold rain, may pro- 
duce colic. Bots or grubs rarely, if ever, produce col- 
ic. In some cases small worms may produce obstruc- 
tions in some of the small arteries that supply the in- 
testines with blood. This is said to be a frequent 
:ause of periodic colic ; yet it cannot be determined un- 
til after the death of the animal. The most common 
:ause is over feeding just before or immediately after 
severe exercise. A sudden change of food, as from old 
;orn to new corn, may produce indigestion or colic. 

Symptoms — ^The appetite is gone, the animal shows 
igns of abdominal pain. The signs may be manifest 
y pawing, lying down and rolling or continual walk- 
ing, sometimes kicking at the abdomen. As a rule, 

, there will be periods of relief, followed by periods of 
Ijintense pain. During the exercise and the severe pain 

j the pulse may be increased and the temperature may 
h- slightly raised at that time. But during the inter- 
val of relief from pain the pulse and temperature will 
return to the normal. In some cases, when severe 
pain is present, the animal will sweat freely. The bad 

j|or unfavorable signs consist in a rapid and wiry pulse, 
cold limbs and ears, and cold sweats, trembling mus- 
Jcles, anxious expression, dilated pupils, dark colored 

I (mucous membrane, and in some cases general depres- 
Ision. 

Treatment — If the animal is in great pain, relieve the 
pam by giving 3 to 7 grains of morphine dissolved in 



ter may be given instead of one of the oils. Purga- 
tives should not be repeated under 12 to 24 hours. In 
some cases the drug to relieve pain may be mixed with 
the purgative. For example : 

Chloral Hidrate i ounce. 

Creolin 2 drams. 

Glycerine 4 fluid ounces. 

Water i pint. 

Mix and give as one drencli. This 
should not be repeated under 12 to 24 
hours. Some veterinarians prefer to give 
I ounce aloes made into a ball or large 
pill and administered by oiling it and then 
pushing it with the fingers as far as pos- 
sible on the back part of the tongue, thus 
causing the horse to swallow it. This 
can only be done after learning by trial 
or experience. In some cases, where the 
animal is constipated, it may be well to 
inject one to four quarts of warm water 
into the rectum once or twice per day. 
While the animal is suffering pain it 
should be kept in a place where it cannot 
injure itself, or it may be slowly walked 
around. Never should it be abused by 
running or excessive motion of any kind. 
In all cases of colic decide on a single 
line of treatment and do not give "very- 
thing that may be recommended. Re- 
member that many cases of colic are 
killed by overdosing. Wait with patience 
a sufficient time for medicine to act be- 
fore repeating doses, or giving another 
remedy. 

FLATULENT OR WIND COLIC. 

This involves chiefly the intestines, but like spas- 
-a small quantity of water, or give 1-2 to i oz. of chlo- modic colic, its action is not limited to the intestines. 
Iral hidrate dissolved in one pint to one quart of water. Its causes are very much like the causes of indiges- 
jThese should not be repeated for 10 to 12 hours. If it tion and spasmodic colic, except there are germs or 
jis known that indigestible or irritating food is causing chemical substances coming in contact with the undi- 



346 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



gested food which produce fermentation and thus 
eliminate or set free gas. 

Symptoms. — The manifestations of pain are quite 
similar to those of spasmodic colic. In addition to 
the symptoms of pain, the abdomen becomes enlarged 
or distended by the excessive gas in the intestines 
and stomach. The distension is usually larger or 
more prominent in the right tlank than in the left. 
When the abdomen becomes distended the breathing 
becomes short and rapid. This is due to the absorp- 
tion of poisonous gas by the blood and to the pressure 
of the abdominal organs against the diaphragm. The 
grave or bad signs are rapid pulse, say 80 to 120 per 
minute, cold surface of the body, dark colored mu- 
cous membranes and cold sweats. 

Treatment. — In the early stages the treatment may 
be the same as for spasmodic colic, except that it is 
always well to give something to stop fermentation. 
For this 1-2 ounce of strong creolin may be mixed 
with one pint to one quart of water, and the whole 
given as one drench. In some cases i quart of warm 
water in which has been disolved as much salt as it 
will take up may be given as a drench. Sometimes 
the gas will be formed so rapidly that its rapid ab- 
sorption will in a short time kill the animal, providing 
relief is not obtained. . In such cases it is advisable 
to use the trocar and canula to let out this gas and 
relieve the animal. This instrument can be obtained 
at instrument houses, and should be kept in a clean, 
sterile condition, at all times ready for use. To use 
it, clip the hair over the right flank and wash thor- 
oughly with boiled and cooled water, containing cre- 
olin or carbolic acid. With a sharp knife cut an open- 
ing through the skin about 1-2 inch long: now push 
the trocar and canula down into the intestines 3 to 5 
inches; pull out the trocar and the gas will escape 
through the canula. If the horse is standing, it is us- 
ually best to make the opening through the skin and 
insert the trocar and canula rather high up on the 
flank, but if it is lying down it may be made some- 
what lower on the flank. In some cases the animal 
will be inclined to kick. Then a hobble should be 
placed around the pastern of that limb and the foot 
held so that the animal cannot kick the person doing 
the operation. The canula may be kept in place as 
long as any gas escapes — say for one hour, if neces- 
sa'-v. In some ca^'cs a small rulibcr tube and funnel 



may be attached to the canula and one pint or morj; 
of diluted creolin may be passed into the intestines| 
this is done to stop the fermentation. Before -with 
drawing the canula, insert the trocar. This will pre^ 
vent some of the intestinal contents following out thj 
canula and infecting the wound. If in the course 
time the horse becomes badly distended again witfl 
gas, the trocar and canula may be used in the sam| 
way, but not in the same place. Choose some othe 
spot in the right flank. Remember that this instru 
ment is used in the right flank of horses, and the lefjj 
flank of cattle and sheep. If a purgative has not al| 
ready been given, it is well to give one of those rec| 
ommended for spasmodic colic. 

WORMS OR ANIMAL PARASITES THAT LIVliB 
IN THE STOMACH OR INTESTINES. 

Numerous small, round worms and large rounj 
jvorms may be found in the intestines and stomach 
the horse. These parasites are more frequent i 
horses and colts at pasture than animals fed conti; 
uously in barns or stables. This is probably due 
the fact that pastures may become infested by sen* 
tering infested manure over the grass. In this ni:i 
ner the animals become more frequently infested tlia 
those kept in barns. These parasites cause more o 
less irritation and disturbance depending upon th 
number and to some extent upon the mode of life. 

Symptoms. — The only positive sign of worms in th 
alimentary canal is the presence or observation c 
some of the worms in the manure passed by the an 
mal. It is true that excessive numbers may interfc 
with digestion and absorption of food, and the anim: 
become emaciated in consequence. Some assert thn 
these parasites may produce an injurious or pois^'' 
ous product, which is passed in the feces from tin 
bodies and absorbed by the membranes or tissues < 
the horse. This has never been positively establisliC' 

Treatment. — If animals are kept well supplied wit- 
salt, they do not, as a rule, suffer from excessive in 
festation by worm parasites. An animal in goo 
health seems to be able to throw off many parasite- 
but an animal that is weak usually becomes very bad 
ly infested. The following prescription may be use 
to destroy the ordinary round worms found in the ni 
destines and stomach of the horse: 



mgsrf^misaamii^i^jii*i» \'ji'iBvm 







'%: 








Miss Marion Feel of Atlanta, Ga., On Anna Bain, Nym McOollough's blue ribbon horse. 



348 



Stock appreciate good water whether they get it or not. 



Pulverized Gentian 4 ounces. 

Pulverized Sulphate of Iron . . 2 ounces. 
Pulverized Copper Sulphate . . i ounce. 

Pulverized Sulphur 2 ounces. 

Linseed Meal i pound. 

Mix thoroughly and give one to two 
tablespoonfuls in ground feed two times 
per day, according to size and age, doses 
for colts should be 1-4 to 1-2 as much as 
the horse. 

BOTS OR GRUBS IN THE STOMACH OF THE 

HORSE. 

This so-called worm represents one of the stages in 
the life history of an insect, commonly called the hot 
fly (Gastrophilus Equi.) In order to understand its 
relation to the horse, its complete life history must be 
known. In the summer, from June to November, bot 
flies may be found depositing eggs on the hairs about 
the front part of the body, usually on the forearm, 
knee and cannon. Each egg is cemented to a hair, 
and in about 24 hours it may hatch and the young 
worm-like embryo may crawl on the skin, producing 
some irritation, causing the horse to lick the part 
with his tongue. In so doing he may carry away the 
ehibryo to the mouth. From the mouth it passes to 
the stomach, and there it attaches itself by means of 
the hooks about its mouth to nnicous membrane, us- 
ually on the left side of the stomach. Here it re- 
mains and grows by absorbing food from the stom- 
ach's contents, until late wiuter or early spring, when 
it lets loose, passes out with the manure and enters 
the groi'ud. In a short time it takes on the pupa 
stage oi insect life. This stage continues for 30 or 
40 days, varying with the temperature,- and then it 
molts or changes and comes out of the ground as an 
adult bot fly. This fly is about the size of a honey 
bee, and makes a noise very much like a honey-bee. 
When the egg is laid and attached to the' hair of the 
horse it does not hurt the horse. But as a rule horses 
and mules fight and kick at the fly because they must 
mistake it or think it is a bee that will sting and hurt 
them. It will be seen from the life history that one 
stage of its life is spent as a parasite in the horse's 
stomach, and this is commonly called the bot stage. 
Usually, the bots attach themselves to the skin-like 
portion of the mucous membrane of the stomach. In 
doing this it may make a small hole in the lining 



membrane. But this part of the membrane is rather 
tough and does not secrete gastric juice. As a rule, a 
few of these bots do little or no damage. An exces- 
sive number of them may cause some irritation and 
might in rare instances be associated with indiges- 
tion. Occasionally they collect in such large num- 
bers and attach about the outlet of the stomach at the 
place where the stomach opens into the small intes- 
tine, that they occlude or plug up this opening. Some- 
times they may collect in large numbers in the begin- 
ning part of the small intestines and there obstruc; 
the passage. If such obstructions remain for any pe- 
riod of time, they might result in the death of the ani- 
mal, but no one could be positive that such condi- 
tions existed before the death of the animal. In somi 
cases of colic the stomach of the horse becomes rup 
tured, possibly from violent attempts to vomit. Tin 
rupture occurs along the bottom or greater curvature 
of the stomach. Then the contents of the stomach 
escape into the abdominal cavity, producing death in 
the course of 12 to 24 hours. When the animal is 
opened and the ordinary observer sees this hole in the 
stomach and some of the bots out in the abdominal 
cavity, and a few of the little holes in the mucous 
memhrane on the left side of the stomach, where bots 
have been attached, they readily say that bots have 
eaten through the stomach. This is by no means the 
case. Previous to the death of the animal bots never 
eat entirely through the walls of the stomach. The 
disease commonly called bots is usually some form of 
colic ; in fact, there is no such disease as bots. It is 
true that bots may take some food from the stom- 
ach, and sometimes obstruct the outlet of the stom- 
ach or the beginning of the small intestines, but the 
disease produced by such conditions should be called 
indigestion, colic, or obstruction in some part of the 
alimentary canal. Remembering these facts the bots 
can only be responsible for one death out of 1,000 of 
the so-called cases of bots. In order to prevent bots 
from entering the stomach, the eggs must be singefl 
or clipped off and burned every few days from the 
hairs on the body of the horse. After the bots have 
entered the stomach and become attached to it no 
medicine will make them let loose without injuring 
the stomach. It is true that they will let loose anil 
pass out when that stage in their growth is complet- 
ed ; hence all remedies for removing the bots from 
the stomach should be avoided. This is especially so 
if the horse is sick with the colic or indigestion; be- 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



349 



cause any medicine strong enough to destroy the bots 
in the stomach wouhl on\f injure the horse and make 
it more sick. 

DIARRHOEA. 

This is sometimes called purging. 

Causes. — Changes in food, soft food, indigestible 
food, over-eating and frozen food. It is sometimes 
associated with indigestion or colic. Occasionally 
large draughts of water and sometimes overdoses of 
purgatives may produce it. Some horses seem to be 
predisposed to it. 

Symptoms. — The bowel discharges are soft, watery 
and frequent, and this may continue from one to sev- 
eral days. If continued long the animal gets weak 
and poor. 

Treatment. — Correct the faulty feeding and re- 
move all the attending causes. Sometimes starch is 
given in the drinking water, or the quantity of water 
allowed the animal for drinking is reduced. Some- 
times chalk is given in the drinking water. One-half 
to one dram of pulverized sulphate of iron may be 
given in dry ground feed once per day until the diar- 
rhoea stops. Other astringent antiseptics may be 
used internally, but as a rule it is inadvisable to check 
the action of the bowels too suddenly. If there is 
some irritating and fermenting food in the alimentary 
canal causing the diarrhoea, a small purgative, as 1-2 
pint of castor oil, might be given in order to remove 
this irritating food from the alimentary canal. Then 
this is followed by the treatment previously suggest- 
ed. If the animal is weak it should rest during the 
treatment. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 

This is sometimes called enteritis. It is an inflam- 
mation of the intestines, most frequently involving 
the lining membrane of the small intestine. It may, 
however, involve any part of the large intestine. 
Som'etimes the inflammation may extend to all the 
other coats of the intestine. 

Causes. — It is usualh^ caused by irritating drugs, 

|J such as poisons, strong alkalies, acids, and other caus- 

I tic substances. It is possible that it might result from 

ji the action of some germ, but these cases are uncom- 

II mon. It may attend a strangulated bowel, as an ir- 



redticable rupture, and some claim that cases of colic 
may pass into inflammation of the bowels. This may 
be true when the bowels become obstructed, tele- 
scoped, or twisted, or when too strong and irritating 
drugs have been used, j A few castor 'b^anS will cause 
violent inflammation of the' storna'ch"'and the bowels; 
an overdose of croton oil will also produce the same 
result. . ^ ; 

Symptoms. — The pain resembles the pain of colic, 
but in this case it is continuous. The temperature 
will rise to 104 or 105 degrees Fah. After a day or so 
it may go down to about 103 and remain about that 
place until recovery takes place. The pulse is rapid, 
small and weak. Respirations are more or less rapid 
and confined to the thorax. Abdominal breathing is 
very limited or absent. The animal does not lie down 
and roll around as in cases of colic. The abdomen 
is too sore to permit it. Sometimes the animal will 
stand and rub against the wall or side of the stall. In 
other cases pain is so severe that it may prefer to 
walk around rather rapidly or continue to change its 
position. In some cases diarrhoea may be present. 
This, however, is not continuous, because the bowels, 
especially the effected part, become paralyzed ; then 
the ordinary rumbling noise that may be heard in the 
abdomen of the healthy horse is absent, because the 
intestines are not moving as they do in health-. As a 
rule, the animal will not lie down for anv great 
length of time, and in some cases it will stand until 
he dies or recovers. 

Treatment. — Keep the animal quiet and relieve the 
pain by giving 8 to 10 grains of morphine every four 
hours until the animal is relieved. If the animal de- 
sires food let it be well cooked and given soft. Never 
give irritating hay or rough forage of any kind. Cold 
water should not be allowed. The chill should be 
taken from all drinking water before it is given. Do 
not get alarmed if the bowels do not act for several 
days. Keep down the tendency to fermentation by 
giving creolin, i dram ; glycerine, i ounce, and water, 
3 ounces, 3 or 4 times per day. Remember that it 
will require i to 3 weeks for the animal to recover. 
When the animal's appetite begins to return be care- 
ful to avoid overfeeding and roug-h feed. Most cases 
of inflammation of the bcrwtils die, and many of them 
are killed by improper treatment and improper feed- 
ing. .■.,.■.•...., . .1 . 



350 



Stock need salt regularly every day. 



Diseases of the Respiratory 

Organs. 



The respiratory organs consist of the nasal passages, 
the throat, the larynx, the wind pipe, the bronchial 
tubes, the air sacs, the lungs and the thorax. The 
nasal passages in the horse are peculiarly enlarged by 
their connection with cavities called the frontal sinus, 
the superior and the inferior maxillary sinuses. The 
mucous surface of these passages are also enlarged by 
the scroll shaped bone, called the turbinated bones. 
It is possible that this enormous surface of mucous 
membrane connected with the nasal passages is so ar- 
ranged to warm the air before it enters the lungs. .At 
any rate, this immense surface gives great opportun- 
ity for the action of germs or irritants in the air to 
produce inflammation. Cold or catarrh in the head in- 
volves this mucous membrane. It is caused bv ex- 
posure to cold, irritating gases, germs, and irritating 
drugs when the horse is drenched through the nose. 

Symptoms — .At first the mucous membrane of the 
nose is dry, the animal is dull and sleepy. Its appetite 
is decreased, it may shiver, and sometimes the tem- 
perature rises one or two degrees. Usually the skin 
is dry and rough, and sometimes the bowels consti- 
pated. Later an excessive watery discharge comes 
from the nose. This may become thicker and opaque 
or whitish in color ; sometimes it may be yellow. In 
some instances the eyes become inflamed. At first 
they are red and discharge thin, watery material, 
which later becomes thicker and pus like. This dis- 
ease is more common in old horses and mules than in 
young horses. If the case is acute, it may last a week, 
but it may become chronic and last several weeks. 

Treatment. — When it is first discovered that the ani- 
mal is cold and chilly, rub the entire body and cover 
with a good blanket. Keep the animal in a well ven- 
tilated stall protected from drafts and rain. Steam the 
animal two or three times a day in the following man- 
ner: fill a bucket 1-3 to 1-2 full with hot water; put 
one teaspoonful of creolin, carbolic acid, or lysol into 



this water ; place the bucket in the bottom of a large 
sack ; put into the bucket a red hot iron weighing four 
or five pounds. Hold the top of the sack under and 
over the horses nose for ten to twenty minutes, per- 
mitting it to breathe this hot steam. It may be nec- 
essary to force the horse to hold its head over this 
steam at first, but soon it will learn to like it. Be 
careful that the horse does not become scalded with 
the hot water. Most cases will recover with no other 
treatment. Some cases may be associated with some 
other disease ' or become chronic. In chronic 
cases the discharge from the nose may continue lor 
weeks ; in fact, some chronic cases never get well. 
Chronic catarrh should be treated by trying to build 
up the body of the animal with good food, good care, 
and light work. Sometimes the following prescrip- 
tion may help : 

Pulverized Belladona Leaves i ounce 

'Pulverized Digitalis Leaves 2 ounces 

Pulverized Gentian 3 ounces 

Pulverized Copper Sulphate 2 ounces 

Linseed Meal i pound 

Mix well and give in ground feed three times a da} . 
I to 2 tablespoonfuls. Remember that chronic cases "f 
catarrh may be in fact cases of glanders, and it is saf- 
est and best to have an expert veterinarian make re- 
peated examinations of such an animal. 

DISTEMPER OR STRANGLES. 

This is an infectious disease, involving primarily 
the mucous membrane of the nose, and secondarily, 
it may involve the subcutaneous connective tissue in 
the space between the branches of the lower jaw 
Sometimes it may involve the lymph glands about 
the throat and extend to the various parts of the 
body, producing a form of pyaemia. 

Causes. — The exciting cause is a germ called strep- 
tococcus equi. The attending causes are exposures 



\ 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



351 



I cold and possibly irritating gases and drugs. 

Symptoms. — In the early stages it appears like cold 
the head or catarrh. The animal is dull, sluggish, 
netimes chilly, and again feverish. At first the mu- 
iis membrane is red and dry ; later an excessive wa- 
-V discharge, followed by a heavy pus-like dis- 
irg-e. Usually a swelling appears between the bor- 
: s of the lower jaw and in the course of a week an 
^cess forms at this place, which usually erupts on 
.■ surface and discharges pus. Sometimes an abscess 
IV form about the throat, and occasionally one or 
<vc abscesses may form in different parts of the body 
nietimes abscesses may occur in internal organs. 
is disease was at one time called strangles, because 
u'c abscesses forming about the throat will often 
allele or suffocate the animal. It occurs more fre- 
cntly in colts and young horses than in old horses. 
nie claim that one atta'ck produces an immunity 
lich prevents a second attack. 

rreatment. — Steam the animal as directed for ca- 

rh and repeat this three times per day. Feed soft 

MJ and give good care. When a soft fluctuating 

ice is found in the swelling between the borders of 

■ Irjwer jaw, it may be opened and washed out with 

lied water, containing lyscl, carbolic acid, or creo- 

This cavity should be cleaned out daily until it 

lis from the bottom. If an abscess forms about the 

■oat, be cai'eful in opening it, lest you cut some large 

)od vessels. In opening an abscess at the throat, 

careful to cut just through the skin with the knife. 

icn with your index finger work it into the abscess. 

ter opening it wash it out as previously directed. 

here pyemia occurs, the surface abscesses may be 

'ened and treated as directed, but usually such cases 

minate fatally. Remember that this disease is in- 

tuous, and will extend from one animal to another, 

lecially among colts, until all have contracted the 

|ease. In many cases this can be prevented by iso- 

ring or separating the first cases from all other ani- 

.Is. 

BRONCHITIS. 

rhis involves the bronchi and sometimes the wind 
'e and may be associated with distemper, catarrh 
the head, or pneumonia. Usually it involves only 
: lining membrane of these air passages, and is a 
m of catarrh inflammation. 



Causes. — Undue exposure to cold, germs, irritating 
gases and irritating drugs administered in such a way 
that the horse strangles when being drenched and 
much of the medicine passes down the air passages 
into the trachea and bronchial tube. Occasionally 
some irritating food may accidentally pass down 
throug^h the larynx into the wind-pipe and bronchial 
tube and produce inflammation. 

Symptoms. — In the beginning the animal may have 
a chill, subsequently develop fever or a high tempera- 
ture, throat may be sore and a cough may be present. 
At first the cough is dry and later it becomes moist. 
The pulse is soft and weak, but quick. The respira- 
tions are more or less rapid and labored. In some 
cases the temperature may be quite high, 105 or 106 
degrees Fah., in the early stages. Sometimes the ap- 
petite is lessened, the animal is thirsty, the mucous 
membranes are congested and redder than usual, the 
bowels may be constipated, and the urine smaller in 
quantity than usual. In the course of a few days a 
profuse discharge of a mucous-like nature may pass 
from the nostrils and there maj" be a sort of a moist, 
rattling breathing in the throat and bronchial tubes. 

Treatment. — In the early stages, when the animal is 
chilled, rub the body until warm and apply a warm 
blanket. Steam the horse as recommended in catarrh 
of the head. If the animal is weak give one dram of 
carbonate of ammonia in 2 or 3 ounces of water once 
every 3 or 4 hours. Other stimulants may be used 
instead of this, such as alcohol in i to 2 ounce doses, 
or turpentine 1-2 ounce, mixed with i or 2 ounces 
of raw linseed oil. As a rule, stimulants are not nec- 
essary in the early stages. Sometimes, when the kid- 
neys are inactive in the early stages, 1-2 ounce doses 
of potassium nitrate may be given in the drinking 
water night and morning. This should not be contin- 
ued after the high fever passes off. The animal 
should have soft food, in order that the bowels n,ay 
be kept open and prevent constipation. Sometimes, 
when the bowels are constipated, it is well to give 1-2 
pint of warm castor oil once a day or as often as 
found necessary to keep the bowels open. Good care, 
good nursing, and careful feeding are big factors in 
treating this disease. Remember that a clean stall, 
plenty of fresh air, without drafts, are very essential. 

PNEUMONIA OR LUNG FEVER. 
This disease may involve the air sacs, the small 



35- 



Many farmers fail because their stock are not fed regularly. 



bronchial tubes, and sometimes the larger bronchial 
tube, and all other air passages, as well as the other 
tissues in the lung. It usually involves the right 
lung, but may involve both lungs at the same time. 
The inflammation usually begins in the lower parts 
of the lung. 

Causes. — It is now generally believed that lung fe- 
ver is a germ disease. At least, it is conceded that 
certain germs are always present in the lungs in pneu- 
monia. It is true that exposure to cold and anything 
that will reduce the vitality or vigor will predispose 
the animal to lung fever. Many of the causes that 
produce bronchitis, such as irritating gases, foul air, 
foreign bodies, and particles of food and irritating 
gases and drugs may cause pneumonia. It may also 
be associated with bronchitis and other respiratory 
diseases. 

Symptoms. — Usually it is usjiercd in with a chill, 
but in many cases the chill is passed before the dis- 
ease is observed. The temperature may be high, ex- 
tending as high as 105 or 106 degrees Fah. In the 
course of 2 or 3 days the temperature may come 
down to 103 or 104. The pulse is usually full and 
bounding at first, but later it may become softer and 
less frequent. The normal pulse, varying from 36 to 
44 per minute, may rise to 50 or 60, or even higher in 
the early stages. At first, the respirations are accel- 
erated, and sometimes the nostrils dilate so much at 
each inspiration, that it appears as if the horse was 
grasping for air. The visible mucous membrane are 
usually red and congested in the early stages. Later 
they may become lighter or less red in color. The ap- 
petite is almost lost, the thirst is great, and nearly all 
secretions and excretions are diminished. The urine is 
small in quantity and thick: the bowels are constipat- 
ed ; and the skin is dry and rough. There may be a 
short, shallow' and dry cough, which later becomes 
moist. In severe cases the mucous membrane lining the 
eyelids becomes mahogany colored in spots, and be- 
tween these spots it is yellow. The crisis is usually 
reached about the eighth day. At this time, if the ani- 
mal is getting better, the temperature may fall quite 
rapidly. In some cases it may fall at this time when the 
animal is dying, but generally, when the animal is 
getting worse at this period, the temperature does not 
fall. In some cases the fever gradually comes down. 
A reduction of temperature is usually attended with 
beginning recovery, the animal's appetite gets better, 



the bowels, the kidneys, and the skin act better ar 
every organ seems to be recovering its normal acti\i 
ty. In some cases a discharge more or less seve 
may occur from the nose after the third or foun 
day and continue for several days, or until recovei 
takes place. In examining the lungs. by listening 
the lower rib region, just behind the arm, one m; 
hear various sounds at different stages in the diseas 
In the early stage, by placing the ear in contact wil 
the lower rib region, a sound may be heard that r 
sembles the rubbing of hair between the fingers, or tl 
crackling of salt when it is thrown on live coals. F 
the ne.xt three or four days, until the crisis is reachi, 
the inflamed part of the lung is solidified and iio d' 
enters it; during this time the respiratory munr 
cannot be heard in that part of the lung. But iniir 
diately after the crisis, when recovey begins, a m^i 
crepitating sound may be heard along the line ' 
tween the healthy and solidified part of the hnii 
This last stage of lung fever is often called the resolj 
tion stage, because the solidified parts are beir 
changed into liquid or semi-liquid material and c;i 
ried out. The mo"st crepitating sound is made b\ ' 
air passing through some of the liquid, or semi-li 
formed in tlrs process. As a rule, the horse pcr- 
ently stands in pneumonia until recovery begins. ' 
cause it cannot breathe easily while lying down. 

Treatment. — It should be remembered that pnej 
monia usually runs its course, and it is rare that it <■ 
be cut short b}' treatment. As a rule, in the hand.-; 
the ordinary man, good care, good nursing, a clc 
stall, and plenty of fresh air are the best means ;< 
plied in curing a case of pneumonia. Much of t 
time of the attendant can well be spent in rubb: 
the horse's body and limbs, keeping the limbs wa- 
and skin active. When not rubbing ifmay be well 
apply woolen flannel bandages from the feet up to t. 
body, and a good warm blanket over the body- 
the early stages, when the animal is thirsty, let 
have cold water, but not too much at one time. A- 
rule, it is best to give soft feed to keep the bow 
open, but if the animal will not eat soft food, let 
have good, dry feed in small quantities. In the eai 
stage, when the temperature is high and excretory 
gans are inactive, give 1-2 pint of warm castor 
once per day and also give in the drinking wat 
night and morning 1-2 ounce of nitrate of pot: 
slum. This may be kept up for tvvo or three da\ 
then it may be necessary, if the animal is weak, esj 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



353 



ally if the heart is weak, to use some stimulant. 
)ne-half ounce of turpentine or spirits of camphor 
lay be given 3 or 4 times a day in 2 or 3 ounces of 
arm castor oil or warm raw linseed oil. Or one to 
vo drams of carbonate of ammonia may be given in 
jvo or three ounces of water three or four times per 
liy. In some cases, where the weakness of the ani- 
|al is quite marked, it may be necessary to keep up 
lie animal's strength by giving a mixture of milk, 
jell-beaten eggs and whiskey. This may be repeated 
ii often as the indications require. But if whiskey 
■educes a high temperature, an excessively rapid 
;art or a dry and rough skin, it should not be used, 
emember that there are no fixed rules for treating 
jng fever. It will run its course, and if the animal 
ijn be made to hold out by good nursing and good 
ire, it may recover. 

PLEURISY. 

The membrane that lines the thorax and covers the 
tcr surface of the lung is called the pleura. It forms 
closed sac which secretes a water-like liquid that 
iricates ''he inner surfaces of this sac and prevents 
ction. Pleurisy may be associated with pneumo- 



Causes. — It occurs more frequently in young than 
old horses. It may result from injuries to the tho- 
V, caused by strokes, kicks, or penetrating wounds, 
some cases it may be associated with influenza, or 
iKJers, or lung fever. Prolonged exposure to cold, 
lecially following the time of clipping. As a rule, 
■ms are present and probably are exciting factors in 
cause. 

symptoms. — It may occur on one or both sides. In 
early stages the animal may suffer pain and act 
y much like a horse with the colic. It may begin 
h a chill, the animal becoming dull, the hair rough 
1 skin dry, the limbs and ears cold ; these condi- 
is are followed with a high fever. The pulse is 
ill, quick and hard, and rapid in the early stages. 
er it may become softer and weaker. The temper- 
re in the early stages will range from 104 to 106 
rces Fah. But after effusion of liquid into the 
iral sac it may drop to loi or 103 degrees Fah. At 
t the respirations are short and abdominal. There 
^'f be an abrupt stop in the inspiration. This is 
to the rubbing of the dry pleural surfaces over 

24 



each other in the early stages. Sometimes there is 
a double expiratory movement after the effusion. In 
many cases the animal grunts and may move as if he 
was foundered or had rheumatism in the muscles of 
the shoulder and breast. This is very prominent in 
the early stages. After the effusion it may disappear. 
Nearly all cases of pleurisy may be divided into three 
stages. In the first stage there may be a high fever, 
quick and hard pulse, and great pain. In the second 
stage an excess of liquid is thrown out into the pleural 
sacs, the fever drops, the pulse becomes softer, the 
pain is less severe, and sometimes the double expirato- 
ry movement is shown by the double inward dropping 
of the flanks. In the third stage the liquid becomes 
absorbed, the breathing less difficult, and the animal 
improves in strength and condition. If we place the 
car to the side of the thorax, in the first stage, a rub- 
bing, friction sound may be heard ; this is caused by' 
the rubbing of the dry and inflamed pleural surfaces 
over each other. In the second stage or effusion period, 
respiratory murmur cannot be heard in the lower 
part where the licjuid is found. Sometimes there is a 
tinkling or a water dropping sound that is produced 
by the movements of the excessive liquid in the pleu- 
ral sacs. In the third stage this water dropping 
sound grows less, and the friction sound may return 
and finally it disappears. The first stage may last 
one or two days : the second stage three to eight days 
or longer; the third stage until the animal recovers. 

Treatment. — In the early stages many advise mus- 
tard or other forms of blister to the sides of the tho- 
rax. But this is not now recommended by the best 
authorities. Sometimes, in the early, painful stage it 
may be necessary to give one or two doses of mor- 
phine, but this should be avoided if possible. After 
the effusion is formed, it may be gotten rid of by the 
use of purgatives and stimulants to the kidneys. In 
giving purgatives, such as oils, epsom salts, or aloes, 
remember that large doses may lead to excessive pur- 
gation or laminitis; hence, give small doses about 
2 times per day rather than one large dose. To stim- 
ulate the kidneys give one-half ounce of potassium 
nitrate dissolved in the drinking water night and 
morning; this drug may depress the heart and must 
be discontinued if the heart becomes weak. Some- 
times it may be followed by giving one to two ounces 
of tincture of digitalis three to four times per day ; 
this drug will increase the force of the heart and 
stimulate the kidneys. If the appetite becomes poor. 



354 



Do not work your stock more than six days a week. 



and it does in many cases, it may be stimulated by 
the use of lo to 20 grains of quinine two to three 
times per day. If at any time the animal becomes ex- 
tremely weak I to 4 ounces of whiskey in milk and 
well-beaten eggs may be given ; but it must be dis- 
continued if it produces a high temperature and a 
rough, dry skin. Do not forget to rub the entire 
body frequently and keep it from becoming chilled. 
Keep the stall clean, protect the horse from drafts, 
but give it plenty of good, fresh air. In some cases 
the pleural sac will fill up so completely that the 
pressure of the liquid on the lungs produces suffoca- 
tion. Sometimes this may be prevented by the use 
of a trocar and canula, which is inserted between the 
eighth and ninth ribs, about the upper part of ■ the 
lower third of that surface. This is usually done on 
the right side. After inserting the trocar and canula 
one or two inches, pull out the trocar and allow the 
liquid to escape. Remember that it is best to thor- 
oughlv cleanse and di=.infect this region before in" 
serting the trocar and canula. 

THE "BELLOWSED" HORSE, OR HEAVES. 

This is a disease involving the lungs, the nerve 
supply of the lung, and possibly of the stomach and 
the muscles of respiration. It resembles asthma in 
man. In old standing cases the air sacs in the lungs 
become enlarged ; also there may be spasmodic con- 
traction of the small muscles around the smaller bron- 
chial tubes. 

Causes. — The real and exciting cause is unknown. 
Some assert that dusty hay is the most prominent 
cause ; others claim that overwork of the lungs, espec- 
ially violent and prolonged, fast driving in hot weath- 
er. Still others believe that dilatation of the stomach 
from over-eating of forage, especially hay, will produce 
it ; this habit of over-eating must be continued for 
some time in order to produce the disease. Many be- 
lieve a tendency to this disease is inherited. It is 
suggested that violent attacks of coughing may rup- 
ture and enlarge the air sacs. In many cases it is a 
sequel of pneumonia, pleurisy, or distemper, and 
at other times it is found associated with glanders. 

Symptoms.^In the early stages the animal may 
have an attack of rapid, short breathing. This will 
occur usually when the weather is warm and sultry, 
It may pass off in the course of a few days, especially 



le i| 
al I 



if the weather becomes cool. But when the weather 
becomes warm and sultry again another attack of rap- 
id and short .breathing may appear without any appa- 
rent cause and may last for one or more days. In 
the course of a few weeks, or two or three months, 
this rapid breathing and shortness of breath will oc- 
cur every time the animal is given a little rapid exer- 
cise. In due time there will appear the double expir- 
atory action, which may be observed at the movable 
part of the flanks. In order to make this abnorm 
breathing more prominent, give the animal a good, ] 
large feed, and then give it rapid exercise. This treat- 
ment will bring out the difficult breathing so charac- 
teristic of the bellowsed horse. The "bellowse^!' 
horse is usually a greedy eater and always has a b:: 
cough. 

Treatment. — When the disease is once well esta' 
lished it cannot be cured. When the first attack oi , 
rapid breathing appears give 1-2 ounce of nitrate of j 
potassium in the drinking water night and mornin. 
Reduce the quantity of hay and grain, always sprin- 1 
kle the feed with water before it is given, in order to 1 
lay the dust. If care is taken in working and feeding' 
a horse that has had only one or two attacks of rapid! 
and short breathing, it may be kept from the third! 
attack for some time, and possibly all the time, liu' 
when sultry and warm weather appears look out fori 
another attack. In old standing cases feed grain fre-l 
quently in' small quantities and reduce the size of tb 
abdomen by feeding small (]uantities of hay or f' 
age. Also never allow the animal to drink large qiian 
titles of water. Always lay the dust in the grain anf' 
the hay by sprinkling before feeding. Carefully ni 
continually observing these precautions will enable, 
One to get considerable work out of a "bellowsed' 
horse. If the cough is very bad, put i ounce of fhi 
extract of belladonna into i pint of boiled water ani|. 
give the animal i tablespoonful in ground feed nighy 
and morning. This will help the cough and pay re|| 
lieve temporarily the difficult breathing. 

SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM. 

This corresponds to hiccoughs in man and is some 
times called "thumps" in animals. It is produced b; 
some nervous irritation occurring in the stomach 
other organ, and this nervous impulse is reflexl. 
transmitted to the diaphragm, producing a spasniodi 




Hilda and Hildagrarde, property of J. K. Ottley; Have 'won many blue ribbons in Souttiern shows. 



356 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



contraction. Usually it is due to overloading the 
stomach with food or cold water. Sometimes it is a 
sign of indigestion. In other cases it may be a result 
of inflammation in the stomach, or some other abdom- 
inal organ. It is not very common in horses, but is 
quite frequently found in suckling pigs that do not 
have much exercise and obtain a good supply of 
milk. 

Symptoms. — It is characterized by an intermittent 



and sudden contraction of the diaphragm, and a con- 
vulsive movement of the whole body, producing a 
thumping sound that may be heard some distance. 

Treatment. — In young pigs get them out and let 
them have plenty of exercise in pasture and the trou- 
ble will disappear. In horses give 1-2 to I dram of 
fluid extract of belladonna in the drinking water night 
and morning. If necessary, put the drug in a small 
quantity of water and drench the horse with it. 



Diseases of the Urinary Organs. 



INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 

This involves the kidneys, the blood vessels, the se- 
creting cells, and the connective tissue frame-work 
may all be involved. 

Causes. — It may be a primary or a secondary dis- 
ease. If secondary it is a result of a disease in some 
other organ. Prolonged exposure to cold and wet 
weather, large doses of turpentine, carbolic acid, pot- 
ash, phosphates, or cantharides may produce inflam- 
mation of the kidneys. The kidneys may be inflamed 
in fevers caused by special germs. In some cases 
they are inflamed in pneumonia, peritonitis and other 
inflammatory diseases. 

Symptoms. — Inflammation of the ki-dneys as a pri- 
mary disease is very rare. So many observers of a 
horse with the colic assert that the kidneys are dis- 
eased, because the horse frequently passes urine or 
strains to pass urine. These frequent attempts to uri- 
nate in colic attacks are due to reflex stimulation of 
the kidneys and bladder, and not to inflammation of 
the kidneys. If the inflammation of the kidneys is due 
to exposure in cold and wet weather, a sudden chill, 
followed by a slight fever may appear. The urine is 
diminished in quantity, highly colored, may contain 
blood and albumen. If some of this urine is collected 
in a small glass vessel and allowed to stand, it will 
show a heavy deposit at the bottom, which consists 
of blood corpuscles, secreting cells, and albumen. The 
pulse may be hard and rapid and the skin dry. Some 
assert that the animal is sensitive to pressure over 



the loins. This, however, is not constant or reliable, 
because some horses are abnormally sensitive in this 
region when in health. If the inflammation is caused 
by over doses of the drugs mentioned, the fact that 
such drugs have been given will help in the diagnosis. 

Treatment. — Give the animal rest, stimulate the 
skin by rubbing, allow the animal plenty of water to 
drink, and give a purgative. If associated with anoth- 
er disease, the other disease must be treated before 
the kidneys can be relieved. Some advise the appli- 
cation of blisters to the loins. It is doubtful if such 
treatment is of much value. It would be better to ap- 
ply hot cloths to the loins, or hot water, than to ap- 
ply blisters. A woolen cloth may be dipped in hot 
water and the excess of water wrung out with the 
hands, and then it may be placed over the loins. Over 
this place a piece of oil cloth, and then another dry 
blanket. When the wet woolen cloth becomes cool, 
wring it out again in the hot water and replace it. 
Keep this up for several hours. When it is removed 
permanently rub the skin till dry and then cover with 
a blanket. 

IRRITABLE CONDITIONS OF THE BLADDER. 

In some cases drugs that are given in regular doses 
are eliminated in the urine, irritating the kidneys 
and the bladder. In other cases some of the solids of 
the urine may become deposited, first, in small quan- 
tity, and this small beginning may grow in size by re- 
peated or continual deposits until what is commonly 
known as a stone in the V>1-"i-'"- ' ' 



Stock need rest as much as people do. 



357 



■ in the kidneys, the ureters, or in the bladder are com- 
posed of uric acid, which is deposited in acid urine, 
but kept in solution in alkaline urine. The small 
stone may begin in the kidney or the ureter and pass 
down into the bladder, and there become in time a 
large stone by additions to its surface. In some cases 
there are numerous small, hard particles that appear 
like sand. A large rough stone may irritate the blad- 
der or it may get down at the outlet of the bladder 
and obstruct the free flow of urine. 

Symptoms. — Ordinary irritation of the bladder is 
indicated by frequent attempts to urinate, and some- 
times by colicy pains. If a stone obstructs the flow 
of the urine, the urine may come away very slowly or 
in drops. In such cases the animal suffers consider- 
able pain. In order to determine the presence or ab- 
sence of the stone when such symptoms are presented, 
roll up the sleeves, cover the hand and arm with oil. 
and insert the hand into the rectum ; now feel through 
the floor of the rectum for the bladder and its neck ; 
if a stone is present you can feel it, and sometimes 
work it back into the body of the bladder and thus 
allow the urine to escape. In order to remove a stone 



i 



from the bladder it will require an expert to perform 
the operation. If the trouble is in a mare the hand 
must be inserted into the vulva and vagina in order 
to feel for the stone in the bladder of the. mare. In 
order to relieve ordinary cases of 'slight irritation of 
the bladder, place i ounce of fluid extract of bella- 
donna into I quart of water and give i tablespoonful 
in ground feed night and morning. 

Some mules and horses may make a strong attempt 
to urinate, or be unable to urinate until after several 
attempts are made. This may be due to a stone in 
the bladder or spasms of the neck of the bladder. 
These spasms may be caused by exhaustion from 
overwork or by the animal being forced to go too 
long without permitting it to stop and pass the urine. 
Some horses and mules persistently refuse to urinate 
except in the bedded stall or some other accustomed 
place. This will cause the holding of the urine an 
undue time and may result in spasm of the neck of 
the bladder. In treating this trouble it is not good to 
give nitre, rosin, or any other drug that will stimulate 
the kidneys. Always remove the cause, if possible. 
Sometimes the belladonna solution recommended for 
irritable bladder may give relief. 



Infectious and Contagious Diseases 



GLANDERS. 

This disease is caused by a specific germ called bac- 
illus mallei. Sometimes this disease involves chiefly 
the mucous membrane of the nose and then it may be 
'I designated nasal glanders. At other times it may 
h involve the skin, and then it is termed skin glanders 
iii or farcy glanders. In other cases it may involve 
i prnicipally the lungs, and then it is designated pulmo- 
nary glanders. But it must be remembered that the 
same specific germ is found in all the different forms 
of glanders, and that in some cases all the forms of 
the disease may be found in one horse or mule. More- 
Over, other organs may be attacked by this disease be- 
sides the ones already mentioned. 

Symptoms. — If the nasal mucous membrane is in- 
volved, it may first become inflamed and appear some- 
what like an ordinary case of beginning cold in the 
head or strangles, but sooner or later small, pimple- 



like nodules will appear, which in a short time become 
soft and yellowish, and finally break open and dis- 
charge an oily liquid which resembles raw linseed oil. 
The eruption of these nodules usually produce raw, 
deep, ragged-edged ulcers, which get larger and larger 
as successive crops of these nodules form and erupt. 
Sometimes these ulcers heal, and then they form ir- 
regularly shaped scars. The discharge from the nose 
is at first thin and watery; later it becomes yellowish, 
thick and sticky. As a rule, the discharge does not 
smell bad in glanders, especially in the early stages. 
Sometimes the ulcers in the nose and the discharge 
are only on one side. The lymph gland, which is found 
on the inside and back part of the branch of the lower 
jaw, up near the base of the tongue, becomes enlarged 
as a result of its receiving some of the infectious ma- 
terial that comes from a glanderous ulcer on that side. 
If both sides of the nose are involved, the glands on 
each side will be enlarged. These glands never form 



358 



TlJ^LING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



abscesses and break open as in cases of strangles or 
distemper. The discharge from the nose may be 
smeared over the leg or the skin of other parts of the 
body by the horse wiping its nose, as it were. In some 
instances the skin becomes infected in these places. 
In the early stages the breathing through the diseased 
nasal passages may be normal, but when the mucous 
membrane becomes swollen and extensively ulcerated, 
the discharge and swelling may interfere with the pas- 
sage of air. If the skin is mvolved nodules will devel- 
op in the skin, usually along the course of the blood 
vessels and lymph vessels. These nodules are most 
frequently found along the inside of the thigh, along 
the sides of the neck, and in the lower part of the hind 
limb. But they may occur in any region where infec- 
tion occurs. The nodules usually break open and dis- 
charge an oily liquid that resembles raw linseed oil. 
From the original seat of the infection in the skin or 
blood vessels the disease may extend along the lymph 
or blood vessels. Sometimes large, deep ulcers result, 
the skin becomes swollen, and infection may extend 
rapidly in all directions. Sometimes the first crop of 
ulcers may heal and no others appear, or other ulcers 
may appear in this same region and the part become 
irritated or conditions favorable. In some cases the 
lower part of the hind leg may be enlarged and the 
characteristic ulcers and nodules of glanders appear. 
Successive outbreaks of nodules and ulcers may devel- 
op in this region and no other part of the body be- 
come involved, for several months or years. If the 
lungs become involved, acute cases may resemble 
pneumonia. In chronic cases the symptoms maj' re- 
semble those found in a "bellowsed" horse. 

Treatment — It is not advisable for the ordinary man 
to attempt to treat a case of glanders, because man can 
contract this disease. Moreover, the ordinary man is 
unable to know when a case of glanders is so complete- 
ly cui'ed that it cannot transmit the infection to anoth- 
er animal or to man ; hence it is best that all horses 
and mules that are positively known to have glanders 
should be destroyed and their carcasses burned or 
buried 4 to 6 feet under the surface of the ground. 

This disease is transmitted from one horse or mule to 
another by infected hitching post, public watering 
troughs, infected harness, infected stalls and not infre- 
quently by one animal licking the glanderous ulcers of 
another; hence it is best to thoroughly disinfect all 
buckets, harness, watering troughs, and stalls that 



have been infected by cases of glanders. Old and 
worthless infected materials may be burned; stalls can 
be disinfected by cleaning them out arid applying 
whitewash made of 5 lbs. of lime, 3 lbs. of bluestone, 
dissolved in 4 gallons of water. It is best to apply 
this hot and completely cover all the manger, walls, 
and ceiling. It may be well also to spray these parts 
with a hot 5 per cent, solution of creolin or carbolic 
acid. For safety, keep all animals out of that stall for 
one Or two months. When animals are suspected of 
having glanders they should be isolated or quaran- 
tined until a positive diagnosis can be made. To do 
this a small pen or shed may be made in some place, 
some distance from, and inaccessible to, all other ani- 
mals. Remember that cats, dogs, horses, mules and 
man are susceptible to glanders ; but cattle, sheep, 
goats and hogs are insusceptible. 

In most of the States there are specific laws which 
prevent the use of horses or mules having glanders \ 
on public highway or in any way that would expose ' 
other people's horses or mules to infection. Some 
States require animals with glanders to be quaran- 1 
tined, and hold the owners responsible for the infec- 1 
tion of other people's stock that may result from the 
non-observance of the quarantine law. Other States 
require the destruction of all mules and horses having 
the glanders. Horses and mules that have been ex- 
posed to glanders should be kept and worked by 
themselves or separately for one or two months. 

INFLUENZA. 

This is a highly infectious disease, the specific cause 
of which has not been positively discovered. Some in- 
vestigators claim to have found a specific germ, but 
the positive proof that this or that germ causes in- 
fluenza in horses has not been established. Influen- 
za is sometimes called pink-eye, horse disease, conta- I 
gious epizootic, typhoid fever in the horse, catarrhal ') 
fever, and sometimes LaGrippe in the horse. This ^ 
disease may involve a great number of organs. The 
organs of respiration, of digestion, of the nervous sys- 
tem, of vision, and of circulation may be involved; 
also the skin and the urinary organs may be involved. 

Causes. — The specific cause is very probably one or 
more germs. The predisposing causes are numerous. 
It attacks young animals and weak animals usually 
more severely than old animals or strong and vigor- 
ous animals. It is said to attack the horse, the don- 



Wash out the drinking trough often. 



355^ 



{ey, the mule, the dog, as well as man. The cause 
;eems to travel in the air, especially during certain 
»^ears or seasons. The disease will appear in one to 
;even days after the animal has been exposed. One 
jittack is said to protect an animal from a second at- 
;ack; in other words, one attack produces immunity 
n horses. 

Symptoms. — Depending upon the chief parts in- 
volved, the disease is said to be catarrhal, pulmonary 
ibdominal, nervous, or the rheumatic form. The ca- 
:arrhal form resembles cold in the head, except the 
lepression of the animal is much more severe. The 
)ulmonary form is somewhat like pneumonia, but it 
s usually more prolonged and more frequently fatal. 
'The abdominal form involvifs the abdominal organs, 
he stomach, intestines, the liver, and spleen. In this 
orm the liver may become congested and the visible 
nucous m'embranes become yellow in color ; at first 
;here is constipation, followed'by diarrhoea, the breath 
s sour, and sometimes celicy pain is present. In the 
jiervous form the spinal cord may become involved, 
there will be loss of power in the hind limbs, or pa- 
ralysis, and sometimes there is paralysis of all the 
imbs. In the rheumatic form the lamenesses of the 
llimbs will resemble rheumatism, articulations may be- 
zome inflamed, and inflammation of the synovial sacs 
are not uncommon. It might be well to mention that 
in the catarrhal form the legs may swell. Great pros- 
tration occur, and the temperature rise for a time to 
i(i04 or lo6 degrees Fah. ; it may remain high for six 
'br seven days. Sometimes the catarrhal and pulmo- 
jhary form of this disease may occur in the same ani- 
fTial; also other forms may be combined in one ani- 
;|iTial. This disease is often called pink-eye, because 
I'the eyes become congested, especially in the catarrhal 
I :orm. The simple catarrhal form may recover in i to 
■';2 weeks. In complicated cases the disease may last 
three or four weeks. 



Treatment. — The treatment in the catarrhal form 
may be the same as recommended in cold in the head. 
When the fever is low stimulants may be required, 
such as carbonate of ammonia i to 2 drams in i to 2 
Dunces of water, of turpentine 1-2 ounce in 2 or 3 
Ounces of castor or raw linseed oil; these may be re- 
peated three or four times per day. If symptoms of 
paralysis are not present, and the animal is weak, 
whiskey, eggs and milk may be given. If the fever is 



high, it may be reduced by giving 20 to 30 grains of 
quinine three or four times per day. Keep the bow- 
els open by giving 1-2 pint of warm castor oil or raw 
linseed oil once per day. If the legs swell and the 
heart is strong, give 1-2 ounce of potassium nitrate 
in the drinking water night and morning. Always 
keep the legs and body well rubbed with brush and 
cloths to keep the skin active and the surface of the 
body warm. If the eyes are inflamed, bathe them 
frequently with water that has been boiled and 
cooled. 

RABIES IN THE HORSE. 

This specific disease has been known as long as al- 
most any other in medical literature: yet its cause 
has never been discovered. It is an infectious disease 
occurring in the dog, the cat, the wolf, and the fox and 
may be transmitted to man and many other animals 
by inoculation. The inoculation usually results from 
the bite of a rabid animal. In many cases, from the 
time of the bite to the time when the disease appears 
will vary very greatly in the different kinds of ani- 
mals. In the horse it is said to vary from 2 to 8 
weeks ; in the dog, i to 6 months ; in the ox, from 2 
to 4 weeks ; in the sheep, 3 to 6 weeks ; in swine, 3 to 
6 weeks, and in man. 2 to 9 weeks. Remember that 
these periods of incubation are not regular and con- 
stant. Some claim much wider limits, and as long as 
the cause remains undiscovered the exact period of 
incubation will remain indefinite. 

Symptoms. — In most cases the nervous and excita- 
ble form of the disease appears in horses. The ani- 
mal kicks and bites at its stall or at all objects within 
reach, often severely injuring itself. Sometimics it 
runs until exhausted, or until it becomes paralyzed. 
I.^'sually the least excitement or irritation brings on 
convulsions. When the disease is well developed, 
the animal is so paralyzed that it cannot swallow, 
and all attempts at swallowing may bring on convul- 
sions. Sometimes the animal will bite and tear its 
own body. The animal will die in six or seven days 
after the beginning of the attack. In some cases the 
stage of excitement is very short or absent entirely. 
This is sometimes called dumh rabies. 

Treatment. — Ordinarily little can be done to check 
the progress of the disease when once established, 
but often it can be prevented if the wound is prompt- 



36o 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



ly treated immediately after the animal has been bit- 
len. Apply any good strong antiseptic to the wound, 
being careful to get the antiseptic into the bottom of 
the wound. If possible, cut out the tissue around the 
wound. A strong antiseptic may be applied 2 or 3 
times during the first 24 hours after the bite. In some 
localities it may be possible to secure what is called 
the Pasteur' treatment, but this is usually too expen- 
sive to be secured for the average horse. The horse 
that has been bitten should be watched closely for 
one to two months, and when any beginning symp- 
toms appear the animal should be placed in a good 
strong lot or box stall where it cannot injure other 
animals or people. 

CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS. 

It is a specific infectious disease characterized by 
an inflammation of the membranes covering the spi- 
nal cord and sometimes those covering the brain. 

Causes. — It is caused by a germ. It is possible 
that damp, ill ventilated stables may predispose an 
animal to the disease. But the disease cannot exist 
without the germ that produces it. Overwork, ex- 
cessive heat and other depressing causes may also 
predispose an animal to the disease. 

Symptoms. — In many cases the attack will come 
on suddenly and in a short time, 6 to 12 hours, the 
horse may be down or dead. Other horses in the 
barn may refuse the food, be unable to swallow on 
account of paralysis of the throat, and in a few hours 
the paralysis may extend to the posterior parts of 
the body. The animal can stand only with difficulty, 
and when moved drags along, the feet on the toes. In 
some outbreaks as many as eight or ten horses may 
die in a few days in one barn. As a rule, the disease 
may attack a number of horses in a community and 
sometimes extend over a more or less wide territory. 

Treatment, — Most cases are fatal in spite of all 
forms of treatment. Purgatives, bleeding from the 
jugular, potassium iodide, potassium bromide, mor- 
phine, and many other drugs have been used, and yet 
most cases have died. One authority advises large 
doses of purgatives when the animal is able to swal- 
low. This may be tested by first trying to drench 
the horse with water. One to two drams of potas- 
sium iodide may be given once or twice per day, es- 
pecially in the advanced or convalescent stage. In 



the early stages some recommend cold applications to 
the head. When an outbreak occurs in a barn or lo- 
cality it is best to move all healthy animals to some 
other locality, and before using the barn again it 
should be thoroughly cleansed, disinfected and white- 
washed or sprayed with some good disinfectant, and 
then kept vacant for 2 to 8 weeks. (See -directions 
for this under subject of glanders.) 

POTECHIAL FEVER. 

The other names applied to this disease are dropsy 
of the connective tissue, purpura Haemorrhagica, anl 
morbus maculosus. It involves the blood and capil- 
laries, usually in the sub-cutis of the skin, and .-■■'h- 
mucous of the mucous membrane. 

Causes. — It is very likely a germ disease, but the ' 
specific microbe has not been discovered. It may fol- 
low strangles, influenza, pneumonia, pleurisy, and 
possibly other diseases that seriously depress the vig- 
or and resistance of the body. It seems quite possi- 
ble that the specific germ produces a poisonous chem- 
ical substance, which acts on the tissues, especially | 
the blood and the capillaries. It also appears proba- 
ble that the germ is unable to grow and produce thi'^ 
toxine in the body until the body is weak or the tis- 
sues cannot resist its action. Bad drainage, poor ven- 
tilation, dark and wet stables seem to favor the devel- 
opment of this disease. 

Symptoms. — It comes on suddenly. The appetite j 
becomes poor, there is a tendency to diarrhoea; a 
slight fever is present, the animal is dull and more ri 
less stiff. In a short time the temperature may rise to 
104 or even to 107. In other cases the high fever may 
be absent or be overlooked. Within two days, or 
about that time, the skin may swell in the form of ,j 
round, abruptly elevated nodules, i 1-2 to 3 inches in - 
diameter. These swellings are more common about 
the limbs, abdomen, breast, nose, lips, and face, but 
may occur in any region of the body. Later these i 
swellings run together, forming large swellings in one '1 
or all the limbs, and usually on the under surface of ' 
the body. Sometimes the head swells so that the ani- 
mal can hardly see and the head is almost double its 
usual size. Sometimes these swellings are hot and 
painful, but not always. In the mucous membranes j 
of the nose are small red spots, which later form ex- 
tensive red patches, giving the mucous membrane an 



Curry combs if used will pay for themselves. 



361 



appearance as if spotted with purple. The surface 
over these spots is usuallj- not elevated, but imme- 
diately around them a pink or yellow fluid oozes out. 
The pulse is not very rapid at first, but later becomes 
|, accelerated, respirations are labored and difficult, es- 
pecially when the head is swollen. In some cases im- 
mense swellings that develop in the course of a day 
iwill have disappeared in the course of a few days — 
sometimes in one day. Many cases suffocate from 
.obstruction of the air passages by swellings about the 
I head or the larynx and by excessive infiltration of 
•jthe lungs. The animal may die in a few days, or the 
disease may run from one to four weeks and the ani- 
mal then die or recover. In some respects this dis- 
ease resembles glanders, but in glanders the swellings 
do not form so rapidly and there are deep, ragged, 
pit-like ulcers in the nasal mucous membrane, in- 
' stead of purple spots. 

Treatment. — Improve the surroundings of the 

horse, get it into a dry, clean, and well ventilated 

'jplace. Give internally i to 3 drams of chlorate : pf 

'"'potash, and 1-2 dram of tincture chloride of iron in 3 

j;|Ounces of water. This may be repeated every fotir to 

'Ifive times per day. Some recommend sWcfng'-coHWepi 

pint; potassium iodide, i or 2 drams; mix and give as 

one drench. This may be given three times per day.' 

(.Others advise the follo#ing-: mixtui-e: Fluid- extract a4 

nux vomica, 1-2 fluid drarh';"'turpentirie,' iJdf:am';''aleo- 

hol, I ounce. Give- this ftiixtfire' every three h'ouris by 

[injecting it into the mouth with a small syringe. This 

)|s said to be especially^ Valuable When 'the Iie'M'-iS'b'aa- 

ily swollen. -Some advise "rubbing and kneading the 

Isweelings with the hands or with a cloth and brash ; 

I'others apply-'-stli^iilBiti^^Virdment and coiff''6rr'- Rfet 

!iwater, but' if 'is doubtfiil whether these do TnucR good." 

I A little' 'exercise,^ If the animal is not too weak, is ret- 

|j|omm^Ha%^i f'^bofjt 50 ^'fef-cehtv df the -eases affe "fatal 

iln ■sp'it6"i(SP!tryatTMfeMr'rf'*9fnc>3 yHbosij .bnjjow aiU briit 

:' "-! ,b9}?.ii;;;rja v!?,r;oi-''i-'q s^ t'-Tjow srb j£9iJ smiJ sirfl 

"i [ 3cf n£D fi iBdi ANTHRAX.7/ arfJ lag zazBO He nr 

'jii }I .bsJ-j'jlniaih / Irtsuoio,^'" bnn bsrifish bos bafb 

; nT}y%i4lf^.jSp|?c,i%:r,dip^^^j<;a,^ef^ j^:^ oJ'^adn'/fiKfeft 

v^ry, first -tp b(2^-4asppv£;r|^cj ^,-,3^ /o^ai^sQ . -^oii .dis^^^^ 
%)rj^,^caj1;tLq,.!^heep,, hog^ ma;^,ja,iii:d3Bjany:©ther ani- 
■iiiiiial5,,af?3^usi9Ppt-ibler''-Wl^en,f|tpO(:{5^5^i3niopg horses 
%mijle3,jfl. ariy.-lQcaliity, cattle, and, ^Jieep, are ve^/l-i^-. 
bk to have the, same disease^ and oecasiot^ally a, tna.n; 
D>ay becomq infei^ted and 4)^ in that . Jpcality, T|if^ 



germ is communicated or transmitted bj^ means of in- 
fected feed and water, and by flies. If a pasture or 
farm becomes infected it may remain in that condi- 
tion for years, especially so if susceptible animals are 
kept and bred on that farm each year. In some way 
the germ may renain in the soil for periods longer 
than one or two years. I have dried blood obtained 
from an anthrax patient, and this blood has been, 
kept in an air-tight bottle for 16 years; a little of it 
mixed with water and injected into a guinea pig or 
rabbit will usually kill in 24 to 48 hours. 

Symptoms. — Some cases may die in the course of 
one to two days after infection, especially if tlie 
lungs or the abdominal organs become infected.' In 
other cases a small swelling_ may; start on any part of 
the surface of the body as a result of an inoculation 
by a fly or some, other insect. . This .swelling^ will 
gradually enlarge untilj it becomes quite jextensiye.and^ 
the germs invade or £nters tli,e circulation and be'carr' 
ned to all parts of the body. .'Sometimes the invas- 
ion of the. germs is checked by the action of. the cells 

and tissue, and the- animal may recover. .Usually, 

-7 1,-;---- (M -;-:r'' .ro'-r'/T r, f)".'^r: ':?-/^ ■•^■.^•'^n '-^ifK,- ':i.ni 

the first cases that appear -in an outbreak of this dis;, 
ease are more severe and more frequentlv fatal than 

"'-■■'" -^l.-l-'J-.- ■■' . • ' 'ir.g ■; '; L .^:£; I.'-t'"." ,-■.7',, . ,e,: .'!!:-0.'j7 

the cases .that anpear later. An absolute , diagnosis 

,'n >\ tr ':_'-. W," ^oiq F,rjo.r:o?.;og :;-,-!i ,-;; ,,-i.p fi-; .j] ■.,•-,•■ 
in many cases canpnly'be .made by. an- expert who 



caniCoUect sonje of- the, fresh material a.nd make cul 

- i.'!iJ-OY'-. :-.,T jrnr '.a-s Je iKrj-D-// k 0)1^^1 u3:.t;LK.n.:r: 
tures and inoculations .tha,t wall enable.. lym to iso]at( 
"" : !."■ ?mrrr ■ :? -r. :\,vji\?Mnn& srFt eL 'i --, i--^ ," 
the gerrpi.. In examininof^a^ ^(jarcass after death 



■ftB 



loi 



ate 

> J"! 

tlie 



blood will be black and tar-like in. color and does nor 
coagulate .quickly.; .The .liver _is; usiiajly gfeatly /en- 
larged. The sisleen is likewise, gnlarg-ed. .Kidneys 

.-*;* .1. -;: ;•■ -ropT re •!((; ofi:; 'n-i-? vy^'j 'j y?r<~ ' s; '; ■•■j-f r 

are often inflatped. ..It is said. that chickens which eat 
the carcasses of animals that have died of anthrax will 

also contract, the disease. It is possible ihkl buzzardsi 

vRrrr -.'Dec snMoj-r.rfi ynB ~: hnfto'." rpofi .'^ juJT .-f.-ot 
carry. the^disease from. "one. farm to another. Anthrax: 

carcasses should alwavs be buried deeplv or burned. 

In some States the law requires that the carcasses 

^ll!tte ^.Wjfpd ^in^S?Pr?<V-a4^,m^nner/0£ |)urn^d^,,^id 

resulting. from a -failure to comply with the Jaw. , , 

.SH' ■ij'.rftjfiOD z---Qjii Y-13Y To ^Hoqa 3Tm IVvn Yood 

ar'j' ^Efl; faiqET oe 97E BnoijOBiJf.xr; sssdJ eomiJarno'? 
.-Tfl^atmei^t,-7-77\V|!ieQKlI^f lujj^gls^-prji^D^rfiin^. prg-ans^ 
are involved .riittle,- .^.a^irbet'dege,- r .-."When jtlie- inf ectipr^ 
is local'and external o^^,ini: the: skin- injecj^--,-intQr;-the 
swell ings>a"i5 p^5-centi-sp,l4^tion: of &ai;bpltc,^iQi4i^ l^jjSj 
n^y[#Soi)^ 9pp;yed,-,Qyreir,t}ie,sw.elling qn-jtlij^-prt^id^ff 



362 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



In localities where this disease appears annually, it 
is best to employ protective inoculation. This con- 
sists in one or two injections of weak or attenuated 
cultures of the germ. Preparations, instruments, and 
full directions for their application may be obtained 
at almost an_v wholesale drug- house. Remember that 
this preventative inoculation should be practiced only 
on farms \vhere the disease has already appeared. 

TETANUS. 

This specific infectious disease is commonly called 
lockjaw. But the name lockjaw is many times inap- 
propriate, because the disease may be present and 
the jaws not locked. 

Causes. — The specific cause is the germ bacillus tet- 
ani. This microbe or plant parasite lives in soil and 
water. It is found in certain localities more frequent- 
ly than in others. In some places a little soil — say 
from the garden — may be mixed with a little water 
and some of this mixture injected in very small quan- 
tities under the skin of a house mouse and 12 to 48 
hours this mouse will have a typical case of tetanus. 
The tetanus germ grows best in close and deep 
wounds, away from air. The germ produces a very 
violent and active poisonous product, and it is possi- 
ble that a sufficient quantity of this poison may be 
introduced into a wound at the time the wound is 
made and it kills the animal without any more of the 
product being made in the animal; but in most cases 
the germ grows and produces the poison in the deep 
wound and possibly sometimes in a shallow wound 
when it is protected from the air. In horses it occurs 
usually in connection with nail punctures, wire punc- 
tures, or other deep penetrating wounds about the 
foot. But a deep wound in any part of the body may 
have this germ carried into it at the time the wound 
is made. 

Symptoms. — At first there may be a slight stiffness 
of one limb or of any part of the body near the wound. 
In a short time the muscles in various parts of the 
body will have spells of very rapid contractions. 
Sometimes these contractions are so rapid that the 
muscle, or muscles, cannot relax between contrac- 
tions, and then appear as if continuously contracted. 
As the disease progresses all or nearly all of the mus- 
cles of the body will become involved. Then it will 
be difficult for the horse to move, each leg will ap- 



pear stiff and inflexible, and the upper border of the 
neck concave instead of convex, and the head may 
stick out in front in a horizontal position. The ani- 
mal may breathe short and quick. If the head is rais- 
ed the eye washers or third eyelids will extend over 
the e3'e and the ordinary observer will say the horse 
has the "hooks." This is due to the continued con- 
traction of the muscles which pull the eyeball back 
mto the orbital cavity and push the eye-washers out 
over the eye. The animal cannot prevent or control 
this action. A little noise will often excite the animal 
and produce a series of spasmodic actions. In many 
cases the animal cannot swallow, cannot pass urine, 
or discharge manure from the rectum. Usually it 
ivill stand persistently until it falls, When down the 
legs will stand out from the body stiff and straight 
like the four legs of a stool. In some cases there may 
not be sufficient poison to affect all the nervous sys- 
tem of the animal; then only certain regions or parts, 
and usually those nearest the wound, will be involved. 
The symptoms will then vary according to the nerves 
and muscles involved. 

Treatment. — Prevention is the only safe and suc- 
cessful means of handling this disease. If all deep 
wounds, especially those made with dirty objects, are 
thoroughly disinfected immediately after the wound 
is made and thereafter kept free from infection, teta- 
nus will not occur. If there is no other means at 
hand, saturate a small piece of bandage in tincture of 
iodine, and with a clean knitting needle, or some oth- 
er slender, clean rod, push this saturated bandage 
down to the bottom of the wound, leaving one end of ■ 
the bandage extending out of the wound. It may be •. 
left in until the next day, and if necessary then re- 
move and put another in its place. Usually the dis- 
ease develops from wounds that are not observed. 
After the disease has a])peared a thorough search will 
find the wound, usually somewhere about the foot. At 
this time treat the wound as previously suggested, but - 
in all cases get the wound open so that it can be han- 
dled and cleaned and thoroughly disinfected. It is 
usually best to place the animal in a quiet, dark stall ; 
give it water and gruel or milk to drink. Give in the 
water, 2 drams of barium chloride once per day until 
the bowels move freely. Remember that it is rather 
dangerous to drench a horse with tetanus, because in 
giving the medicine the animal becomes excited and 
the drug is often poured into the wind pipe and hnisfs; 
this only hastens the death of the animal. Some ad- 



I 




Miss Hilda Fletcher, of Gallatin, Tenn., who has won many Wue ribbons driving Grandma Locke and Horace, Jr. 



364 



A good brush is a necessity around the barnyard. 



vise giving hypodermically or per mouth, i ounce of 
a 5 per cent, solution of carbolic acid. Thisjnay be 
repeated every four or five hours. In bad cases it is 
of no value. Others advise the use of tetanus anti- 
toxine, which 'may be secured at wholesale drug 
hou5es.'"-rti"bad cases this treatment is unsuccessful 
andds 'usually too expensive to justify its use. A few 
cases will get well without any treatment, except care- 
ful and frequent feeding of gruels or soft feed, with 
plenty of salt in it. Most of the cases will die, if they 
are continually stuffed with drugs. 

BIG HEAD IN HORSES AND MULES. 

Technically speaking, this bone disease is known as 
osteo-porasis. It may involve all the bones and ar- 
ticulations of the body. 

Causes. — The real exciting cause is unknown. In 
Switzerland, it is called the "bran-dissase" because it 
is most frequently found in millers' horses that are fed 
largely on bran. Some say it is caused by an un- 
known malaria-like parasite. Others say it is due to 
indigestion ; imperfect assimilation of lime salts and 
want of sufficient lime in the food. In some cases it 
presents striking characters that mark it as an infec- 
tious disease. This is observed in the way it occurs 
in stables. If a horse with big head is kept in a stall 
or stable for some time, other horses in the same sta- 
ble, especially if kept in the same stall) are liable 
to contract the disease. Some assert that feeding too 
much corn to the growing colt will produce it. Oth- 
ers say it is a form of rheumatism. Still others claim 
that it is a special form of rachitis (rickets). 

Symptoms. — The first signs usually observed are 
symmetrical and smooth or even enlargements of 
the bones of the face (upper jaw) and the lower jaw. 
Sometimes both sides of the upper jaw alone or the 
lower jaw alone may be equally, smoothly and even- 
ly enlarged. In other instances the facial bones may 
not be perceptibly enlarged and the prominent signs 
may appear first in the limbs in the form of shifting 
rheumatic lameness. Mules having osteo-porosis 
rarely have facia! enlargements but horses with this 
disease nearly always develop the characteristic sym- 
metrical enlargements of the upper and lower jaws. 
At first the bone enlargements are soft, so soft that a 
pointed instrument like a cobbler's awl can be easily 
pushed into the substance of the enlarged bone of the 



face. All the bones of the head may become thicker 
and more spongy than in health. If the case is ofi) 
long standing the bones become hard and heavy. La- 
ter the bones of the limbs, the ribs and the vertebrae | 
(bones of the back) may be involved. Sometimes the 
ribs become so soft that the rib region may become 
indented by the horse lying down on uneven ground 
or in an uneven stall. Occasionally one or more ribs 
may be broken and will not unite as quickly as in 
health. Lameness is often present and many times.J 
the lameness "comes and goes" or shifts from one 




Fig. 59. — Otitline made from a photograph of a horse that 
had a bad case of osteo-porosis (big head). It shows a dis- 
tinct dropping of the loins that sometimes occurs in lonf 
standing or chronic cases of osteo-porosis. This animal wa> 
so weak that it could not get up by itself. It also had weir 
marked intentation in the rib region. 



limb or place to another as in rheumatism. Tin: 
lameness is usually due to the ulcers in the articulai 
cartilage that covers the articular surfaces of the bones 
(.See fig. 61.) Nearly every articular surface of thi 
limbs in old standing cases will have one or more nl 
cers. Exposure to cold and changes in the weather pro I 
duce changes in the degree of lameness. Sometime: 
the limbs will be drawn out of shape and occasional!}) 
the loins will have dropped down to an abnormal de 
gree. (See fig. 59.) When lameness is severe in ol( 
standing cases, or in mares in foal or just after foaling 
the diseased animals may get down and be unable t( 
rise without assistance. This may occur every nigh 
or two or three nights out of a week. 

Usually indigestion and poor or deficient assimila 
tion are associated with this disease and in conse 
quence the animal becomes poor, weak and sluggish 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



365 



e appetite will vary from good to bad ; and in some 
ses the animal will be subject to periodic attacks of 
ilic. 




[(Fig. GO. — Lower jaw and face bones in osteo-porosis or big 
[ad in a horse. 

Treatment. — There is no specific for this disease, 
early all cases of big head will improve with a long 
tried of rest in a good pasture, especially in the sum- 
iertime; also careful feeding on ground corn and oats 
ith peavine hay or other good hay, with good rub- 



bing and with light and regular exercise, may im- 
prove niany cases. Sometimes good care may restore 
a horse so that it may be used at slow work, espec- 
ially on the farm. Many advise blistering the en- 
larged places of the face and lower jaw and the dis- 
eased joints ; about all the good that such treatment 
does is due to the local stimulation and the slight ab- 
sorption of the mercuric iodide. Doses of two to 
three drams of barium chloride in the drinking water 
once Or twice a week for two or three weeks during 
periods of great stiffness or lameness, may "limber 
up" the horse and stimulate the muscles, produce pur- 
gation and improve digestion, and assimilation. 
Some advise the use of lime in the drinking water, es- 
pecially if the water is free of lime (free-sl|pne.) Oth- 
ers advise the use of phosphate of lime in one to four 
dram doses given in the ground feed, nights and morn- 
ing. At noon give one dram of pulverized iron sul- 
phate. Remember that a case of big-head should be 
kept in a stable entirely separated from all other 
horses and mules; but it may be worked with well 
animals. The big-head horse and all others should be 
kept in dry stables having proper ventilation. Damp, 
wet, and poorly ventilated stables will make all cases 
worse and possibly aid in causing the disease. Good 
care, regular and frequent rubbing; light and regular 
exercise with properly balanced and regular rations, 
will do much to prevent it and will also materially as- 
sist in curing it. It is not best to breed mares hav- 
ing this disease because it may be transmitted to the 
offspring, and it also intensifies the progress of the 
disease in the mare. When the affected animal has 
chronic indigestion, the treatment suggested under 
that head may be used. In this disease pin your 
faith on the long run at pasture and good care in the 
form of good feed, plenty of grooming, well ventilated 
and well drained and clean stables. 



Skin Diseases 



Small parasites often live on the surface of the 
'dn, and some forms burrow into the outer layers of 

e skin. The various forms of mange or itch in 
PTses are caused by small animals called mites. The 
■aces infested become dry, sometimes wrinkled and 
iickened, and in many cases the hairs fall out. In- 
inse itching mav cause the animal to rub off the 



hair and in some cases injure the skin. With a small 
magnifying glass the small mites may be seen on the 
roots of hairs and among the scales of the skin. It 
is usually best to stand the horse where the sun may 
shine on the infested part, and in a short time scrape 
off some of the scales of the skin and hair and place 
this on a piece of black paper and examine it with a 



366 



If you are able to own stock, you arc able to attend to them. 



lense. The mites may be seen as long as they are 
warm making motions or crawling. If the skin dis- 
ease is due to the variety of mites that burrow into 
the skin, it will be necessary to scrape the skin until 
you get some of the material or scales from the deep- 
er layers of the skin. 

Treatment.— Scrub all the parts affected with soap, 
water and a good brush. Remove all the rough 
scales and scabs and loose hair. Now apply a 5 per 
cent, .solution of creolin or carbolic acid, or a weak 
solution of blue stone. A good ointment may be 
made with 2 pounds of lard, 4 ounces of sulphur, and 
I ounce of carbolic acid. Melt the lard and add the 
sulphur and carbdlic acid, mix thoroughly and apply 
over the infested skin once per week. It is also nec- 
essary to thoroughly disinfect the stalls in which 
horses having the mange have been kept. Tliis can 
be done by thoroughly cleaning the stall and the fref 
application of white wash. 

LICE. 

Lice are found on horses, mules or colts more fre- 
quently in winter or spring, when the hair is 
long. They arc liable to become very numerous on 
weak colts. They may be seen along the back in the 
mane and sometimes in the hair of any region of the 
body. They irritate the skin, cause the animal to 
rub and may check the growth of a colt. 

Treatment. — In the middle of the day apply over 
all of the body a weak solution of creolin. Be care- 
ful that the animal does not chill following this ap- 
plication. Repeat the application in the same way in 
8 or 10 days. If the skin becomes rough and the 
hair dry, frequent rubbing or the occasional applica- 
tion of a little lard and sulphur may relieve this con- 
dition if the weather is suitable. Clipping the ani- 
mal all over will be a great aid in getting rid of lice, 
but in doing this be extremely careful that the animal 
does not contract pleurisy or pneumonia as a result 
of a sudden change from warm to cool weather. 

SKIN TUMORS. 

These are abnormal growths that may appear in 
any part of the .skin or the body. The causes in many 
cases are unknown, but wounds are often followed by 



excessive growths, which result in the formation of a 
tumor. Many of these new growths are developed ; 
by frequent irritation from rubbing or biting and 
gnawing. Sometimes germs and other plant para- 
sites may get into the wound and by their growth ir-j 
ritate it and produce an excessive growth of granula-J 
tion tissue. The so-called "Jack" sores that are so 
commonly found in summer time on jacks, are likely;, 
due to infection of the skin by certain forms of plant' 
parasite. A slight wound or scratch will permit the| 








Fig. Gl.— Photograph of (a) the lower articular end of th 
cannon bone and the (b) two articular condyles on the lo« 
er end of the femus. These articular surfaces exhibit ulcer 
in the articular cartilage that are usually present in case^ 
of osteo-porosls. 

parasite to gain admission to the skin and constani 
biting and gnawing stimulates the growth of a r:n 
and bleeding tumor. This tumor usually gets large 
and more extensive during the hot weather and whe 
cold weather comes on it may partially or entirel 
disappear and reappear again the following summer, : 
become larger and more extensive than ever. 

Treatment.— When possible the tumor of any km 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



367 



sho'ild be removed with the knife or scissors. In 
some locahties this can only be done by the expert. 
Usually an inexperienced man can confine tlie animal 
by casting it or otherwise, and cut away the tumor 
down level with the skin, or down as deep as the 
thickness of the skin. Then this surface may be 
well cauterized with a red hot iron. If the animal 
can be kept from rubbing, biting or gnawing this 
place it may recover. Some advise the use of strong 
caustics, like arsenic, caustic potash, or strong acids. 
But these are dangerous, because in the hands of the 
ordinary man more tissue may be destroyed than is 
necessary and great injury result. Sometimes small 
wart-like tumors may disappear if they are covered 
frequently with castor-oil. But this will not appre- 
ciably affect a large tumor. 

AZOTURIA. 

This is a serious and somewhat common disease 
I occurring most frequentlv in the larger and heavier 
horses ; yet it may occur in light horses. Horses that 
! are working regularly and are in good condition may 
I be rested and fed on a Sunday or a holiday the same 
[ as when at work, but on Monday morning or the 
t morning after the holiday the horse may be brought 
out showing no signs of illness and often exhibiting 
an excess of vigor and life. The animal may be driven 
a short distance and then show signs of weakness 
about the hind limbs : sweat over the croup and thigh, 
the muscles tremble and twitch. Finally the horse 
may stagger and fall and struggle considerably after 
it is down. As a result of this struggling it may 
sweat considerably over various parts of the body, and 
the muscles over the loins, croup, and thighs may be 
more or less hard and rigid. If the animal passes 
urine its color is usually dark red, or almost black. 
This abnormal color is said to be due to the presence 
of an excess of the coloring matter coming from the 
broken down muscle material, or from the disintegrat- 
ed blood corpuscles. During the struggling or imme- 
diately after the struggle is over, the pulse rnay be ac- 
celerated and the temperature may be raised two to 
four degrees. Some time after the struggling is over, 
the pulse and the temperature become normal. At- 
tempts to get the horse to rise will develop the fact 
that it is paralyzed in one or both hind limbs. This 
paralysis may pass away in a few days, or the animal 
may be permanently paralyzed. In many cases the 
animal cannot pass urine, owing to paralysis of the 



bladder or spasms of the neck of the bladder. In 
some cases, where the driver stops the horse early be- 
fore it falls down and rubs the legs well, the animal 
may be gotten back to the barn and only a mild at- 
tack will occur, and recovery will take place in a few 
hours or a day. Many ordinary observers will say 
the kidneys are diseased and others will say the horse 
has the colic. In rare instances the paralysis may be 
in one or both front limbs or in one hind and one 
front limb. 

Causes. — The predisposing causes are rich diet, es- 
pecially excessive eating of proteid or nitrogenous 
feeds, high condition of the animal, and full rations 
during a day of rest following a period of regular 
work. Mares are said to be more liable to this disease 
than geldings or stallions. It is also said to occur 
most frequently in the prime of the life of the animal. 
The exciting cause is unknown. Some attribute the 
cause to a germ ; others believe that m some way suf- 
ficient lead has been taken into the body to produce 
lead poisoning. Others claim that the high condition 
of the system, containing an excess of nitrogenous 
material, prevents or interferes with the rapid elimi- 
nation of waste materials from the body, that are 
thrown into the circulation at the time the horse is 
brought into the full exercise after the period of rest. 
This waste material accumulates so rapidly and in 
such quantity, that it acts as a poison and produces the 
paralysis. Others assert that exposure to cold after 
being kept in a warm stable produces the change in 
the muscles; this, hov\'ever, is largely theory. 

Treatment. — As soon as possible get the animal in 
a comfortable position and in a place where it will 
not be injured by struggling or by attempts to rise. 
In many cases it may be necessary to pass the cathe- 
ter and draw off the urine regularly two or three times 
times per day. Some German authorities advise giv- 
ing 3 to 4 ounces of carbonate of soda, dissolved in 1-2 
to I pint of water. This may be repeated 3 or 4 times 
per day. A purgative, silch as recommended in cases 
of colic, may be used here. Recently some practition- 
ers have met with marked success by giving 1-2 to i 
ounce of potassium iodide dissolved in 3 ounces of wa- 
.ter. This is followed every 2 hours by giving i dram 
of potassium iodide in i ounce of water. This treat- 
ment should not be kept up beyond i or 2 days, be- 
cause it is liable to lead to potassium iodide poisoning. 



368 



Keep the feed troughs clean. 



It is always well to keep the animal rubbed and in a 
comfortable position. As long as it is unable to rise 
it should be turned over from side to side every 3 or 4 
hours. When the animal makes attempts to rise the 
attendants should aid it, and when it gets on its feet 
rub the legs and body and try to keep it on its feet. 
The feed should be soft, in order to keep the bowels 
open and active. 

Preventative treatment is more effective in the 
hands of the average man in this disease than cura- 



Conditions and Diseases of Com- 
mon Interest Occurring in 
Breeding Animals. 



The Organs of Reproduction in the Mare. — Be- 
ginning at the outside, the first is called the vulva. It 
has two lips and two corners, and at the lower cor- 
ner, or just inside of the lower corner, is a small bunch 
of erectile tissue called the clitoris. Four to six in- 
ches forward and inward through the vulva is the va- 
gina. On the floor, at about the union of the vulva 
and the vagina, is the opening of the tube that is the 
outlet of the bladder. The vagina is from 6 to 10 in- 
ches long and is separated from the body of the womb 
or uterus by the neck of the uterus. The neck of the 
uterus is the contracted part of the beginning portion 
of the wall of the uterus. Usually this neck presents 
a teat-like projection into the vagina and through the 
center of the projection is a small opening which leads 
from the vagina into the uterus. Just before and at 
the time of the delivery of the young at birth, this 
neck is so expanded that there is no line of demarka- 
tion between the wall of the vagina and the wall of 
the uterus. The uterus has a body and a right and a 
left horn. The cavity of the body is continuous with 
the cavity of each horn. Extending from each horn 
is a small tube, which runs from the horn up to the 
ovary on its respective side. Here this tube ends in a 
rather wide, cup-like expansion, close to the ovary. 
There are two ovaries, one on each side. The uterus, 
the tubes, and the ovaries are held in place by broad 
expansions of connective tissue, sometimes called liga- 
ments. When the animal is in "heat", an ovule may 



tive treatment. Horses that are worked regularly and 
in high condition should be fed less on rest days than 
on work days. Sometmies a soft feed may be given 
the night previous to a rest day. When the animal is 
it taken out on the morning following a rest dav. 
watch it very carefully, and if any signs of this dis- 
ease should appear, stop the horse at once, give it a |j 
thorough rubbing and return it to the barn or some 
convenient place where tb.e rubbing may be continued j 
and a purgative given if necessary. 



erupt from the ovary and fall into the mouth of the 
tube, pass down the tube into the uterus. There it 
meets the spermatozoa that comes from the male when 
the mare is served by the stallion. The fusing or un- 
ion of the spermatazoa with the ovule may be desig- 
nated fertilization. A fertilized ovule is the beginning 
of the embryo. The period of gestation in the mare is 
about 48 weeks in length. This period represents the 
time between the fertilization of the ovule and the 
birth of the colt. It may vary, occupying more or less 
time than the average, which is about 340 days. 

The periods of heat in the mare occur more regu- 
larly in the spring or fall than any other season of the 
year. Usually these periods occur about every 2r 
days, and last each time from one to three or four 
days. After the birth of the colt the first period will 
occur in 7 to 9 days, and thereafter every 21 days un- 
til the mare gets in foal again. In some abnormal 
cases the periods of heat may appear more or less reg- 
ularly after the mare has become pregnant. 

The common signs of pregnancy are cessation of 
the periods of heat ; the mare becoming more docile 
and quiet taking on more flesh ; a gradual increase in 
the size of the abdomen ; after 6 or 7 months move- 
ments of the kicking colt in the uterus may be ob- 
served in the flanks, especially just after the mare has 
had a drink of cold water. With a little experience, 
one can make a positive diagnosis by inserting the 
hand into the rectum and feeling for the colt in the 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



369 



iterus through the walls of the last part of the intes- 
ine. This should be done with care lest injury result, 
he foetus will not be large enough to distinguish un- 
il three or four months old. 

Sterility in the mare is not uncommon. It is a con- 
ition of the mare in which she does not breed. It 
lay result from various causes. Sometimes it may be 
ue to a disease of the ovaries. This, however, could 
ot be discovered in the living animal. At other 
Jmes it may be due to some disease in the uterus, 
his might be apparent by excessive discharges com- 
iig from the uterus through the vagina and vulva. In 
lat case it may be best to secure an expert to treat 
lat disease before the animal is bred. In other cases 
[le neck of the uterus may be closed, so that the sper- 
jiatazoa cannot reach the ovule. In some cases the 
leek of the uterus may be opened by gradual twist- 
g and firm pressure with the index finger. Remem- 
;r that the index finger should be thoroughly 
jeansed with soap and water and disinfected before 
jiis work is attempted. In case an opening cannot be 
|oduced without violent pressure, secure the services 
jl an expert veterinarian. Usually it is best to open 
pie neck of the uterus when the mare is in heat and 
jplst before she is served by the stallion. A mare that 
ii excessively fat or very poor is often predisposed to 
lerility. In some cases sterility is said to be due to 
jcondition of the uterus or vagina, which can be rem- 
Ijhed by inserting a small quantity of yeast in the 
,i.gina. The pure yeast used in making bread may be 
i{ ed for this purpose. Just how it acts has never been 
tisfactorily explained, and its value seems rather 
lubtful. Sometimes the apparent sterility in the 
are is due to the stallion. When other causes can- 
t !ie found to account for this condition in the mare, 
is well to take her to another stallion, preferably a 
ung stallion or a jack. In some instances apparent- 
sterile mares may be gotten with foal by the use of 
inipregnator, but there are cases for which there is 
remedy. 

During the period of pregnancy or gestation, the 
ire can do work in the hands of a careful man. No 
nljt pregnant mares are better off at light work 
m standing idle in the stable. In many cases they 
; kept at light work right up to the period of deliv- 
!\ however, it is better to let them have rest in pas- 
■e at least one month before the birth of the colt, 
from any cause the foetus is expelled before the time 
len it can live independent of the mother, the mare 



is said to abort. The causes of abortion are numer- 
ous. Over work and rapid, violent exercise may in- 
duce abortion. Kicks and injuries are also prominent 
causes. Heavy doses of purgatives may produce abor- 
tion. Certain grasses, such as wild rye, may contain 
ergot, and this may cause abortion. Colic attacks, in 
which the animal tumbles and rolls, may result in 
abortion. Sometimes infectious germs may produce 
what is called infectious abortion. In this form of the 
disease several mares are liable to abort in the 
same stable or pasture. One abortion predisposes a 
mare to a second, and the second abortion usually oc- 
curs about the same time in the period of gestation 
tjiat the first abortion occurred. Sometimes drugs 
that irritate the kidneys will also irritate the repro- 
ductive organs, and result in this trouble. Sometimes 
the service of the stallion when a pregnant mare is in 
heat will produce abortion. If a colt is born before 
the proper time, and can live, that is termed premature 
parturition or birth of the colt. Prevention of abor- 
tion is the only logical treatment. As a rule, it will 
not be discovered until after it is too late to prevent it 
by use of drugs. Usually it is not best to breed mares 
that have been exposed to infectious abortion, or that 
must be kept in barns or pastures where that disease 
is of common occurrence. Mares that are in foal and 
have been subject to any other ordinary causes that 
might lead to abortion, should be watched closely and 
kept quiet until the danger period shall have passed. 
Some advise giving drugs, such as morphine, chloro- 
form to quiet and prevent contractions of the uterus. 

In breeding mares an accurate record should be 
kept of the time when the mare became in foal, so that 
the time of delivery or birth could be determined. 
When the period of delivery is at hand a careful at- 
tendant should be present to watch and see that all 
conditions are favorable. If the mare k& lin the 
barn she should be in a large, well bedded, box stall. 
If the colt is being delivered normally, and without de- 
lay, no assistance will be required. Immediately af- 
ter it is born the naval cord should be tied with a piece 
of silk cord, or any other strong "cord that has been 
disinfected by boiling it in water, or by some other 
strong disinfectant. The naval cord is tied about 3 
inches below the abdomen and the part below the tie 
is cut away. Then cover the naval cord with either of 
the dust powders recommended under the subject of 
wounds. Apply this dust powder to the naval and 
the cord two or three times per day, until the cord be- 



25 




Gei-man Army Horse, bred by O'ltman Bros., North Fort Worth, Texas. 



^.r^' 



i^ -T^'^*''*^* 




Mr. Fleming, of Augnsta, and One of a string of Horses. 




Mr. J. Lee Barnes. o£ Atlanta, Ga. His roadster one of the best in the South. 




FIGURE 62. 

Shows the correct position 
of the colt when the head and 
front feet are to be delivered 
first. The head should be be- 
tween the front limbs. 



FIGURE 63. 

Illustrates how the colt 
should be delivered when the 
hind feet are first presented. 





FIGURE 64. 

Shows a front end presen- 
tation with the head turned 
to one side. With one hand, 
cr a represser, on the breast 
cf the colt push its body back 
into the uterus far enough to 
permit the other hand to pull 
the head around between the 
front limbs. 




FIGURE 65. 

Exhibits a front end presen- 
tation with the head turned 
on the back. With clean and 
sterile ropes on the front feet 
so as to fix them, apply the 
hand to the breast and push 
the body back into the uterus 
and pull the head around be- 
tween the front legs. 



FIGURE Co. 

Front end presentation 
with hind limbs raised into 
the outlet. Fix the front feet 
with clean plow line ropes 
and hold the front in posi- 
tion and push the hind feet 
back out of the outlet. Some- 
times it may be necessary to 
push the colt back into the 
•uterus before the hind feet 
can be removed from the out- 
let. 



injjiwii) 



> 1' V 





FIGURE 67. 

Buttock and croup presenta- 
tion. Push the colt back in- 
to the uterus and pull up the 
hind limbs, flexing them at 
the hock until the hind feet 
can be taken out first. 



Do not get in too big a hurry when looking after your stock. 



373 



|coines very dry and hard ; thereafter one appHcation 
per day may be sufficient. 

The normal position for the birth of the colt should 
be the front feet and head coming first, as if the colt 
were slipping out, front end first, belly down and 
back up on its belly. The next position is hind feet 
first, as if it were slipping out backwards on its belly. 
When the colt is delivered front feet and head first, 
the head comes out so that when the colt must breathe 
joefore completely delivered it can secure air. If the 
ihind feet come first, then if the colt must breathe be- 
iFore complete delivery it may suffocate for want of 
jiir. Hence in the second method assistance should be 
&iven to make the delivery as rapid as possible. This 
Imay be done by catching the hind feet and pulling 
lirmly and steadily when the mare strains. In doing 
jthis much patience and careful judgment are required. 
tn some cases neither of these positions are found, in 
|act, a veriety of abnormal presentations may occur. 
i[f an attendant is on hand who knows how to do the 
|-ight thing at the proper time, much difficulty and 
bmetimes serious results may be prevented. For in- 
stance, if the front feet are coming and the head is 
turned back on one side, this can be righted quite easi- 
ly in the early stages. Clean the hands thoroughly with 
.cap and water and a disinfectant; then cover them 
Vith vaseline. Now with one hand apply pressure — say 
•m the breast of the colt— when the mare is not strain- 
ing; with the other hand feel for the nose of the colt or 
i.he head, and when found, pull it around in its correct 
joosition, between the front limbs. When this is done 
Heady pulling on the front limbs will help the mare 
.Sn delivering the colt. Other abnormal presentations 
i||nay be corrected according to conditions, and this 
bn always be done more easily in the early part of 
'|lie period of delivery than after labor has been in 
il)rogress some hours. In rare instances the colt can- 
aot be delivered without first cutting it to pieces in 
-ihe uterus. This cannot be done except by an ex- 
jliert veterinarian, and should not be attempted by the 
average farmer. After the birth of the colt all of the 
rnveloping membranes or the "after birth" generally 
jomes away in the mare without any help. Some- 
lijimes it is retained, or part of it must be removed by 
' areful pulling with one hand and separating it from 
he uterus carefully with the other hand. In doing 
iWs work be sure to have the hands and arms well 
leaned and thoroughly disinfected. In some cases 
he contractions of the uterus continue after the colt 



is delivered to such an extent that the uterus becomes 
everted. In other words, an attempt is made to turn 
the uterus inside out. This is present when there is 
a large, dark-colored, more or less round body pro- 
jecting from the vulva. It is sometimes as large as 
a peck or half bushel measure. This is not very com- 
mon in the mare, but more frequent in the cow. If 
replaced at once the life of the mare may be saved. 
In order to replace it, it may be necessary, first, to 
clean it. In doing this be sure to use cotton that has 
been boiled in water containing some baking soda, 
and also use the water that has been boiled and cool- 
ed. After it is cleaned is may be necessary to pro- 
duce presure by wrapping it with broad, sterile ban- 
dages, or by large, sterilized towels. The pressure 
causes the blood to flow back into the vessels and 
reduces its size. This may require considerable time 
and patience. When it is gotten inside the mare may 
strain to throw it out again, but it should be held in 
place until it gets warm, and if the mare still strains, 
give a dose of 4 to 5 grains of morphine. This may 
be given per mouth or hypodermically. In some 
cases it may be necessary to keep an attendant watch- 
mg and keeping this in for some time after it is re- 
placed. Some advise taking 3 or 4 deep stitches 
through the lips of the vulva, so as to prevent the an- 
imal from throwing out the uterus. As a rule ever- 
sion of the uterus in the mare is very serious, and 
often leads to infection and the death of the mare. 
In cows it can be successfully treated in most in- 
stances. 

After the naval cord has been Hgated and covered 
with dust powder, the colt should be wiped dry and 
gotten up to suck. It should have the first milk, 
which usually acts as a purgative, but in some cases 
it does not; then the colt may be constipated. In 
that case give 1-2 to i ounce of castor oil and a small 
injection of warm water into the rectum. In other 
cases the colt may have diarrhoea. This may be due 
to laxative food the mare is eating, or to infection of 
the colt. It may be treated by first giving 1-2 to I 
ounce of castor oil, and then give i teaspoonful of 
tincture of opium once or twice per day, until the 
diarrhoea is checked. Sometimes a little lime water 
mixed with the mother's milk may be all that is re- 
quired. At other times a little pulverized magnesia, 
I or 2 tablespoons in the mother's milk will ef- 
fectually remedy this trouble. 



374 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Diseases of the Eye. 



DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS. 

Tumors of various kinds arc occasionaly found on 
tlie eyelid. The upper lid is a favorite place for warts 
— diseased, excessive growths of the outer layers of 
the skin. The exciting cause of warty growths is at 
present thought to be a very minute plant or animal 
parasite. It is best to excise them with a knife ; or if 
small, to snip them off with the scissors, being careful 
not to cut deeper into the eyelid than the thickness of 
the skin. After the bleeding has part'allv ceased and 
the blood has been wiped away with a clean, moist 
sponge or cloth, the raw surface may be touched or 








Fig. 68. — Diagramatic Section ot the Horse's E.ve (after 
D'Arboval) showing the relative iMsition of the various parts. 
In reading the description of the anatomy of the e.ve fre- 
quent reference should be made to this cut. 

a. Optic nerve; b, Sclerotic; c, Chnrold; d, Retina; e. Cor- 
nea; f, Iris; g, h, Ciliary circle, (or ligament) and process- 
es given off by file choroid though represented as isolated 
from it, in order to indicate their limits more clearly; i, in- 
sertion of the ciliary processes on the crystalline lens; j, 
Crystalline lens; k. Crystalline capsule; 1, Vitreous body; 
b, n, Anterior and posterior chambers; o. Theoretical indica- 
tion of the membrane of the equeous humorfli p. p, Tarsi; q, 
q. Fibrous membrane of eyelids; r. Elevator muscle of upper 
eyelid: s, s, Orliicularis muscle ot the e.velids; t, t, Skin of 
the eyelids; u. Conjunctiva; v, Epidermic layer of this mem- 
brane covering the Cornea; x. Posterior rectus muscle; y, 
Superior rectus muscle; z, Inferior rectus muscle; w. Fib- 
rous sheath of the orbit (or orbital membrane) ; 1, Section 
of orbital arch; 2, Lachrymal gland; 3, Section of small ob- 
lique muscle. 



cauterized with lunar caustic or a small pledged of 
cotton dipped in strong oarbolic acid. Melanotic 
(black, pigmented) tumors are occasionally found on 
the eyelids of white horses. If they are small and are 
removed in the early stages of growth they are not so 
liable to return: but if thev involve considerable tissue' 




Fig. 69. — Normal Horses Eye (after Goubaux and Barrier). 

I 

or are of long existence, they are very liable to return 
after removal. All small tuinors of the eyelids may! 
be removed in a similar manner to that described for" 
warts. 

Pedunculated tuniors may be litigated by tying a 
strong cord around the pedicle close to the skin ; if if 
does not fall off in a few days another strong thread, 
may be tied around it in the same place. Caustic 
medicines (Lunar Caustic or Tri-Chlor-Acetic Acid)] 
may be applied, once every four or five days, unti' 
the tumor can be pulled away by the fingers. Car( 
must be taken not to get these caustics into the eyej 
it is best not to use caustics except on tumors wit! 
large, thick bases that cannot be litigated or excised. ■ 

Wounds of the Eyelids. i 

These occur through bites, tearing on nails, har 
ness, hooks of snaps, barbs of wire fences, and othe 
projecting points, about the stable or stall. If th 
wound is fresh the edges may be brought together b; 



Stock appreciate kindness, and know their friends. 



375 



stitches one-third of an inch apart; ordinary white 
silk thread may be used. 

Inflammation of the Eyelids. 

Various injuries and bruises of the eyelids may oc- 
cur when a horse is rolling or throwing his head dur- 
ing colic attacks, or other painful diseases ; or neigh- 
boring tissues may be injured or bruised and the in- 
flammation extend to the eyelids. 

The writer has repeatedly observed the eyelids of 
cattle attacked by ringworm, a transmissable parasit- 
ic disease of the skin, causing not only inflammation 
of the eyelids but also of the conjunctiva, extending 
at times to the cornea. ' 

Constitutional diseases (anthrax, Texas fever, pur- 
pura) may be attended by swollen and inflamed eye- 
lids. Small wounds may admit germs into the tissues 
of the eyelids and produce inflammatory swellings. 

Inflammation, resulting from wounds, bruises, etc., 
may be reduced by bathing the eye in cold water and 
applying antiseptic solutions. In ringworm the crusts 
and scales must be washed and scraped from the skin 
and then a one per cent, solution of corrosive sublim- 
ate may be applied once per day for three or four days. 
Other parts of the body and other animals with ring- 
worm must be treated in the same way; since this 
parasitic skin disease is transmissable. Inflam^ed, 
swollen eyelids from constitutional diseases may be 
remedied by treating the disease with which they are 
associated. 

Enthropium — Folding Inward of the Lid. 

The free margin of the lid is folded in against the 
eyeball; generally the entire margin of the lid is rolled 
inward, but, at times, only that half near the inner or 
nasal angle of the eye is thus affected. 

This disease occurs most frequently in the dog but 
occurs also in the horse ; the ox and the sheep. It has 
been observed in some animals at birth ; and, no 
doubt, a tendency toward this disease is inherited — 
I especially among dogs. Spasmodic contractions of 
the orbicular muscle that closes the eye, a relaxation 
or loose condition of the skin and an excessive devel- 
( opment of the skin and tarsus of the lid, are said to 
i be prominent factors in producing entropium. Scar 
li tissue — resulting from wounds, ulcers, etc., on the in- 
ner surface of the lid — contract, or make tense, the 
conjunctiva to such a degree that it pulls the free 



border of the lid inward; while the contraction of the 
orbicular muscle (in winking) would roll or fold the 
lid. 

One or both lids of one or both eyes of the dog 
may be affected ; but, as a rule, only the lower lid of 
one eye in the horse is so diseased. The constant 
friction occasioned by the continual rubbing of the 




Fig. 70. — Entropium — Folding Inward of tlie lower lid; th& 
eye-Iaslies and hair rub over tlie conjunctiva and cornea, 
wtien the eye lid or eye-ball is moved, producing inflamma- 
tion by constant l:riction. 

eyelashes over the conjunctiva and the cornea, pro- 
duces great irritation, which, if long continued 
results in inflamination. The conjunctiva be- 
comes congested, light red and slightly swollen, the 
cornea may be clouded and at times ulcers form on 
its surface; the tears flow in excess; and the animal 
constantly attempts to close the eye. As soon as the 
lid or lids are returned to their normal position, the 
inflammation, cloudiness, etc., begin to disappear and 
the eye to retain its normal condition. Treatment 
consists in removing by excision a portion of the re- 
laxed and loose skin. In the horse a strip of skin, 
one-fourth to one-half inch broad, is cut away parallel 
to, and about one-half inch from, the margin of the 
lid. The elliptical strip may be removed by using- 
small, sharp shears. The free edges of the skin are 
then brought together by silk stitches, about one-half 
mch from one another. As a rule, in the course of a 
week the stitches may be removed. In the dog the 
relaxed skin may be excised much farther from the 
margin of the lid and the gaping wound may be left 
to heal without bringing the edges of the skin to- 
gether with stitches. It is however, safer and better 
to stitch up the wound. 

Ectropium — Rolling Outward of the Lid. 

In this disease the eyelid is drawn away from the 
eyeball, the conjunctival surface turned outward, the 



376 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



free border (lower lid) downward; the eyelid is roll- 
ed outward and downward, leaving the eye unpro- 
tected, subject to constant irritation from air and 
dust and rapid evaporation of tears. This condition 
produces dhronic inflammation of the conjunctiva 
and leads to the formation of clouded spots and vas- 
cularity of the cornea. This disease also occurs most 




Pig. 71. — Ectropium— Folding outward of tbe lower lid. 

frequently in dogs, but may appear in the horse, ox 
and sheep. It is caused mostly, in the horse, by scar 
tissue in the neighborhood of the lower eyelid ; this 
makes the skin so tense that the traction pulls the lid 
from the eyeball. Inflammatory swellings and new 
growths on the conjunctiva may also cause it. Dogs 
with deep set eyes and in a poorly nourished condi- 
tion suffer with this disease. Ectropium is treated 
by cutting away a narrow strip of the conjunctiva 
parallel with margin of the lid. The shears may be 
used but no stitches are required. 

Ptosis — Falling of the Upper Lid. 

When the upper lid hangs abnormally downward 
and outward from the eyeball, without folding or 
rolling, it is called drooping of the lid or Ptosis. It is 
usually associated with paralysis of the facial nerve, 
and may occur on one or both sides. In paralysis of 
both nerves there is constant dribbling of saliva, par- 
alysis of the lips, the nostrils and the upper eyelids. 
This is said to result from an injury of the facial 
nerve or some of its larger branches. The injury is 
usually produced by bruises or due to pressure of 
the bridle or of a yoke. In the first stages of the par- 
alysis, it may be improved by reducing the inflam- 
mation or by removing the pressure on the nerve or 
its branches. But, as a rule, paralysis of one or both 
facial nerves is incurable. Yet the drooping of the 



eyelid may be removed by a surgical operation too 
complicated and difficult for unskilled hands. 

DISEASES OF THE HAW OR MEMBRANA 
NICTITANS. 

The conjunctival mucous membrane which covers 
the haw may become inflamed when the other parts 
of the conjunctiva are diseased. Also the haw may 
be pushed out over the eye when the eyeball is drawn 
back into the socket, which is done in certain eye 
diseases for protection. In such cases uninformed 
persons say the horse has the "hooks" and at once 
proceed to cruelly cut them out. It is scarcely neces- 
sary to remark that nearly every case of so-called 
"hooks" is only a symptom of another disease and 
would certainly disappear if the real cause were re- 
moved. 

In some instances the haw is injured by being torn 
at the upper part of its free margin or it may be torn 
or cut in other parts by injuries. Nearly all cases of 
injury recover without treatment, but should the sep- 
arated or divided haw continue to irritate the other 
parts of the eye, it may be removed. Occasionly 
tumors appear on the haw or eye-washer ; if small and 
harmless they may be left undisturbed or clipped off 
with the shears; but if large and harmful, the entire 
haw (if necessary) may be removed. In cutting 
away the torn haw, or the tumor and haw, the ani- 
mal should be securely and safely confined (by cast- 
ing or otherwise) and a few drops of a ten per cent, 
solution of cocaine may be put into the eye; af- 
ter waiting a few minutes for the cocaine to take ef- 
fect, the haw or tumor may be grasped with small 
forceps and completely excised with the shears; 
during the next few days cleanse the eve, two times 
per day, with warm water, and a one per cent solu- 




Fig. 72. — Abnormal extension of the haw or "eye-washer 
as observed in tetanus (lockjaw) inflammation of the haw 
etc. This continued projection of the haw, is many times 
called "hooks." 



If you can't feed and wa/er your own stock, have a responsible man do so. 



377 



tion of carbolic acid. After repeated or severe at- 
tacks of inflammation of the conjunctiva, or repeated 
attacks of moonblindness, the haw remains more 
prominent and farther projected over the eyeball 
than normal. In tetanus or lock-jaw in horses the 
haws are partially or completely extended over the 
eyeball— especially on exposure to strong light or 
when the head is elevated. 

DISEASES OF THE TEAR APPARATUS. 

In all cases where the tears are running down ov- 
er the side of the cheek and there is no swelling or 
redness of the lids in their normal position, it is wise 
to examine carefully the lachrymal or tear appara- 
tus. Most frequently the lachrymal canal is obstruct- 
ed at its opening into the nostril ; this may be reliev- 
ed as a rule, by removing the dirt and pus-like mat' 
ter which clogs the opening. 

Sometimes the canal is obstructed in its superiof 
part near the tear sack, then it is best to inject by 
means of a small syringe, carbolized water or a two* 
per cent solution of boracic acid, into the canal at its 
lower or nasal opening. If the tear canal, tear sac 
and tear ducts are open or pervious, the water will 
pass out at the tear points near the inner angle of the 
eye on the margin of each lid. Occasionally the canal 
or the tear ducts are obliterated, resulting from ca- 
tarrhal or infectious inflammation and from fractures 
of bones along the course of the canal. In such cases 
it may be made pervious by forcing a small silver 
probe into the canal ; but sometimes the canal is so 
completely obliterated that it is impossible to open 
the old passage-way for the tears. When the conjunc- 
tiva or the eyelids are inflamed and when the under lid 
is everted in ectropium, the openings of the tear 
ducts are closed or are so displaced as to prevent the 
passing of the tears into the ducts. After recovery 
from these diseases, the tears cease to flow over the 
cheek. 

DISEASES OF THE TISSUES SURROUNDING 

THE EYE AND IN THE ORBITAL 

CAVITY. 

Fractures, bruises and wounds may take place in 
the bones and tisues surrounding the eye, and must 
he treated according to the conditions presented. 
Generally speaking, continual application of cold wa- 
ter baths or fomentations to the injured parts will 



materially reduce and prevent inflammation. Tum- 
ors or new growths of various kinds may appear in the 
orbital cavity outside of the eyeball. As a rule, they 
are very serious and eventually necessitate the re- 
moval of the eyeball with its surrounding tissues and 
sometimes requires the excision of the eyelids and 
the skin with other tissues in the neighborhood of 
the eye. Whenever cancerous growths begin to 
spread or extend to the parts around the eye it is 
well to cut away all the parts involved. Such malig- 
nant growths are liable to return, even after several 
removals. Deep-seated spreading tumors of the or- 
bital region should always be considered as very ser- 
ious and as nearly always incurable without com- 
plete excision. 

DISEASES OF THE CONJUNCTIVA. 

Conjunctivitis. — Inflammation of the mucous 
membrane lining the eyelids and reflected over the 
eyeball around the cornea. 

Causes. — i. Mechanical and chemical irritants. — 
Small seeds, pieces of hay, straw, glumes, wheat or 
'barley beards, small insects, coal dust and other 
kinds of dust, sand, hair, smoke, entropium, parasites 
■ — all foreign bodies that act as mechanical or chemi- 
cal irritants may produce conjunctivitis. Not infre- 
quently has the writer observed this disease in a 
very severe form, resulting from injudicious and ig- 
norant application of caustic and blistering salves, 
liniments or quack eye washes. Striking the animal 
in the eye with a whip, or stick, bruising or woimd- 
ing the eyelid or parts near the eye may excite in- 
flammation in the conjunctiva. Cold, sharp or ex- 
cessively dry winds may cause it. 

2. It is associated with other diseases, as — ulcera- 
tion of the cornea, periodic opthalmia, occasionally 
with Texas fever and anthrax, influenza, strangles 
(distemper in horse), rinderpest, and, now and then, 
in the course of other infectious diseases : often it is 
associated with catarrhal inflammation of the mu- 
cous membrane of the nasal passages, sinuses of the 
head and of the lachrymal canal and ducts. Inflam- 
mation of the conjunctiva and the cornea is quite 
often observed in sheep when they are affected with 
"head scab," or parasitic skin disease, confined to 
the short wool regions of the sheep. Conjunctivitis 
is also associated with sheep pox. Cattle are at- 



3/8 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



tacked by an enzootic inflammation of the conjunc- 
tiva and cornea, which is considered in detail under 
diseases of the cornea. Diphtheriti'c conjunctivitis ap- 
pears in fowls. 

Symptoms. — On the irritated and inflamed fepot of 
the conjunctiva there will be red streaks of strongly 
congested blood vessels, the mucous membrane will 
be slightly swollen ; this inflammation may in a short 
time extend to all parts of the conjunctiva and in- 
volve the circumference of the cornea; the eye is 
very sensitive to light, and is kept closed continually. 
During the early stages the secretion of tears is 
greatly increased and they flow in profusion over the 
cheek, but during the more intensive or severe in- 
flammation a mucus exudate appears, which is of 
light gray color and contains semi-transparent flaky 
particles. If the inflammation is still more severe 
the exudate or secretion appears as a grayish yellow 
or a green fluid which consists of pus cells and tears. 
At one time, in severe cases, the secretion may be 
pus mixed with serum, and at another it may be pus- 
mixed with mucous. An organized membraneous ex- 
udate is present in diphtheretic conjunctivitis and to a 
limited extent in follicular conjunctivitis. The su- 
ferficial layer may be involved in severe cases, while 
in other instances all the layers and the submucous 
tissue may be involved in the inflammation; these 
distinctions are not always well defined ; but as a 
rule, great intensity and long duration of the inflam- 
mation indicate that the entire conjunctiva and sub- 
mucous tissues are afTected. 

Treatment. — The first thing to do is to remove the 
cause if it can be discovered. If the animal is very 
sensitive about having the eye examined, it is best to 
put a twitch on his nose. Place the thumb on the 
lower lid and the endex finger on the upper; by 
gradual and firm pressure, open the eye and look 
carefully for a hay seed or any foreign body or irrita- 
ting particles that may be in view. After completely 
cleansing the index finger and removing the long, 
rough or sharp margin of the finger nail, it may be 
pushed around under the lids and under the haw in 
search of the irritant ; this must be done with great 
care, and it is always best to put a few drops of a 
three per cent, solution of cocaine into the eye be- 
fore introducing the finger. Following this search 
and the removal of the irritant, the eye may be 
washed with pure cold water or with a solution of 



corrosive sublimate i part and pure water 5,000 
parts. Bathing the eye in very warm water will re- 
lieve the pain and sensitiveness ; while cold water fo- 
mentations will remove the fever. A great many cas- 
es of conjunctivitis readily yield to the simple meth- 
od of adjusting a large, clean wet cloth over the eye, 
keeping it moist by pouring cold water on it every 
hour. It is generally best to put the animal in a dark 
stall, but unless such a place is well ventilated I pre- 
fer the open and well ventilated box stall. The fol- 
lowing prescription has met with great favor in Ger- 
many : 

Borax, grains; Aqua Amygdalae Amarae, 2 
drachms; Gum Arabic, 2 drachms; Pure Water, 2 
ounces. Apply to the conjunctiva by putting sever- 
al drops into the eye twice per day. 

In purulent conjunctivitis, when pus is present in 
the eye secretion, one may employ corrosive subli- 
mate I part, water 1,000; or nitrate of silver 4 grains 
and water i ounce. In a few seconds after applying 
the nitrate of silver solution, the eye may be washed 
with a weak watery solution of common salt; this 
checks the burning irritation of the silver nitrate. It 
is safer to use the solution of corrosive sublimate. 
Diphtheritic conjunctivitis develops in chickens, doves 
and other fowls that are affected with diphtheria of the 
mouth, the throat and the nose. The healthy should 
be separated from the diseased fowls ; the diphtheritic 
membranes should be removed from the mouth and 
eye ; and the mucous membranes should be covered 
or penciled over (by means of a feather or small 
brufh) with a I to 2 per cent, solution of corrosive 
sublimate or with i to 2 per cent, solution of silver 
nitrate. In 20 to 30 seconds after applying the 
nitrate of silver solution, bathe the eye and 
other affected parts with a weak solution of salt 
water. When chronic inflammation of the folli- 
cles of the inner surface of the haw is present, it 
may be relieved by using a i per cent solution of cor- 
rosive sublimate ; this should be applied as previously 
directed, being very careful that the fluid does not 
come in contact with other parts of the eye. As a 
rule, follicular conjunctivitis occurs only in dogs. 
When it will not yield to medical treatment, the in- 
flamed follicular spots are clipped off; or part or all 
of the haw may be removed. Nitrate of silver solu- 
tions should be discarded in all cases where the cor- 
nea is also involved, since it is liable to leave perma- 
nent opacities of the cornea. 






i 






1 




Hilda and Hildagarae. Owued by Oscar Ray, Atiauia, Georgia. 



38o 



It takes just a little more time to Give Fresh Water, than Old Water. 
DISEASES OF THE CORNEA. 



Wounds. 

The transparent cornea may be injured by a stroke 
of the whip, by hard straw or hay stems, by thistles, 
and occasionally by sharp objects — glass, nails, splin- 
ters, hedge thorns, and wire barbs. Small, rough or 
sharp objects that get into the eye not only injure the 
conjunctiva but also may scratch or even penetrate 
the cornea. In fact, many of the chemical and physi- 
cal causes of injuries to the conjunctiva in like man- 
ner affect the cornea. 

The shunning of light by closing the eye and an ex-- 
tra secretion of tears are always present during the 
active stages of the inflammation. The seriousness 
or severity of an injury depends upon the extent of 
surface affected and wliether the outer or middle lay- 
ers are separately or conjointly injured; or whether 
the entire thickness of the cornea is perforated. If 
there be but a small spot of the outer layer injured, 
recovery takes place in a few days, by keeping the 
eye covered with a clean cotton or linen cloth 
saturated in a solution of i part carljolic acid to loo 
parts of water. If the deeper or middle layer of the 
cornea be injured, it will require quite more time for 
healing and is liable, in the horse, to leave a scar — a 
whitish opaque spot. Treatment may consist in the 
continued application of the i per cent carbolic acid 
solution, or in applying continually a cloth saturated 
with a solution of 5 to 10 parts antipyrine and 100 
parts of water. After the painful and feverish stage 
is past a few drops of a solution of 2 parts of potas- 
sium iodide and 100 parts of water may be used two 
times per day. If the cornea be perforated the aque- 
ous humor escapes, and this leads, in most cases, to 
inflammation of the entire eye, resulting in loss of 
sight and generally in the destruction of the eyeball. 

Occasionally a perforating wound heals by granula- 
tion, the iris becomes free and sight is restored. But 
most frequently in such cases the iris remains attach- 
ed to the wound or scar tissue of the cornea and pro- 
hibits the light from passing into the eye. If the per- 
foration is near the margin of the cornea, a few drops 
of a solution of i gr. of eserine to I ounce of water 
may be applied, two times per day. But if the perfo- 
ration is near the centre of the cornea a few drops of 
a solution of atropine i gr. to water i oz. may be 
used, night and morning. By the use of eserine the 



pupil is contracted and the free borders of the iris are 
taken away from the marginal wound in the cornea. 
By the use of atripine the pupil is expanded and the 
borders of the iris are removed from the edges of the 
central cornea! wound. Infectious and general in- 
flammation of the eye may be obviated by adjusting 
over the eye a cotton or linen cloth moistened every 
half hour with a solution of carbolic acid i part to wa- 
ter 100 parts ; or corrosive sublimate i part to water 
1,000 parts. 

KERATITIS OR CORNEITIS. 

Inflammation of the Cornea may involve the super- 
ficial layer, or the middle layer of the cornea ; it may 
embrace only part of the cornea or may be diffuse — 
extend over the entire cornea. The partial or limited 
form is generally the result of injuries of the cornea. 
The friction of the eyelashes in entropium, small, 
sharp substances, and irritating salves, are common 
causes of local inflammation of the cornea. Diffuse 
inflammation is associated, as a rule, with infectious 
conjunctivitis in cattle or sheep; and, at times, ap- 
pears in the course of cow-pox and sheep pox, and of 
diphtheria in fowls; and in the course of influenza and 
the acute attacks of moon-blindness, in the horse. 

Symptoms. — When the outer layer alone is affect- 
ed : As soon as the cornea becomes inflamed the ani- 
mal avoids the irritating light by partially or entirely 
closing the eye, and tears flow down over the cheek. 
The cornea becomes opaque at a not sharply limited 
spot or over its entire surface; this opacity may be 
grayish blue, gray or light gray in color. One may 
see this opacity best by viewing it, not from directly 
in front of the eye, but from one side. If the inflam- 
mation is of long duration blood vessels will be found 
in the cornea, which may be seen in their conjested 
condition near its border. When the opacity and the 
other symptoms appear suddenly (without blood ves- 
sels forming in the cornea), recovery is quite certain 
to occur in a few days. The darker the opacity or 
cloudiness the weaker the infiltration or the less dam- 
age in the cornea to be required. Light gray and v/hite 
colored opacities denote intensive changes which re- 
quire eight to ten days for their complete removal. If 
blood vessels form in the cornea of the horse, a per- 
manent opaque spot may remain, but in the dog the 
complete removal of the opacity will usually occur. 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



381 



If the middle layer or principal part of the cornea 
be injured, the opacity develops slowly, is grayish 
blue, gray or light gray in color. The opacity is gen- 
erally irregular in form — cloudy, striped or ray 
shaped; these points or spots extend over the entire 
cornea. When inflammation produces such spotted 
or irregular dotted opacity, it is designated keratitis 
punctata (see Fig. 6). This spotted appearance of 
the cornea is due to the dotted opacities in the outer 
layer while the inner layer may be evenly clouded in 
all its parts. The deeper seated opacity may be ob- 
served by viewing the cornea from one side ; this is 




Fig. 73. — Keratitis Punctata— Intlammation of the internal 
or posterior layer of the cornea produces a spotted apacity; 
tlie dots or opaque white spots may be larger or smaller than 
those In the cut and may extend over the entire surface of 
the cornea. Another form of keratitis punctata is developed 
as mentioned in the text. 

perceived best by illuininating the eye in a dark stall 
or room. A yellow colored, sharply limited opacity, 
announces the formation of a corneal abscess. 

Shunning the light and an excessive flow of tears 
are always present during inflammation of the outer 
surface of the cornea or the formation of an abscess. 
In acute cases the opacity may entirely or partially 
disappear in three to six weeks. Should the opacity 
continue longer, from improper treatment or non-dis- 
appearance of the cause, vascularization (formation of 
blood vessels) with abscess formation or ulceration of 
the cornea appears ; thus the prospects of recovery are 
decreased, while the danger of a pus-like exudate ap- 
pearing in the aqueous humor or the perforation of 
the cornea increases. Not infrequently do these bad 
results appear in cow-pox, sheep-pox or infectious 
conjunctivitis and kerititis among cattle and sheep. 

Treatment. — Examine the eye critically, being es- 
pecially careful to discover and remove any irritating 
foreign body or particles. Bathing the eye in very 
warm water twice per day and then adjusting over it 



a clean cloth, saturated with a i per cent, solution of 
carbolic acid, will, in most cases, be sufficient. But, 
should there be an abscess or an ulcer present, the 
cloth might be saturated with a solution of corrosive 
sublimate i part and water 1,000 parts; and during 
the reparative stages warm water baths night and 
morning, and the application of the following salve, 
will aid in the removal of the opacity : Calomel, 30 gr., 
iodoform, 30 gr. ; vaseline, 5 drachms. Instead of this 
salve one may apply with a feather a small quantity 
of equal parts of pulverized calomel and iodoform. 

INFECTIOUS CONJUNCTIVITIS AND KERA- 
TITIS, OR INFECTIOUS INFLAMMATION 
OF THE CONJUNCTIVA AND CORNEA. 

This eye disease is most frequently found in cattle, 
but may appear in sheep, horses and goats. It is said 
to occur only during the summer months, but the wri- 
ter saw it in a herd of cattle in February and March 
in South-eastern Iowa. That winter was exceptionally 
warm. It attacked cattle of all ages; but calves and 
young cattle seemed to be predisposed to it. A num- 
ber of young colts, running in the same field with the 
cattle were similarly affected. Several outbreaks of 
this eye disease have been reported to me as occur- 
ring during the spring and summer months of 1892, in 
Alabama. 

The disease announces its presence by an increased 
flow of tears ; the eyelids are closed and slightly swol- 
len. The conjunctiva becomes swollen, its blood ves- 
sels congested and, in severe cases, a purulent dis- 
charge appears. 




Fig. 74.— An illustration of an abscess and the attending 
vascularization of the cornea as observed in infectious ker- 
atitis and conjunctivitis in cattle. The black spot in the 
cut represents the yellow abscess and the radiating lines the 
blood vessels in the cornea. 



382 



It Does not Cost Much to Haul Straw and Leaves in the Winter. 



Young animals seem to have a general fever, hang- 
ing of head, loss of appetite, and consequent emacia- 
tion ; loss of appetite, etc., is most probably the result 
of pain instead of fever. These symptoms continue to 
increase for the first 8 or lo days. About the third 
day from the first appearance of the disease, the cor- 
nea will exhibit a small delicately clouded spot, near 
its center, which will gradually extend over the entire 
cornea, giving it a milk white appearance. The cen- 
tre of the opaque cornea is at first pearly white in col- 
or, but in a short time a straw colored or yellow spot 
appears; this spot signals the formation of an abscess. 
The cornea at the yellow spot is rough and surrounded 
bv a wall of thick, swollen, pearly white tissue. From 
this yellow centre (see Fig. 7) numerous blood ves- 
sels take their course toward the sclerotic border of 
the cornea. The yellow centre is generally longer 
from side to side, shorter from above to below, and it 
is said to be occasionally mistaken for "an oat grain in 
the eye" by unif<irmcd laymen. The abscess general- 
ly erupts or breaks open on the outer corneal surface 
leaving an ulcer to heal by granulations forming over 
its sides and bottom. In cattle, as a rule, the scar tis- 
sue is entirely removed and the cornea becomes clear 
and completely normal. However, in horses and oc- 
casionally in cattle a permanent pearly white opacity 
remains, causing partial or complete blindness. Some 
cases do not advance to the stage of abscess forma- 
tion ; in others the abscess may not erupt, while in 
still others the abscess may be so large that when it 
breaks open, the pressure of the aqueous., humor 
against the remaining thin portion of the cornea will 
perforate it; this sudden removal of pressure on 
the lens may rupture the capsule of the lens and per- 
mit it to escape; the entire eye is thus involved, re- 
sulting in total loss of sight and of the eyeball. 

The cause of this spreading eye disease is unknown, 
yet there are indications that point towards a germ 
or a micro-organism as an exciting cause. Billings 
claims that it slowly extends over a herd from one an- 
imal to another; one eye may be at first affected, but 
in a short time the other eye is attacked. According 
to some of the German authorities the disease spreads 
quite rapidly — in a few days attacking 50 in a herd 
'of 300; in 7 days attacking 20 in a herd of 40. 

Treatment. — Separate the sick from the healthy; 

" apply a solution of corrosive sublimate i part, water 

2,000 parts; saturate a clean cotton cloth with the 



above solution and adjust the cloth over the eye; keep 
the cloth- moist with the solution. During the puru- 
lent discharge from the conjunctival sack, the eye 
may be washed night and morning with warm water. 

ULCER OF THE CORNEA. 

Loss of substance or destruction of a limited portion 
of the cornea may result from the erupting of a cor- 
neal abscess, as in infectious keratitis ; it may also ap- 
pear in suppurative inflanmiation of the conjunctiva 
or cornea, and it is occasionally found associated with 
influenza in the horse ; very often it is observed in the 
course of influenza (distemper) in the dog. 

Ulceration of the cornea appears to be caused by an 
infectious or contagious microbe, since the disease is 
transmitted from one eye to the other, and occasional- 
ly appears as a disease that may e:.tend to a number 
of animals in a locality. 

An ulcer may appear near the center of the cornea 
or near its border; the cornea surrounding it is geii- 
erally opaque; the bottom of the vdcer may be green- 
ish yellow or gray white in color ; the borders of the 
ulcer are, in the early stage, so abrupt that it appears 
is if it had been cut out with an iron punch. It may 
extend in depth to the internal layer of the cornea, 
then the reparative process may begin. Sh'irtly a'ter 
the formation of the ulcer, the cornea becomes v.iscn- 
lar; the blood vessels give ihe opaque cornea around 
the ulcer a reddish tinge. As soon as the developing 
blood vessels reach the advancing borders of the ulcer 
the process of repair begins and continues slowly un- 
til the ulcer completey disappears, leaving behind a 
pearly white scar in the horse, but in the ox and the 
dog this opacity is, as a rule, removed. 

If the ulcer is located near the border, the healing 
process progresses more rapidly than when it is in the 
center of the cornea, because the developing blood 
vessels can reach the ulcer sooner and thus check its 
advancement. If the internal layer of the cornea is il 
destroyed by the penetrating ulcer, the inflammation i 
extends to all parts of the eyeball, and generally re- '1 
suits in the loss of the entire orsran. ■•• 

Treatment. — Prof. Moeller very highly recommends I 
aqua chlorata diluted with 2 or 3 parts of water. A j 
solution of corrosive sublimate 1 part and water 1,000 ' 
parts may be employed ; or a 2 to 4 per cent, solution i 
of boracic acid. It is not advisable to use silver ni- 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE 



383 



trate as it generally leaves a permanent opacity -.n the 
cornea. In examining the eye care should be exer- 
cised to prevent transmitting the purulent irritating 
discharge with its microbes, from the diseased eye to 
the healthy one. It is also best to separate the dis- 
eased animal from all others. If the cornea is perfor- 
ated, a I per cent, solution of eserine or atropine may 
be used as advised in perforations of the cornea un- 
der the head of corneal w'ounds. 

OPACITIES OF THE CORNEA. 

Scar tissue, infiltrations and organized exudates 
that supervene or result from injuries, inflammation, 
ulcerations and abcesses are termed opacities. These 
opacities remain after the inflammation has subsided 
or after the wound or uker has healed, and are not to 
be confounded with the opacities attending active in- 
flammation. Slightly foggy, weakly clouded, translu- 
cent, grayish blue or gray spots, not sharply limited 
are mostly found in the outer layer of the cornea and 
are sometimes called nebuloe. If the opacity is semi- 
transparent, sharply limited, gray or milk white^ it is 
designated acula. If the opacity is a dense, complete- 
ly opaque, pearl white, gray or white, regularly dis- 
•tributed or in large spots or stripes, it is called a leu- 
coma. There are also chalk-like, well defined opaque 
spots which are formed by using acetate of lead or 
silver nitrate with common salt, calomel or corrosive 
sublimate ; insoluble precipitates are thus deposited 
in the corneal tissue. Black colored opacities may be 
spotted or cloudy and are due to bleeding from the 
vessels in the vascular cornea, or to adhesions of de- 
tachments of the pigmented iris ; the latter may oc- 
cur as a result of the attachment of the iris with the 
inner surface of the cornea. 

The harm produced by opacities depend upon their 
location; an opaque spot in the center of the cornea 
cuts off more light than one located near the border. 
Total blindness is better (more safe) than partial 
blindness ; hence large and dense opacities are pref- 
erable to weak and diffuse opacities, unless the latter 
can be removed. Scar tissue, from ulcers, wounds or 
abscesses, can not be removed in the horse ; it may in 
some instances disappear in the ox, but in the dog, it 
is, as a rule, entirely removed. Chalk spots, streaks 
or stripes, as a rule, are permanent — not amenable to 
treatment. Weak and superficial opacities may be 
improved and many times can be removed by judi- 
cious treatment. 



The following ointment may be employed : Yellow 
oxide of mercury, 4 grams ; atropine, i grain ; vase- 
line 4 drachms. Put a small quantity under the eye 
lid ; then with fingers on the outer surface of the lids 
work or move them around over the cornea in radial 
and circular directions. Finely pulverized calomel 
may be thrown into the eye by placing a small quan- 
tity in a quill and blowing it into the eye. This 
should not be repeated oftener than once per week. 
In case the horse will not permit the blowing of the 
calomel into the eye, it may be used in the form of a 
salve, by mixing it with vaseline. A salve of potas- 
sium iodide 10 grains and vaseline i ounce may be 
employed. Some authorities recommend massage 
treatment^placing two fingers upon the upper eye 
lid and with slight pressure moving it in a circular 
direction over the opacity. This massage treatment 
mav be repeated daily unless signs of inflammation 
should appear. 

STAPHYLOMA OF THE CORNEA. 

The bulging forward and outward of the cornea is 
designated staphyloma. It may be partial or com- 
plete, depending upon whether a part or all of the 
cornea is involved. Thinning of the cornea by ulcer- 
ation and eruption of large abscesses, so reduce the 
resisting power of the cornea that the intra ocular 
pressure (pressure of the aqueous humor, etc.) dis- 
tends, projects or pushes the cornea outward. The 
scar tissue resulting from ulceration is also unable to 
withstand the intra ocular pressure and the cornea 




Fig. 75. — Total Corneal Stopbyloma (after Armatage). 

bulges forward, forming a partial staphyloma. A 
staphyloma from either of the foregoing causes is 
generally opaque, gray or white colored. In the heal- 
ing of perforating wounds, the iris may adhere to the 
scar tissue, should the corneal scar then become dis- 
tended it would carry with it the iris and the result 
would be called an Iris-staphyloma. 



384 



Curry Combs and brushes are cheap. 



Occasionally intra ocular pressure pushes forward 
the entire transparent cornea. 

The treatment of staphyloma is mainly preventa- 
tive. In impending perforations of the cornea from 
ulceration, wounds or abscesses, a compress bandage 
and a i per cent, solution of eserine may be employ- 
ed. In cases of established perforation the eserine or 
atropine may be used as before directed for perforating 
wounds of the cornea. Proper treatment of abscess- 
es, ulcerations and wounds of the cornea will also pre- 
vent the formation of a staphyloma. 

NEW GROV/THS ON THE CORNEA. 

Pterygium (see fig. 76) is a peculiar fleshy growth 
consisting of an abnormal development from the con- 
junctiva. It has been observed in horses, dogs and 




Fig 



7C. — PTERYGIUM. — Fleshy growth on the conjunctiva 
and cornea (after DeS'chweinitz.) 



project outward between the lids. (See fig. 'j'j.') 

It occurs in calves, pups, colts and lambs and is 
most frequently present at birth ; but, according to 
some authors, it may be acquired after birth. The 
hairs interfere with the rays of light and the dermoid, 
as a whole, irritates the cornea and conjunctiva. 
Treatment consists in removing the dermoid by 




Fi2 



-DERMOID.— Left ^■.ve of dog (after Gurlt). 



cattle. Its usual situation is at the inner side of the 
eye ball; it is triangular, or fan-shaped, with the apex 
extending almost to the center of the cornea ; gener- 
ally it is loosely attached to the cornea and the con- 
junctiva. Sometimes it is present at birth and at 
times it results from the repairing of an ulcer near 
the border of the cornea. It is believed that animals 
exposed to smoke, dust, heat and slight injuries to 
the cornea are predisposed to its development. Treat- 
ment consists in removing the loose pterygium with 
the knife or shears ; this should be done by a surgeon 
after the animal is cast or confined and a solution of 
cocaine is applied to the eye. The cornea usually re- 
mains opaque at the spot from which the tissue is re- 
moved. When a pterygium results from the con- 
tracting scar tissue pulling the conjunctiva over a 
part of the cornea, it should be left undisturbed. 

A Dermoid is a small, skin-like growth, which 
usually appears on the nasal side of the eye ball, part- 
ly on the cornea and partly on the conjunctiva. The 
outer surface is generally covered with long hair that 



-means of the knife or shears. The animal is cast and 
the eye is anesthized with cocaine; then the loosely 
attached skin-like growth is carefully dissected from 
the cornea and conjunctiva ; a permanent opaque spot 
remains, but the constant irritating action is remov- 
ed. 

DISEASES OF THE IRIS. 

Iritis or inflammation of the iris is generally asso- 
ciated with diseased conditions of the ciliary bodies, 
or the choroid coat ; because, a close connection exists 
between these parts of the eye, in location, attach- 
ments and blood supply. 

Iritis also appears in the course of inflammation of 
the entire eye ball, in periodic opthalmia (moon-blind- 
ness) ; it occurs also, in some instances, in connection 
with influenza, strangles (distemper), infectious in- 
flammation of the lungs and pleura, in acute muscu- 
lar rheumatism, in inflammation of the navel in young' 
animals and occasionally in connection with catarrhal 
inflammation of the conjunctiva or ulceration of the 
cornea. Penetrating wounds or injuries near the mar- 
gin of the coi;nea excite inflammation in the iris. Very 
rarely does iritis appear alone — without other parts 
being involved at the same time. 

Owing to the fact that the iris is richly supplied 
with blood vessels, it is disposed to produce exudates, 
or to bleeding from its surfaces. The exudate may 
be flaky and gray, floating in the aqueous humor; or 
it may be pus-like and form a yellowish sediment at 
the bottom of the aqueous cham.ber. 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



385 



These exudates may be tinged with blood or the en- 
tire aqueous humor may be colored by blood from 
the vessels of the iris. The exudates from the poste- 
rior surface of the iris falls between the iris and an- 
terior or front surface of the lens; this pushes the iris 
forward ; unless the iris is moved by the expansion of 
the pupil, the back or posterior surface of the iris be- 
comes firmly attached to the capsule of the lens. The 
iris may, also, become attached to the posterior sur- 
face of the cornea; this frequently results from per- 
forating wounds or ulcers of the cornea. The discol- 
oration, swollen condition of the iris, and the flaky, 
purulent or bloody exudates can not be observed in 
many cases, because the cornea is so clouded or opa- 
que. However, in the first or the last stage of such 
cases, one may be able to view the iris. During the 
"clearing up" period in moon-blindness one may ob- 
serve the iris, faded somewhat in color, with its pu- 
pillary margin more or less ragged and irregular. Gen- 
erally the tears flow in excess, dread of light and ex- 
treme sensitiveness are present during the acti\e 
stage of iritis. 

In the treatment of iritis the chief aim is to pre- 
vent the pupillary or free margin of the iris from 
forming attachments to the capsule of the lens or the 
posterior surtace of the cornea. For perforations of 
the cornea directions for treatment have been given. 
To prevent adhesions to the capsule of the lens, the 
pupil may be kept expanded, during the active stage 
of the inflammation, by the use of atropine. The fol- 
lowing has proven very beneficial in the hands of the 
writer: atropine i grain; potassium iodide 5 grains; 
pure water i ounce. A few drops way be put be- 
tween the lids two times per day. The application of 
hot water will stimulate the absorbents and hasten 
the removal of the exudates and, at the same time, re- 
duce the pain ; while cold water fomentations will best 
reduce fever and inflammation. 

CLOSURE OF THE PUPIL. 



tion is termed occlusion of the pupil. The destruc- 
tion of the pupillary attachment of the iris to the lens 
capsule is soon followed by the formation of a catar- 
act — opacity of the lens. The anterior division of the 
aqueous chamber is completely separated froni the 
posterior and the iris is bulged forward at all parts 
except at its marginal attachments Xc the lens cap- 
sule. 

If the attachments of the iris to the capsule are not 
firm and solid, the iris may be torn loose by the use 
of atropine. In case that does not succeed, the iris 
may be mechanically separated or detached by a sur- 
gical operation ; or a new pupillary opening may be 
made by the operation known as irodectomy. These 
operations can only be performed by a skilled sur- 
geon and are, many times, done after the lens has be- 
come opaque or the operation is followed by opacity 
of the lens, destroying the vision. The writer observ- 
ed a case of occlusion of the pupil in both eyes of a 
three year old horse that was brought to the free clin- 
ic at the experiment station in Auburn. The cornea 
and aqueous humor were transparent, and the occlu- 
sion was very probably a result of acute iritis. A 
strong solution of atropine was dropped into the eye 
but the iris was so firmly fixed it could not be de- 
tached. 

Excessively developed or large "soot balls" "grape- 
like bodies," hanging from the inner aspect of the su- 
perior part of the free margin of the iris, interfere 
with, or obstruct, the passage of light into the eye. 
The large, brown, flake-like bodies are quite frequent- 
ly the cause of shying and cases have been recorded 
where complete blindness appeared as a result of 
these "soot balls" entirely closing the pupil. By a 
surgical operation they could be removed ; this should 
be attempted only by a skillful operator. 

Some white horses possess such a high degree of 
sensitiveness of the eye to light that in clear sunshine 
the pupil is closed by complete contraction and the 
animal cannot see until the sun sets. 



If the iris, during the extreme contraction of the 
pupil, becomes bound down to the capsule of the lens 
throughout its entire pupillary margin, it may leave 
a small, clear pupillary opening; this condition is de- 
nominated exclusion of the pupil. But if the pupil be 
completely obliterated during extreme contraction of 
the pupil when the iris is attached to the capsule of 
the lens, or the small pupil becomes filled in with an 
opaque, inflammatory deposit or exudate, the condi- 



CATARACT. 

All opacities of the crystalline lens, regardless of 
size, origin or condition, are embraced by the general 
name cataract. A false or spurious cataract is pro- 
duced by collections of pigment on the capsule of the 
lens, resulting from the tearing loose of the attach- 
ment of the iris to the capsule. It appears in dark, 
almost black, colored spots on the anterior surface of 



26 



386 



Take time to brush your horse every day. 



the capsule. True cataract means that there must be 
opacity in the substance of the lens or its capsule. If 
the opacity is in the substance of the capsule it is 
known as capsular cataract, and when in the sub- 
stance of the lens, it is designated lenticular cataract. 
Lenticular cataract may be partial or complete; the 
former when a small portion of the lens substance is 
involved and the latter when the entire lens becomes 
■opaque. The causes of cataract are various ; and in 
some cases are not distinctly understood. Occasion- 
.ally a catai'act may be present in one or both eyes at 




Fig. 78.— PARTIAL CATARACT (.after Avmatage).— The 
■opaque spot or spots in tlie lens or its capsule may be seen 
through the pupillary opening. Spots in the cornea should 
not be mistaken for the deeply locat-ed opacities in the lens. 



birth. Heredity, no doul)t, exercises a great influence 
in the production of cataracts during foetal life and 
also predisposes an offspring to the disease in later 
life. Cataract frequently manifests itself in the 
course of diabetes mellitis (.sugar in the urine) but 
there is no positive proof that the sugar in the sys- 
tem causes the cataract. Hemorrhages (bleeding) in 
the aqueous chamber lead to Straining of the capsule ; 
the coloring matter of the blood is deposited in the 
capsule and the dark colored opacity remains after 
the blood is absorbed or removed from the aqueous 
chamber. Disturbances in the nutrition of the lens 
in old age is said to be the cause of senile cataract. 
In old age the lens substance becomes more and more 
solid ; this leads to irregularity in its density ; also 
prevents changes in the curvature of the lens that are 
necessary in the adjustment, or its accommodation, 
to different distances. The constant straining of the 
eye to bring a hardened lens to the various positions 
or forms for different distances, would lead to per- 
verted nutrition and possibly to inflammation, in the 
capsule, the lens, the ciliary ligament or ciliary bod- 
ies. The nutrition of the lens may also be perverted 
by inflammation primarily in the lens itself or from 
extension of inflammation in the iris, the ciliary bod- 



ies or the ciliary ligament, to the lens. Active inflam- 
mation in the lens or the surrounding parts, (from 
wounds, injuries or other diseases) generally leaves 
inflanuuatory products or deposits in the substance 
of the lens or its capsule, which form permanent 
opacities. Strokes on the head that produce sudden 
concussion are said to cause opacities in the lens. 
There are many cases of cataract, the cause of which 
cannot be determined ; but the most prolific cause of 
cataract in the horse is periodic opthalmia (moon 
blindness). Straining the eyes to see objects in im- 
perfectly lighted barns or stalls, nO doubt, plays an 
important part in producing cataracts as well as other 
eye diseases. 

Occasionally small spurious cataracts of the cap- 
sule disappear, because of the great activity of the 
cells of the capsule But opacity of the lens sub- 
stance very rarely disappear ; because changes in its 
structure take place very slowly, for it contains no 
blood vessels or nerves. 

Sometimes small gray specks may remain un- 
changed ; but, as a rule, the little gray star-like opac- 
ity gradually increases until total lenticular or capsu- 
lar opacity appears. 

In examining the eye for a cataract one may read- 
ily see a gray, a bluish gray, a greenish yellow, a 
brown or a pearl white reflection in the pupillary 
opening; the form (star-shaped, cloudy, fog-like, 
feathery, streaked, or scattered dots, ball-shaped, etc..) 
can be determined if the opacity be sufficiently de- 




Fig. TSij.— TOTAL, CATARACT (after Armatage.)— The 
opaque lens gives the entire pupil a grayish whit© color. 

\-elopcil. The exact location and form or the small, 
beginning white speck may not be visible to the ob- 
server's unaided eye, especially out in the clear sun- 
shine or when the ground is covered with snow. The 
animal should be placed so that the light falls upon 
the affected eye from a clear window or an open door 
in front of the animal. The observer then looks into 
the pupillary opening, standing in front or to one 
side; it is well to observe the eye from various points 




xWy^a .....^Z-If^:ssiC:T'S^:'Z-ii.:::^./L,}fic4t..k'^ -. r.^^-^! .'..T^f ^'--^«*»<«^rr^:A*-:a 



Pii-se Prize Young Herd of Morgan Horses at St. Louis Exposition. , Owned by the Highlands Farm, L 
Jj. Dorsey, Anchorage, Ky. 

The Morgan horse is tlie oldest and most distinctive reproducing native type in America. They are just- 
iy famous for symmetry, docility, intelTigenee, steadiness and speed. 




"Buster Bro-mi" 30-777, the Great 6- Year-Old Percheron Stalliori. Own- 
ed by Mr. Tohn K. Lewis, Lynnwood, Va. 



388 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



of view. If the pupil is contracted or too small to ad- 
mit of sufficient examination, a few drops of a solu- 
tion of atropine (i gr. atropine to i ounce of water) 
may be put into the eye to expand the pupil. The 
lens may, also, be examined by placing the animal in 
a dark room and illuminating the eye with a candle, 
or a candle and a double convex lens, or with a can- 
dle and a small concave mirror (see methods of exam- 
ining the eye.) 

Treatment of cataracts in domestic animals consists 
chiefly in prevention. The reducing of all inflamma- 
tions of the eye, the prevention of periodic opthalmia, 
keeping the surroundings of the animal in proper con- 
dition and maintaining sufficient light for the animal 
to see distinctly in all parts of the stall without strain- 
ing the eyes. As a rule it is best to have the light en- 
ter the stall or barn from behind the animal, or from 




Fig. 79. — Luxation (dislocation) of the opaque lens into 
aqueous chamber; the lens lies in front of th-e iris, almost 
completely obstructing the passage of the light through the 
pupil. 



both sides. In man the opaque lens is removed by a 
surgical operation, and a double convex lens is adjust- 
ed in front of the eye thereafter. But this is imprac- 
ticable among domestic animals, since the double con- 
vex lens can not be adjusted to the eye, and the eye 
would always be hypermetropic (farsighted), permit- 
ting the animal to see close objects indistinctly and 
therefore inducing it to shy or become frightened. 
However the opaque lens is occasionally removed in 
horses and dogs to eliminate the unsightliness of the 
cataract ; but there is always more or less danger of 
losing the entire eye ball. 

AMAUROSIS. 

Paralysis (palsy) of the retina or optic nerve has 
been technically named amaurosis. This condition 
may depend upon tumors in the brain, injury to the 
optic nerve betvyeen the brain and the eye-ball, or in- 
flammation of the retina. Parasitic cysts often ap- 



pear in the brain of sheep and the amaurotic condi-1 
tion of the eye is a characteristic symptom. ! 

Abscesses sometimes implicate the roots of the op-1 
tic nerve and amaurosis supervenes. Temporaryl 
amaurosis is present during the intoxication period off| 
lead poisoning; poisoning from Kalmia latifolial 
("ivy") ; during the comatose condition of the cow in|| 
paturient apoplexy (milk fever) ; and in congestion ^ 
of the brain. Inflammation of the retina is nearly al-j 
ways present in moon blindness and occasionally it] 
terminates in paralysis of the retina — amaurosis. De-, 
tachment of the retina from the choroid, hemorrhagfi 
from the retinal blood vessels, and emboli (plugging! 
by clotted blood) of retinal blood vessels and exces'j 
sive loss of blood, cause temporary or permanen-j 
amaurosis. If, in the course of inflammation, if th(| 
retina pigment is deposited in the retina, it produce:^ 
night blindness — a condition that prevents the animaJ 
seeing at night. Extreme sensitiveness of the retina^ 
as observed in Albinos and in some white horses 
leads to day blindness. In such cases, the pupil is s( 
nearly or completely closed that the animal can no 
see in clear sunshine, or when the ground is covered 
with snow ; but during twilight, on cloudy days, ancj 
at night vision is normal. Amaurosis sometimes rej 
suits from castration. I 

In well established cases of amaurosis there is totai 
blindness; yet there are no opacities in any of the tis 




Fig. 80.— AMAUROSIS.— The pupil is greatly expanded, 
gray-blue in color and the eye appears bright, glassy, ver^ 
clear (after Armatage). 

ij 

sues or humors of the eye. The eye is bright, clear 
and perfectly transparent. The animal steps highi 
stumbles over, and runs against objects in its way. Hi 
at a short distance, you noiselessly threaten to strik«; 
it, there is no winking or manifestations of fear. Th 
ears are very sensitive to sound, and the outer ear 
are constantly on the alert to catch all noises. Th- 
pupil is expanded to its extreme limit; the iris is imj 
movable and insensitive to light. Leading the anima' 



Horses and mules are not made of steel. 



389 



rom the dark into the light, or from the light into 
he dark, does not change the size of the pupil or 
lOve the iris; while in the normal eye the pupil ex- 
ands in darkness and contracts on being brought to 
Light. The pupillary reflex (the light reflected from 
he retina outward through the pupil) is, as a rule, 
rayish-blue ; but may, at times, appear more gray 
han blue, or present a more or less distinctly green 
olor. 

Treatment. — When amaurosis is a result of another 
disease, it is evident that the disease of which it is a 
lymptom should be treated. In cases of recent stand- 
Jug, good nutritive food, extra care and a nerve tonic 
Jdrachm doses of nux vomica two times per day) may 
lie employed with advantage. But treatment of long 
tanding cases always proves valueless. 

GLAUCOMA. 

This name is applied to several varieties of a dis- 
|;ase whose chief symptom is increased ocular tension. 
The increased intro-ocular pressure is a direct result 
)f the jelly-like vitrous humor becoming thin, more 
vatery and greater in quantity. This condition may 
ipjiear independent of any other disease, but it gen- 
■raily appears, accompanied by, or as a sequel of, in- 
lanimation in the choroid or the ciliary bodies. How- 
vcr, the exact cause in many instances is unknown. 
The extra amount of lymph or watery secretion with- 
n the eye has been explained in various ways. Some 
lave claimed that it was due to obstructions in the 
ntro-ocular lymph vessels, which carry off the extra 
uiiount of lymph ; others have suggested that the ex- 
ra supply of water was due to excessive secretion by 
-he choroid, and especially the ciliary bodies. The 
levelopment of glaucoma is slow, its course is nearly 
dways chronic and of a more or less intermittent 
'orm. Old animals which have far-sighted (hyper- 
netropic) eyes are predisposed to glaucoma. 

Symptoms. — Increased hardness of the eye-ball, or 
"ise of intra-ocular tension, is the most prominent 
\viiiptom. These conditions may be determined by 
^lacing the index finger of the right hand upon the 
upper lid of the left eye and the index finger of the 
left hand upon the upper lid of the right eye; then 
compare the tension or hardness of one eye with the 
other by palpating with the tips of the fingers; in in- 
creased hardness, fi'rm pressure of the finger tip pro- 



duces no impression ; but the tension may be doubt- 
ful unless there is a marked difference in the impres- 
sions made upon the two eyes. The pupil is general- 
ly greatly expanded and the lens, as a rule, remains 
transparent, but may in rare instances be opaque. 
The depth of the anterior part of the aqueous cham- 
ber is diminished; the front surface of the iris is al- 
most in contact with the internal surface of the cor- 
nea. The iris in some cases appears swollen and it 
is sluggish in movement or entirely inactive. The 
slight diffuse cloudiness of the cornea and the aque- 
ous humor produces the sea green (glaucoma) color 
of the pupil. The episcleral and conjunctival vessels 
are more or less congested. But the excavation or 
sinking or depression of the optic nerve can not be 
seen without the aid of an opthalmoscope ; this cup- 
ping of the optic disc is due to the intra-ocular pres- 
sure ; the cup is called the glaucomatous cup and the 
vellow halo around it is known as the glaucomatous 
ring- 
Treatment consists in preventing inflammatory ad- 
hesions between the iris and cornea by using eserine. 
Also, reduce inflammation of the iris, ciliary bodies 
and choroid, that may lead to glaucoma ; this may be 
accomplished by using hot or cold water fomenta- 
tions. A well developed case can only be relieved by 
irodectomy. If eserine is used constantly it must be 
in a weak solution (i-io to i-i6th grain to one ounce 
of water.) Irodectomy consists in removing a por- 
tion of the iris ; in glaucoma one-fifth to one-fourth of 
the iris should be removed ; or what is known as the 
broad peripheral irodectomy can be done only by a 
skilled surgeon. 

HYDROPTHALMUS. 

This is an enlargement of the eye-ball due mainly 
to an, increased secretion of the aqueous humor, as in 
glaucoma. Sometimes the eye ball becomes twice its 
normal size ; the cornea is generally so opaque that 
one cannot see the inner parts of the eye. In conse- 
quence of the enlarging of the eye-ball the attach- 
ments of the lens are partially or entirely torn loose 
and the lens may float in the vitreous or the aqueous 
humor. The enlargement of the eye may appear sud- 
denly, in twenty-four hours ; or may advance slowly. 
Seldom is it relieved by treatment. Occasionally the 
cornea is ruptured and the eye-ball lost. In the early 
stage, the cornea may be punctured, thus allowing 
the extra amount of aqueous secretion to escape; this 



390 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



has, in some cases, proven beneficial; however, it can- 
not be done by the novice or the inexperienced. 

DISLOCATION OF EYE BALL— EXOPTHAL- 
MUS. 

The eye-ball may be pushed out of its socket by tu- 
mors that originate behind the ball; sometimes by 
bleeding, from deep penetrating injuries, congestion 
of blood vessels; by horns of cattle, by biting and 
scratching among dogs and cats, also by dislocation 
of the lower jaw in the smaller animals. Occasional- 
ly an animal has its eye dislocated by having it 
crowded out with a blunt stick or club in the hands 
of a cruel boy or attendant. If the eye is not lacerat- 
ed, bruised or seriously injured and the optic nerve is 
not torn, the ball may be returned to its cav'.ty and a 
compress bandage applied over it to keep it in place. 
This should be done as early as possible or the swell- 
ing of the parts around the eye will prevent return- 
ing it to its proper place. However, the outer angle 
of the eye may be divided if necessary to adni;t the 
eye-ball to the socket. Should the eye-ball be badly 
injured or in case it is impossible to return it to the 
socket, the entire protruding parts may l;e cut away 
as deeply within the eye socket as possible; a pledget 
of cotton,saturated with a one per cent, solution of 
carbolic acid or corrosive sublimate may be pressed 
into the cavity; a compress bandage should then be 
placed over the eye. 

When the eye is dislocated by growing tumors in 
its socket, or if there are malignant or fungoid tu- 
mors within the eye, or if the eye is very badly injur- 
ed, it may be necessary to exterpate the eye-ball, its 
muscles and the surrounding tissues. For this the 
animal must be cast, anaesthised with chloroform or 
some other anaesthetic ; an assistant holds the eye 
lids apart; the operator grasps the cornea or the in- 
ternal or external rectus muscle with the forceps in his 
left hand ; the eye-ball, the tumor, or the 'entire con- 
tents of the orbital cavity, if necessary, are then re- 
moved, with the shears or knife. The bleeding is 
checked by applying a pledget of cotton, and a com- 
press bandage as before described. 

ANIMAL PARASITES OF THE EYE. 

Filaria papilosa is a small, round, white worm that 
is found most frequently in the vitreous humor; but 



commonly spoken of as the "snake in the eye." It ii 
from one-half to two inches in length, and it is ver}ij 
probable that the young filaria reach the eye by waj 
of the blood vessels, and develop in the humors of th('' 
eye. However, it is scarcely probable that the humor: 
of the eye are the natural habitat or home of this par({ 
asite, since the same worm has been found in othe . 
parts of the body. One man reports that he observe(, 
a worm in the aqueous humor during a period of si: 
years. But a few months is usually th.e length of tinnj 
this parasite lives in the eye. A number of cases ani 
recorded where this parasite has produced inflammaj 
tion of the cornea and iris, with an extra flow of tear 
and opacities of the cornea and aqueous humor; thesi 
conditions may subside in a short time and leave -.^ 
slight cloudiness of the cornea and aqueous humor. Ir 
certain districts in India this parasite is found ver} 
frecjuently in the eye of the horse and if not removec 
the eye goes blind. This worm has also been observ 
ed in the eyes of cattle. The worm may be removec 
from the arpieous chamber by cutting a small open 
ing in the cornea at its upper border near the sclero 
tic margin; then remove the worm with small forceps. 
Before operating it is necessary to cast the horse o] 
ox ; anaesthise it with chloroform or ether and appl} 
a ten per cent, solution of cocaine to the eye. Aftel 
operation keep the eye moist and cool by frequent o; 
constant cold water applications, and occasionally pu 
into the eve a few drops of a one per cent, solution o 
carbolic acid or boracic acid, or a weak solution o 
corrosive sublimate. 

Filaria lachrymalis is a small, white, round worni 
one-half to one inch long; it lives in the lachryma 
ducts, under the haw or eye washer and sometime;' 
under the eyelids; it causes inflammation of the con 
junctiva and lachrymal ducts and may close the teai 
ducts. Remove the worms from the tear ducts anc 
the conjunctival surfaces by using small forceps; theij 
apply, two or three times per day. a few drops of '<• 
corrosive sublmiate solution (i part c. s. to looo partil 
of pure water). 

As elsewhere mentioned, Willach has discovered ir 
the eye the young forms of various round and flai, 
worms, and he claims that these animal parasites plaj^, 
an important part in producing periodic opthalmia. ;| 
Since nearly all parasites gain admission into the, 
svstem by wav of the alimentary canal, infection ma> 
be prevented by observing a few precautions. Im- 
pure drinking water is probably the most commor 



is occasionally observed in the aqueous humor and carrier of the various animal parasites. Hence always 



It is an easy matter to drive a horse too hard. 



39 r 



give animals water from deep wells or pure springs, 
and never from ponds, rivers, or stagnant lakes. The 
digestive tract may become infected with these para- 
sites by ingesting infected food. In all cases where 
parasites are found in the alimentary canal (manifest- 
ed by the occasional passing of parasites with the 
feces), it is advisable to give one-half to one drachm 
doses of sulphate of iron or sulphate of copper in the 
ground food two times per day for one week ; then 
give a purgative, consisting of one pint of raw linseed 
oil Or one ounce of Barbadoes aloes. 

STRABISMUS, SQUINTING OR CROSSEYE. 

In this defect the visual axis or line of one or both 
eyes deviates from the normal. In other words, the 
eye-ball is turned inward, outward, upward or down- 
ward by the excessive contraction of a muscle or as 
a result of the paralysis of one of the muscles of the 
eye. In converging (inward) strabismus, the exter- 
nal rectus muscle may be paralysed and thus be un- 
able to counteract the contractions of the internal rec- 
tus, its antagonist. This weakness, partial or com- 
' plete paralysis of one or more muscles of the eye may 
be due to the pressure of tumors on the nerve of the 
muscle, rheumatism, tumors at the base of the brain 
or injuries of the muscle. Squinting or crosseye may 
be treated by section of the antagonistic muscle, but 
this can be done only by a skilled veterinarian. How- 
ever, this defect is rare in domestic animals and may 
be detected by noting the squinting appearance and 
carefully comparing one eye with the other. When 
strabismus is present it causes considerable shving, 
which is especially annoying in nervous animals. 

SOME OF THE CAUSES OF INDISTINCT VIS- 
ION AND SHYING. 

Hypermetropia or farsightedness is that defective 
condition of the eye which causes the principal focus 
to fall behind the retina, as illustrated in figure 8i — 
H. In other words, the parallel rays which enter the 
eye come to a focus behind the retina. As a rule, the 
axis of the eye or the diameter from before to behind 
is too short and the cornea may appear less convex or 
ilatter than normal. Convex glasses are used in hy- 
permetropia in man, but are impractical with animals. 
Distant objects may be seen distinctly but the images 
of objects at a short distance are blurred and some- 
times distorted into frightful forms. Hence farsight- 
ed horses are frequently frightened, or are caused to 
shy as a result of indistinct vision. 



Myopia or shortsightedness is a condition in which 
the refractive index of the eye is too great or the axis 
of the eye is too long; the parallel rays come to a fo- 
cus in front of the retina (as in fig. 8i — 'M.) ; or the 
principal focus falls in front of the retina. In short- 
sightedness the cornea may appear very convex or 
conical as it frequently appears in cattle. Close or 
near objects can be seen distinctly but distant objects 
may be distorted or become very indistinct. Concave. 



H-^ 




Fig. 81. 

Diagramatic section of an e.v© (after McElIer) to show: 

That the jiarallel rays of light, which enter the normal eye,, 
converge or focus on the retina, E, making a distinct image. 

That, in the farsighted eye, the parallel rays focus at H be- 
hind the retina, forming a blurred image on the retina. 

That, in the shortsighted eye, the parallel rays convergB at 
M in front of the retina, forming a very indistinct image on 
the retina. 

glasse. are used by farsighted persons; but since the 
use of glasses is impractical for animals, shortsighted- 
ness, therefore, becomes a permanent cause of shving 
and fright. 

In the Normal or Emmetropic eye, the principal 
focus falls on the retina, and distinct images of all ob- 
jects, at near or far distances, form on the retina (fig. 
8i — E.) The cornea, the aqueous humor, the lens and 
the vitreous humor take part in the formation of the 
image. The cornea is the principal refracting me- 
dium when the eye is at rest ; but the changes in the 
convexity of the lens (caused by the contractions of 
the ciliary muscle) are the means by which the eye is 
adjusted, or accommodates itself, to different dis- 
tances. 

In the far-sighted, short-sighted and normal eye the 
curvature of the cornea and of the lens is regular; 
but sometimes the curvature of the cornea may be so 
irregular that one part or meridian may produce 
short-sightedness while still another meridian may be 
normal. This condition produces a very much distort- 



392 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



ed image and is a fruitful source of shying or the 
cause of fear and fright. Irregularities in the meri- 
dians of the cornea produce the condition known as 
astigmatism. This defective vision may also be 
caused by an oblique position of the lens. There are 
several kinds and degrees of astigmatism, all of which 
are very difficult to distinguish and can only be re- 
lieved by the use of proper glases which are inap- 
plicable to animals. 

Slight cloudines or opaque spots in the cornea, weak 
cloudiness of the aqueous humor, beginning cataract, 
beginning amaurosis or beginning glaucoma are ac- 
companied by indistinct vision, and consequently pro- 
duce frequent shying. In fact, partial blindness from 
any cause is always attended by indistinct vision and 
shying, fear or fright. 

PERIODIC OPTHALMIA— MOON-BLINDNESS. 

This is an eye disease peculiar to horses and mules. 
Before the development of veterinary science the be- 
lief was prevalent that the moon exerted a direct or 
indirect influence upon the eyes; because the inflam- 
matory attacks recurred at monthly or somewhat reg- 
ular periods. Thus the names "moon blindness" and 
"mooneyed horses" originated. But as veterinary 
science progressed, extensive clinical and anatomical 
investigations made known the fact that moonblind- 
ness was a periodic or recurring inflammatory disease 
of the entire eye, involving primarily the iris, the 
choroid coat and the ciliary bodies. 

Symptoms. — This disease makes its appearance very 
suddenly — generally beginning in the night; in the 
morning the eye is found closed, extremely sensitive 
to light with a very great flow of tears down over the 
cheek. In some instances there is systematic fever, 
while in other milder cases, it is not manifest; but, as 
a rule, the horse or mule is dull, wanting in vigor, and 
energy, indicating constitutional disturbance. The 
eye-ball is drawn backward into the orbital cavity, by 
the retractor muscle; this makes it appear smaller 
than the healthy eye; after several attacks the eye- 
ball is said to shrink in size — decrease in actual vol- 
ume. The conjunctiva exhibits slight swelling and 
diffuse reddening; the surface blood vessels of the 
sclerotic are congested ; this produces a light red ring, 
or seam around the cornea (pericorneal injection.) 
The cornea near its outer border exhibits a weak, dif- 
fuse cloudiness, which soon extends over the entire 
cornea: in the beginning this cloudiness is weakly 



marked and the cornea appears as if it were glass with 
a thin layer of fat spread over it. In the advance- 
ment of the disease the middle or principal layer of 
the cornea becomes affected, which leads to intense, 
diffuse cloudiness and occasionally to vascularization 
of the cornea ; the latter is distinctly visible at its bor- 
der in a few days after the beginning of the attack. 
Sometimes a pearl white opacity may appear at some 
spot on the outer surface of the cornea. In the be- 
ginning the slight cloudiness of the cornea does not 
jjrevent one from viewing the iris, the lens and some- 
times the vitreous humor and the retina. The puru- 
lent or flakey exudate in the aqueous humor and the 
excessive contraction (almost entire obliteration) of 
the pupil hide from view all the internal parts of the 
eye. The iris appears rough on its outer surface, slight- 




Fig. S2. — Diffuse cloudiness of the cornea as observed in 
moon blindness and in inflammation of the cornea. The In- 
ternal structures of the eye are cut off from view by the to- 
tal opacity of the cornea (after Armatage). 

Iv glazed, lighter colored than normal; at times it is 
covered with a grey exudate. The ciliary portion of 
the iris is bulged forward and outward; the move- 
ments of the iris are slov/ and weak; it is quite insen- 
sible to variations in light, and the pupil does not ex- 
pand in the dark. The color of the pupil when visi- 
ble during its contraction is greyish green. Atropine 
causes the iris to expand slowly, weakly and irregu- 
larly; at points the pupillary border of the iris ad- 
heres to the capsule of the lens; the remaining parts 
are free; expansion of the pupil under such conditions 
produce irregularities in the iris and in the outline of 
the pupil (see fig. 83). At the lower part of the aque- 
ous humor, in the anterior chamber, there is a gray- 
yellow, partly sedimentary, partly flocculent exudate, 
which sometimes is colored with blood. The quan- 
tity of the exudate varies; in the early stage of the 
attack — especially in the later attacks — it is visible by 
focal illumination as a slight cloudiness ; at the height, 
or severest stage, of the attack the aqueous chamber 



Never whip a horse or mule when angry. 



393 



is almost entirely filled ; the exudate settles to the 
lower part of the aqueous humor, and is gradually ab- 
sorbed and entirely disappears in the course of ten to 
fifteen days. 

No prominent changes are exhibited in the conjunc- 
i'tiva; however, the pigmentation of the conjunctiva of 
'the eye-ball makes it difficult to observe variations in 
;'its blood vessels. Occasionally the conjunctiva be- 
Ncomes swollen and produces a slimy, serous secretion, 
fln cases where the vitreous humor can be observed 
in the early stage of the attack it is found to be cloud- 
ed. In the active, inflammatory stage, the eye-ball is 
found, by palpation, to be sensitive and hard. Opac- 
|l'ity of the lens appears during the later attacks, and, 




Fig. S3. — This cut represents the free border of the iris at- 
;aclied at points to the capsule of the lens, producing an ir- 
■egular, ragged outline of the pupil and wrinkling of the iris. 
This may be observed after several attacks in periodic opthal- 
inia (modified from Armatage). 



IS a rule, when the lens become entirely opaque (to- 
al cataract) the periodic attacks cease in that eye. 
n six to eight days after the beginning of the attack 
he inflammatory appearances begin to subside, the 
•ensitiveness to light and extra flow of tears abate ; 
he exudate in the anterior eye-chamber begins to dis- 
qipear; the pupil begins to expand and the iris may 
I e-act with regularity. After about fourteen days from 
'he beginning of one of the early attacks the inflam- 
latory changes will Iiave so completely disappeared 
liat casual observation fails to discover anything ab- 
lormal in the recently diseased eye. However, a care- 
iil and critical examination discovers that the iris is 
till attached to the capsule of the lens; or one may 
!nd on the capsule pigment masses which were left 
here in the breaking away of the iris from the cap- 
iile; the iris is lighter in color — lighter brown, very 
ike the color of dead leaves. Occasionally the iris is 
pressed forward that it come in contact with the 
ornea and the anterior division of the aqueous cham- 
■er appears obliterated. The pale green appearance 
f the pupil indicates more or less cloudiness of the 
?r.S or vitreous humor. In most cases, especially af- 



ter the later attacks, there remains a bluish ring 
around the margin of the cornea — a diffuse cloudiness 
— the upper eyelid, instead of presenting a continuous 
arch, exhibits an abrupt bend a short distance from 
the inner angle; the upper lid and the eyebrow are 
also more wrinkled than usual ; after a few attacks 
the eye-ball shrinks in volume, is smaller than normal, 
and in the interval between attacks the eye-ball, by 
palpation, exhibits uncommon softness. In most in- 
stances cloudiness of the vitreous humor and detach- 
ment of the retina can only be discovered by first ex- 
panding the pupil with atropine and then examining 
the eye with the opthalmoscope. After the disappear- 
ance of the acute inflammatory symptoms, or after the 
inflammation has subsided and all damages are par- 
tially repaired, or the eye has "cleared up," it may re- 
main free from another attack for a month, for two 
or three months or even for a year. However, as a 
rule, the attacks occur somewhat regularly every four 
or six weeks until the eye becomes entirely blind.- 
This disease generally results in the formation of a 
total cataract and occasionally in paralysis of the ret- 
ina or optic nerve — amaurosis. The attacks may vary 
in severity in the different cases, but the sucessive at- 
tacks in each case grow more severe and leave behind 
more distinct and prominent signs of approaching to- 
tal blindness. Five to seven attacks, as a rule, com- 
pletely destroys the sight; thereafter that eye re- 
mains free from periodic inflammatory attacks; the 
other eye is then liable to become similarly affected 
until it goes blind. Rarely are both eyes thus diseas- 
ed at the same time, but they may be attacked alter- 
nately until each one becomes blind. 

The diagnosis of periodic opthalmia is not difficult. 
The previously mentioned symptoms and course of 
the disease are generally quite distinct. There are 
exceptional conditions and times when the owner or 
observer will be in doubt. During the first attack, 
when the cornea and the aqueous humor are so badly 
clouded that the pupil, the iris and all internal parts 
of the eye are invisible, one can not determine be- 
yond question whether it is a case of simple iritis or 
iritis associated with some form of influenza. In some 
attacks the cornea may be so opaque for a time that 
one is unable to discover whether the aqueous humor 
is clouded or not ; in such a case the owner may be- 
lieve that the cornea is injured in some way. Time 
alone will bring forth or make clear the other symp- 
toms. Again, during the interval between the first 
and second or between the second and third attacks. 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



394 

the before mentioned symptoms may be indistmctly 
marked; it will then be necessary to wait for the ap- 
pearance of another attack. But in all the doubtful, 
indistinct cases, the characteristic fact of its recur- 
rence in the same eye will remove all doubts in the 
mind of the owner if not in the mind of the buyer. 

Causes. — A number of different microbes have been 
found in the tissues and humors of eyes affected with 
moon-blindness. Vigezzi has found a micrococcus, 
which he believes to be the direct cause of the dis- 
ease; Trinchera discovered an immovable, curved bac- 
cillus; R. Koch found a short bacillus, rounded at its 
ends; Richter found a diplococcus and a triplococcus. 
However, no positive proofs have as yet been discov- 
ered, by experimentation or otherwise, that would 
justify a positive declaration in favor of any microbe. 
In fact the investigators have found a germ associat- 
ed with the disease ; but, if the microbe has been cul- 
tivated on artificial media the eye disease has never 
been artificially transmitted or produced by means of 
the germ. 

Willach examined 37 eyes from 24 horses and has 
discovered a variety of forms and kinds of round and 
flat worms; most of them were found in the humors 
and represented the young stage in their develop- 
ment. Similar parasites were also discovered in the 
alimentary canal, the liver and the lungs. Willach be- 
lieves that these worm-like parasites migrate from 
the alimentary canal during their early life— chiefly 
by way of the blood vessels— and thus reach the eye ; 
these migrations take place periodically or at such 
times as the egg or young forms of the parasites 
reach the alimentary canal in the food or water. This 
theory would, of course, explain the periodic nature 
of the disease and many other phenomena connected 
with it. But the worm-like forms were found only in 
the examination of dead eyes, whereas the limited 
number of cases and want of transmission or actual 
production of the disease by experiment will not jus- 
tify, beyond question, the 'far-fetched' conclusions. 

On river bottoms, on moist clay soils, on marshy 
grounds, on moist coast lands of seas and lakes, in 
malarial districts, this disease is said to be most prev- 
alent. In 1875. a regiment was moved from Frank- 
furt on the Main to Hofgeismar; at the former place 
moon-blindness never appeared; during the first year; 
at the latter place. 5 cases appeared among the horses 
of the regiment; the second year 12; the third year 
11; the fourth year 14. and the fifth year 42. The 



regiment that was stationed at Hofgeismar was mov- 
ed to Frankfurt ; during the last five years of this reg- 
iment at Hofgeismar there were 130 cases of periodic j 
opthalmia, and during the first five years at Frankfurt ' 
not a single case appeared. Hofgeismar, Saarburg, ; 
St. Avoid and other places in Germany seem to be | 
peculiarly adapted, by their moist clay soils, to the de- \ 
velopment of the microbe, the parasite, the gas or ^ 
miasmatic factor that causes this disease. Records al- J 
so show that on certain low lands of Belgium, France, 3 
Spain, Italy, Austria and England, this eye disease ^ 
prevails extensively. Likewise in our own country j 
certain localities have more cases of moon-blindness 
than others. 

The writer has observed that this disease is more 
prevalent in the Southern States, than in the Central \ 
or North-western States. Compare the number of 
cases in the dry, cool climate of South Dakota with 
the moist, warm climate of Alabama and the result 
shows the extremes— the almost complete absence in . 
the former State and the unpleasant prevalence in the ' 
latter. It is said to oCcur less frequently on lime soils. 
Clay soils will retain moisture longer and as a rule 
are richer in organic materials than sandy soils; con- 
sequently germs, malarial parasites, etc., will grow 
abundantly on the moist clay soil. 

The disease appears on sandy soil if there is suffi- 
cient moisture ; it will also appear on moderately high 
rolling land irrespective of the kind of soil if there be I 
sufficient moisture — as a rainy season followed by a 
warm season with occasional heavy rains. .A. number! 
of cases have been observed at Auburn, 800 feet above 
the sea level, with a gray sandy soil; however, therel 
are red clay districts not far from Auburn. I, also, 
have reports of its appearance on sandy soils in other 
parts of this State. 

In the period from 1879 to 1890, appeared 2183 
cases of periodic opthalmia among the horses of the 
Prussian army. Of this number 585 were in the 15th 
army corps; 358 in the first; 339 in the nth; I45_'":| 
the loth ; 135 in the 5th ; about 80 in the 2nd, the thirdj 
and the 8th ; about 70 in the 7th ; about 60 in the 4th.j 
the 6th, the 9th and the 14th; 49 in the guard corps.^ 
It will be observed from the above records that the 
disease prevailed quite extensively in the respective 
localities of the first five of the army corps above- 
mentioned; while in the districts of those last men- 
tioned the disease was comparatively rare. 

Cloudy weather, or moist air, so common and con- 
.stant on wet lands, is said to be a factor in causing 




Mr. Lee Douglas, of Atlanta, Ga„ on Ms tilue ribtoon horse. 



396 



Horses if fed regularly, are never foundered. 



this disease. Rank, succulent fodders, grown on wet 
lands, associated with a damp, sultry atmosphere, is 
conducive to the production of a lymphatic tempera- 
n:ent or constitution — a horse with a coarse open tex- 
ture of bones and muscles, with an excess of connec- 
tive tissue, with thick skin, legs covered with an abun- 
dance of long hair and with labored, sluggish move- 
ments. No doubt, such animals are predisposed to 
moon-blindness. Fodder, hay or grass, from low, 
swampy or wet soils may also contain the germs or 
malarial parasites which are believed by some to 
cause this disease. In some localities of Europe the 
hay and fodders, grown upon certain soils, are said to 
be the cause, or the carriers of the cause from the soil 
to the animal. 

A constant stimulating diet of corn, rye or barley 
grain — especially in summer or when given to the 
•growing colt — contain too much of the fat and heat 
producing food and not sufficient proportion of the 
muscle and bone forming food ; the horse so fed may 
be very fat but less able to resist the germs of dis- 
ease, more liable not only to moon-blindness but also 
to ''big head" and other constitutional diseases. Con- 
stant feeding of corn will certainly make the periodic 
attacks occur more frequently and also augment their 
intensity. This has been proven by a number of trials. 
A, reliable farmer living near Auburn had a fine young 
mare that had been attacked two or three times ; he 
believed the corn was making the disease worse ; 
hence he withheld the corn and thereafter fed her upon 
oats; the eyes were not again attacked, and they re- 
covered So completely that her owner could never ob- 
serve anything wrong with them. Certainly the feed- 
ing of corn alone did not produce the disease, but af- 
ter the real exciting cause had established it, the corn 
either maintained a supply of food for the microbe or 
diminished the general vigor of the animal or the re- 
sisting power of the leucocytes — germ destroying 
cells of the body. High feeding associated with ir- 
regular exercise, feeding irregularly and using un- 
wholesome, decayed or partially rotten hav, fodder 
or grain ; also the surface water of runs, ditches, ponds 
and shallow wells receiving the impurities from barns, 
barn yards or outhouses — all these are contributing 
causes and many times the impure water may convey 
the microbe, the originating cause, into the system. 

Overworking an animal, no doubt, depresses the 
vigor and resisting power of the animal, thus attacks 
are more liable to begin or recur during the severe, 
exhausting spring plowing and summer work. Dur- 



ing the time of breaking the colt and of the eruption 
of permanent teeth the attacks are excited to greater 
severity and are called forth more frequently. The 
eruption of nearly all the permanent teeth occur dur- 
ing the last half of the third, fourth and fifth years of 
age. The small teeth that usually appear just in front 
of the first molar on either side of the upper jaw, very 
rarely in lower jaw, are commonly called wolf teeth 
or "blind teeth." Many people believe that this little 
tooth in some mysterious way affects the eye, causes 
it to go blind "by pressing on the nerve of the eye." 
This is, to say the least, very unreasonable if not non- 
sensical. Those little teeth never affect the eye. No 
doubt they are broken off many times when a horse 
has an attack of periodic opthalmia and the eye "clears 
up" in ten to fifteen days — not because the little tooth 
was pulled or broken off with a punch — but because 
that eye disease appears and disappears periodically. 
Heredity is certainly a strong predisposing cause of 
the disease. (It does not originate the disease, the 
offspring inherits the tendency or weakness of the 
eves, that permits the originating excitant to call forth 
the disease with little resistance. This transmission, 
from sire or dam to the offspring, of defective tenden- 
cies is, no doubt, responsible for the appearance of 
periodic opthalmia in certain families when the orig- 
inal blood was so contaminated. In France the gov- 
ernment discourages, and prohibits when possible, the 
use of blind stallions or mares for breeding purposes. 
The farmers and stockmen of the country have ob- 
served and noted the influence of heredity in the pro- 
duction of moon-blindness. From the replies to a cir- 
cular letter which I sent to farmers and stockmen in 
all the counties of Alabama, twenty-one stated that 
heredity was a primary or secondary factor in the 
cause of periodic opthalmia. 

Poor or badly ventilated and improperly lighted 
stalls or barns are also casual factors. Prof. Williams 
of Edinburgh says: "Fifty years ago thousands of 
horses became annually blind from opthalmia ; nowr 
a-days one seldom sees a case of blindness from this 
cause. This happy result is due to the enlightened 
writings of Coleman on ventilation and the advance 
of veterinary science — facts which the public seem to 
ignore." In improperly lighted stalls or barns the 
lisfht is so weak, or small in quantity, that the eyes '{ 
are continually strained in order to see distinctly; or i 
the light enters from a small window directly in front ' 
of the horse, placing the horse on the shady side of 
the objects in front of him, and this in combination, 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



397 



or contrast^ with the constant glare of the window, is 
certainly as trying on the eyes as insufficient light. 
The light should come from behind or from either 
side of the animal in quantity sufficient to make all 
objects in the stall distinctly visible. It has been sug- 
gested that exposure to cold, or to any of the atnios- 
jjheric influences which ordinarily produce acute ca- 
tarrh or cold in the head, will cause an attack of 
moon-blindness. The records of the disease in the 
Germany army show that more cases occur in winter 
than during any other season. But in this State the 
majority of cases appear in the spring and summer. 

A rheumatic condition of the system is said to play 
an important part among the long list of causes of 
moon-blindness. It, however, like many other de- 
pressing diseases and influences, is only a preparing 
or predisposing cause or condition which can not 
originate the disease but may excite frequent attacks 
and increase its severity. Smoke, pungent vapors, 
hayseeds, dust or any local irritants or injuries may 
awake the latent tendency or augment the intensity 
of an attack. In short, whatever depresses the vigor 
or debilitates the system will aid in originating the 
disease and will also increase the intensity and fre- 
quency of the attacks; anything that strengthens the 
constitution or improves the animal vigor will be a 
protective or assist in preventing periodic opthalmia. 

The essential and originating cause is very proba- 
bly a microbe, » miasmatic germ, an animal, worm- 
like parasite or the poisonous product of a germ. The 
natural habitat or its native place of propagation and 
development seems to be on moist lands that are, dur- 
ing one season, extremely wet and at other times dry 
enough to bring forth crops. The surface water of 
such districts, and the fodders, grasses and hays 
grown on such lands, transmit or carry the germs in- 
to the system of the animal. 

During January, 1893, the veterinary department of 
the Alabama Agricultural College issued about two 
hundred circular letters containing questions relative 
to eye diseases among domestic animals ; these were 
mailed to farmers and stockmen in al! the counties of 
Alabama, and thev were also published in many of 
the daily and weekly papers of the State. The prin- 
cipal question in the circular letter read as follows : 

"Are horses and mules in your beat or county af- 
fected with what is commonly called moon-blindness? 
If you have such an eye disease please state how fre- 
quently it occurs, and what is your view of the cause 
of it." 



I received in all nearly 125 replies. From t'hese re- 
plies I have obtained the following records on pe- 
riodic opthalmia or moon-blindness: 

Eighty (80) cases were reported in such a manner 
as to leave in doubt just when they occurred; 33 cases 
were reported as being in existence at the time (Jan- 
uary and February) of replying; 7 parties report that 
the disease was prevalent in their respective beats ten 
to twenty years ago, but not of late years. During 
the first three months of 1892 and during the same 
time in 1893, 21 cases have come under my observa- 
tion at the free Saturday clinic ; these cases were from 
the country and towns surrounding Auburn, and rep- 
resent fully ten per cent, of all the diseased cases that 
appeared at the free clinic during the same time. The 
above records certainly indicate that- periodic opthal- 
mia is a common disease among horses and mules of 
Alabama ; and according to the reports on other eye 
diseases it is the most prevalent and frequent cause 
of blindness. 

The reports do not give data sufficient for one to 
state in just what beats it occurs, but they do show 
that moon-blindness has been, or is at present, in 
nearly every county in the State ; that annually a 
great many valuable horses go blind as a result of it. 
Generally speaking, the reports seem to indicate that 
the disease is most prevalent in the low lands or ma- 
larial districts of the State ; yet the knowledge given 
of the local geography of the places from which the 
reports come, is not sufficient for one to make an ac- 
curate comparison. 

From the replies I find that a variety of opinions 
were expressed as to the cause, and a great many fail- 
ed to express their views, while others said they did 
not know. Let me now give a concensus of the opin- 
ions expressed. Six parties believed that improper 
and irregular feeding are important factors in the 
cause of moon-blindness ; 3 say "not enough variety 
in diet;" 4 believe "too much fodder and grain and 
not enough hay" is the cause ; i says "feeding corn to 
colts ;" 9 claim "feeding corn as an exclusive grain 
diet" is the direct cause ; 3 give "exposure to cold" 
the credit; i says the "eruption of permanent teeth 
and the shedding of colt teeth;" i says "blind teeth;" 
I makes "high feeding and irregular exercise" respon- 
sible ; 1 1 claim that "overwork" in various ways is a 
potent casual factor; and 21 say heredity, especially 
in blind or "weak-eyed" breeds, is the chief cause; 
six (6) parties traced the history directly to a blind 
sire or dam. Surely the above ideas, relative to the 



398 



If people treated horses as well as they did themselves bcth would be better off. 



cause of periodic opthalmi-a, show that the stock own- 
ers of Alabama have been searching for the cause ; 
and if they have not discovered the actual originat- 
ing cause, they have found factors that intensify or 
conditions that make the disease worse. Some have 
suggested that homebred horses are more disposed to 
this disease than horses or mules brbught here from 
other States; yet others claim that the opposite is true. 
I am of the opinion that the animals freighted here 
from Kentucky, Missouri, Illinois, etc., are far more 
liable to contract periodic opthaimia than home-bred 
horses, because the diet of the Northern horse is very 
greatly changed and he must also become .acclimated 
— his system must be adjusted to new climatic condi- 
tions. 

The susceptibility of an animal is determined to 
some extent by age. From the reports of cases 
where age was mentioned, and also from the records 
of European authorities, the period of greatest fre- 
cpiency is from 3 to 9 years of age. Some have placed 
this danger period from 2 to 7. Yet it should be re- 
mend^ered that periodic opthaimia does occur outside 
of the above age limits, for I have reports of cases 
12, 13 and 15 years old. 

Treatment. — Taking into consideration our indefin- 
ite knowledge of the originating cause and the nu- 
merous attending, exciting and predisposing causes, 
and the fact that the disease generally results in total 
blindness in one or both eyes, it is evident that pre- 
ventative treatment is t'he most profitable and reasona- 
l)le. The drainage, ventilation and light in most barns 
are sadly neglected and generally very defective. The 
barn is usually resting on the ground and the stalls 
are filled with clay which becomes saturated with 
urine. The clay allows very little moisture to pass 
through it : the urine, which falls upon it and with 
which it becomes saturated, passes off mainly by 
evaporation. With little ventilation or drainage be- 
low it, the clay rarely becomes dry and the atmos- 
phere of the stall is constantly saturated with un- 
healthy gases (ammonia, etc) from the fermenting 
urine and decomposing organic matter of the feces. 
Such unhealthy conditions can be greatly improved 
by following the methods usually adopted in building 
houses in this climate. The floor of the barn should 
be two to three feet above the ground; this may be 
accomplished by making the brick or stone pillars for 
underpinning the required height and using strong 
plank two inches thick fpr flooring. 



Lattice work between the outside pillars will per- 
mit free circulation of air under the barn and prevent 
the use of the basement for a dog house, pig pen or 
as a place for fowls. This will give good, cheap 
drainage below with excellent under ventilation. The 
\entilation of the box stall (the best and healthiest 
kind of stall) should be so arranged that the hot and 
light air may escape through an opening or series of 
openings in the upper part of the outer wall, permit- 
ting it to pass directly out of the barn. Similar open- 
ings should be located in the outer wall near the floor 
to allow tlie hea\'y gases (carbonic acid gas e.xhaled 
by the lungs, etc.) to escape. Besides these openings 
lattice box stall doors and lattice outer hall doors 
and windows should always be in use for sumiher 
ventilation. There may be objections (its hardness 
and the drying out of the feet) to standing a horse 
on a plank floor ; but these may be overcome by bed- 
ding or littering the box stall; by occasionally soak- 
ing the feet in water, and, when nearly dry, oiling 
them with an ointment made of one part of pine tar 
to eight or ten parts of lard or cotton-seed oil. The 
light should, as before mentioned, enter from behind 
or from both sides of the animal; in the bo.x stall the 
light should thus enter when the horse is standing at 
the manger. Furthermore, the light should be so ar- 
ranged and of sufficient quantity to enable the horse 
to see distinctly in all parts of the stall. 

The water supply and time of giving water to horses 
should be carefidly considered. .\11 surface Avater, 
from ponds, brooks, rivers and shallow wells should 
be avoided. Spring water, taken directly from the 
spring, filtered rain water or other kinds of filtered 
water, or water from deep wells are best, and less lia- 
ble to contain disease-producing germs. The horse 
and the mule should always be given water before 
feeding grain — ne\-er after, unles it be given two hours 
after feeding. 

A constant corn diet is to be avoided, especially as 
a food for colts. ]t is extremely doubtful if corn for 
colts is ever advisable. Furthermore, it is injudicious . 
to feed horses or mules upon corn as the only grain 
food at any other time except in the cold period of j 
winter. In fact, there is no time in this climate when I 
corn alone is reallv needed or demanded by the sys- ,j 
tern. Far better results will be obtained by using oats ; 
as the staple or chief grain food; and, at times, equal j 
Tround corn, cow peas and oats, or equal parts o' t 
o-round corn and wheat bran, may be substituted for j 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



399 



oats alone. Corn should never be fed to horses with 
weak eyes or with diseased eyes. Corn and fodder 
(leaves) form the staple articles of food, for horses 
and mules, in some part^, of the South with a climate 
that will produce green rye for soiling during the en- 
tire winter and green sorghum and green millet for 
summer. Corn is too stimulating and contains too 
much heat-producing material ; the corn fodder is a 
dry, rough food, which in comfcination with corn is 
liable to lead to attacks of constipation, producing 
passive congestion of the blood vessels of the brain 
and the eyes. To be sure this does not always occur, 
but many times an attack of periodic opthalmia may 
thus be called forth. \"ariety in rations should al- 
wavs be considered, and extended according to local 

1 supply; watch the effects of the quality and the 

quantity of the various foods, and many times you 

Ivill be able to regulate the diet of the animal accord- 

11- to your experience in feeding it. No fixed or ab- 

Milute laws can be made to fit all cases: horses have 

heir individual peculiarities as well as persons. 

High feeding, with irregular exercise; excessive and 
xliausting work; exposure to cold (rheumatic in- 
fluences) are to be avoided as far as possible, espe- 
ially with animals affected with periodic opthalmia 
ir predisposed to it. 

The indiscriminate use of blind animals for breed- 

ng purposes can not be too strongly condemned. He- 

edity is certainly the most potent predisposing cause 

f periodic opthalmia. Mares with weak eyes and 

■ 'nh a lymp'hatic temperament and structure should 

ot be bred to stallions of similar temperament and 

"inn. 

I'roper curative treatment will sometimes check 

le progress of the disease, and may, in rare instances, 

■isult in permanent relief. During the active inflam- 

latory stage bathe the eye in cold or hot water for 

to 2 hours morning and evening; after each bathing 

ut into the eye a iew drops of the following solu- 

on: Potassium Iodide, lo grains; Atropia Sulphate, 

3 grains; Boracic Acid, lo grains; Pure Water, 2 

mces. This medicine may be used for 6 to 15 days 

itil the eye begins to clear up : then use the same 

escription, omitting the Atropia Sulphate. When 

^ssible adjust over the eye a cotton cloth or small 

ig of cotton, kept constantly wet with cold or hot 

ater. It is well to keep the horse, during the in- 

inimatory stage, in a dark box stall if the ventila- 

5n, cleanliness and drainage of the stall is healthful 

id good. If the horse is constipated a mild purga- 



tive (one-half pound of Glauber's salts or one-half 
pint of raw linseed oil) may be given. Constipation 
may be thereafter avoided by giving a bran mash once 
or twice per week. Moderate and regular exercise or 
easy work is beneficial, but keeping the affected horse 
or mule at hard work is decidedly injurious. In every 
instance it is wise to remove, when possible, all pre- 
disposing or attending causes. 

Recently a new treatment has been used in treat- 
ing periodic opthalmia. Harrison originated the plan 
of opening the anterior chamber of the eye (the cav- 
ity containing the aqueous humor) and allowing the 
aqueous humor and the pus-like material with its 
germs or parasites to escape. This should be done 
with great care and the eye washed or bathed, regu- 
larly every day with water that has been boiled and 
cooled. It is well to add a little soda, carbolic acid 
or creolin to the water. The puncture is made in the 
cornea near its lower border and from below upward. 
Unless the operator has had experience it is best to 
employ some veterinarian who is an experienced op- 
erator. 

As indicated in several reports from different parts 
of the State, periodic opthalmia seems to be disappear- 
ing in certain localities. It will certainly decrease in 
frequency, or entirely disappear, when the stock 
raisers comply with the hygienic laws governing the 
health of horses and mules. The principles of feed- 
ing, ventilation, drainage, breeding and sanitation in 
general must be studied and practiced, from a scien- 
tific stand-point. Besides, the South can and should 
raise her own mules a'nd horses. Healthier, better and 
cheaper animals can be bred and raised in the South 
than the majority of those that are annually shipped 
here from the North. 

METHODS OF EXAMINING THE EYES. 

Remove the blind bridle or any harness obstructions 
to free vision. Tie a cloth over one eye and then lead 
the animal over obstructions that will cause stumbling 
or high stepping. Repeat this test with the other eye 
blindfolded. If the animal with one eye blindfolded 
stumbles over low objects the vision of the other eye 
is defective. Note the attentive and erect position of 
the ears indicating that they are attempting to com- 
pensate for the defective sight. Carefully compare 
the fullness or prominence of one orbital region with 
the other ; note that in fat or young animals the orbital 
cavity is full and that in poor or old animals the eye 



400 



A horse that plows si.r days has no business on the road on the seventh. 



socket is not completely filled and the orbital rim 
or bony border is promine-it. Excessive fullness of 
one orbital region would indicate that the eye-lids or 
the tissues, surrounding the eye-ball, are swollen, or it 
would indicate the presence of a tumor in the orbital 
cavity. Closely observe the form, position and condi- 
tion of the eye-lids: the presence and position of the 
eye-lashes ; also, compare the curve of the free border 
of one upper lid with the same lid of the other eye. 
Examine carefully the secretion at the miner angle 
of the eye. The tears are like water; mucus appears 
gray and flocculent ; pus mixes with the tears and ap- 
pears yellow and cloudy; in the dog pus sometimes is 
colored green. If the mucus and pus are mixed, the 
mucus flakes are colored yellow. An excessive quanti- 
ty of tears, mucus or pus is manifest by the flowing 
of the secretions down over the cheek. The presence 
of the mucus, pus or an extra quantity of tears flow- 
ing over the cheek should induce the observer to look 
closely for foreign particles in the eye, inflammation 
of the conjunctiva, abscess or ulceration of the cornea 
and closure of the lachrymal ducts. For further ex- 
amination the animal should be taken to a barn or 
stall. It is best to use a stall with one window or one 
door ; the animal's head should be turned to the open 
door or to the window, allowing the light to fall on the 
eye from directly in front or from an angle to the 
right on left of the front. The eye may be opened by 
gently and firmly pressing the lids apart with the 
thumb and index finger, using the right hand with 
the left eye, and the left hand with the right eye. To 
see the Conjunctiva of the upper lid, it may be everted 
by grasping the eye-lashes with one hand and evert- 
ing the lid over the forefinger of the other hand. Ex- 
amine closely the haw or "eyewasher" and all parts 
of the conjunctiva for signs of injury, inflammation 
and irritating particles. Examine also the opening of 
the tear ducts. 

The observer's attention is next directed to the 
size, form and position of the eye-ball. It is al- 
ways advisable to compare one eye with the other that 
the abnormal may be judged by its deviation from the 
normal. If the eye-ball projects outward and forward 
excessively, dislocation of the eye-ball, hydropthalmus 
(excess of water in the aqueous humor) or a tumor 
in or behind the eye may be suspected. If the eye-ball 
is drawn backward into the eye socket, severe inflam- 
mation is present, attended by extreme sensitiveness 
to light, as in the beginning of an attack of moon-blind- 
ness. A decrease in volume or size of the eye-ball. 



(after repeated attacks of periodic opthalmia and ir 
tuberculosis of the eye-ball) is manifest by apparent 
drawing of the eye into the socket and the more or less' 
infolding of tlie upper lid near the inner angle of tin 
eye. The tension and hardness of the eye-ball nia'ii 
be tested by palpation upon the upper eye lid, witl 
the inde.x finger; both eyes should be tested at thJ 
same time that one may be compared with the othei 
Note the presence or absence of the congestion of th 
pericorneal blood vessels ; its presence indicates inflam 
mation of the ciliary bodies, the iris and sometime 
the choroid coat. 

The cornea may be next viewed from various pos 
tions, noting carefully its curvature, its opacities, th 
presence or absence of ulcers, vascularization, swe ; 
lings or new growths. The location, color and limit;! 
tions of the opacities should first he determined. Tlj 
weaker the opacity or cloudiness the more blue tl 
color; intense opacities are white. Black opacities ( 
the cornea signify pigmentation from iris adhesioi 
or from blood stains. Striped and pearl like opacitie 
with sharp limitations, point to scars or chron 
chances in the cornea; chalk spots result from the er 
ployment of silver and lead salts in wounds and ulce 
of the cornea. Viewing the cornea in profile, or fro 
one side, will enable one to locate the opacity, revet 
ing in a degree what layers of the cornea are involve' 
and to a certain extent enables one to determine t' 
curvature of the cornea, especially in partial or tot 
staphyloma and extremely flat or very conical forrj 
of the cornea. If the transparency of the cornea w| 
permit, nivestigate the aqueous humor, searching f| 
the gray, flocident exudate or the yellow, sedimenta 
pus exudate in blood effusions; these may be prese 
in penetrating wounds of the cornea, iritis and moc! 
blindness. 

The color, condition of the outer surface, mo\ 
ments and attachments of the iris should next be ( 
amined. The iris may become grayish brown by t 
deposition of inflammatory products in its substan 
or become .gray from the deposit of an exudate on 
surface. The bluish-green color of the iris, manif'jt 
after one or two attacks of periodic opthalmia, is cla 
to an atrophied (shrinking) condition of the iris, (r 
casionally in cattle a tubercular growth develops fr-i 
the iris and completely fills the aqueous chamber jf 
the eye. The iris may be attached by inflammatc/ 
adhesions to the caps-ile of the lens (as in iritis r 
moon-blindness) ; or it may thus adhere to the po^- 
rior surTice of the cornea (a result of penetrat |g 



t 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



401 



ivounds and ulcers.) By the use of atropine, if the 
.pupil is small or contracted, or eserine if the pupil is 
large or expanded, these adhesions may be destroyed 
pr their permanent presence made known by the im- 
novable iris and unchangeable form of the pupil. The 
iris when attached to the capsule of the lens or to 
the cornea, may appear rough on its outer surface and 
its pupillary border is more or less irregular. The 
■agged, irregular border of the pupil should not be 
mistaken for the large brown "soot balls" that appear 
30 frequently along the upper and lower parts of the 
pupillary border of the iris. The movements of th.e 
iris should also be watched when the animal is taken 
:rom the sunlight into the barn, or from the dark stall 
into the sunshine. If the pupil contracts regularly in 
Dright light and expands regularly in partial dark- 
iiiess, the action of the iris is normal. But should the 
'pupil remain greatly expanded under all conditions of 
j ight and darkness, one would suspect partial or total 
'imaurosis. If the pupil remains partially or greatly 
lontracted under all conditions of light and darkness, 
Dne should suspect adhesion of the iris to the capsule 
:pf the lens. 

i The pupillary reflex or color of the pupil is the re- 
|lection of light from the retina and the choroid. The 
Sormal color of the pupil varies with the variations 

n its size or in its degrees of expansion or contrac- 
tion; its color also changes with the variations in the 

iglit. By great expansion of the pupil it appears 
olue-green; by medium expansion it appears blue- 

)lack ; by great contraction it appears black. The 
,:olor of the pupil in amaurosis is generally lighter, 
more clear and glassy than in the normal eye. When 
the pupil is small atropine should be used to produce 
Imaximum expansion. Or, the animal may be taken 
jinto a moderately dark stall where the color of the 
flight reflected from the upper part of the retina and 
rhoroid will be green, and that reflected from the op- 
ac papilla (spot where the optic nerve enters the eye 
oall) will appear light red. This light red color is very 
distinct in carnivorous animals. 

Cloudiness of the lens or the vitreous humor chang- 
es the color of the pupil according to the intensity 
;3f the cloudiness. Total cataract gives the pupil a 
[gray, a white or whitish yellow color: while by a par- 
tial cataract the normal color of the pupil is cut off 
at the points or places of local opacities of the lens 
or its capsule. In cloudiness of the vitreous humor 
the pupil becomes more or less distinctly green. A 
liquid condition of the vitreous humor combined with 

;7 . 



cloudiness of tl:e same also produces a distinct green 
pupil. Sudden or great movement of the cloudy vit- 
reous humor, is a certain proof of its fluidity. The 
observer should view the pupil from various posi- 
tions ; by the use of the hand or a black hat the su- 
perfluous rays of light, or those comin'g from certain 
directions, may be cut off. The observer should not 
mistake the images of white objects (white shirt 
fronts, windows, holes in the building), for white or 
gray opacities in the lens or other parts of the eye. 

Dislocation of the lens, falling of the opaque lens 
into the anterior or acjueous chamber of the eye has 
its appearance suggested by figure 79. But if t'he 
opaque lens should fall into the vitreous humor, the 
upper part of the pupil may remain transparent, and 
the small appearing optic papilla might be visible ; yet 
a portion of the white or gray opaque lens could be 
seen through the lower part of the pupil; as a rule, 
the iris remains passively inactive and its pupillary 
border floats in the aqueous humor. Sometimes the 
lens may be partially dislocated or may have some 
shred-like, or hanging thread-like, attachments to its 
old location; these conditions would present different 
views in the pupil. 

In order to be more accurate in locating and discov 
ering opacities, the animal should be placed in a dark 
room where the eye may be illuminated by the use of 
a lamp or candle. The lamp may be placed in differ- 
ent locations, in front of, and outward from, the eye 
to be inspected ; opacities will then be made more dis- 
tinct. Three images of the flame may be seen as il- 
lustrated in figure 84. In the normal eye the first 
image is the largest, upright, the most distinct and 
reflected from the front surface of the cornfea ; the sec- 
ond image is smaller, upright and reflected from the 




Fig. 84. — This cut (after Schlampp) shows the images of 
the 'candle's flame. The animal should be placed in a dark 
room or stall, or the test may be made at night la an ordinary- 
stall; the candle is held a short distance in front of th-e eye 
to be examined and the following images, as above illustrat- 
ed, will be seen. Tire first upright image is reflected from 
the cornea; the second upright image of the flame is reflected 
from the capsul-e on the anterior surface of the lens: the 
third or inverted and small image of the flame is reflected 
from the capsule on the posterior surface of th-e lens. The 
dark back-ground of the cut represents the pupil. 



402 



A farm horse cannot be driven like a livery horse. 



anterior surface of the lens; the third one is the small 
■est, inverted and reflected from the posterior surface 
of the lens. In the normal eye it will be noticed that 
these images are more or less distinct and that, as the 
lamp or candle is moved, the first two images of the 
Manie will move in the same direction that the candle 
moves, but the third or inverted image moves in an 
opposite direction to that of the candle. As the can- 
dle is moved about in front of the eye, it may reach a 
place where the first two upright images remain 
clear and distinct, but the smallest and inverted image 
becomes cloudy and indistinct; this would indicate 
that the substance of the lens or the posterior part of 
the capsule is opaque at the point or spot where the 
candle's rays attempt to pass through. If the second 
image becomes indistinct the opacity lies in the ante- 
rior part of the capsule; if the first image becomes 
hazy and diffuse the cloudiness is in the cornea. To- 
tal cloudiness of the cornea would obliterate all three 
images, and the diffuse cloudiness of the aqueous hu- 
mor obliterates the second and the third image. 

A small double convex lens may be used, as illus- 
trated in figure 85, to focus or collect the rays from 
a candle or lamp in a dark room or stall. Or. a con- 



- cave mirror (with a small, round opening in its cen-1 
ter for the observer to look through) can be used to, 
collect and reflect the rays from a candle or from an, 
open door or window; in using the mirror the candle 
or window should be backward from the head and! 
outward from the shoulder or body. By employing 
the double convex lens or concave mirror, the trans- 
parent or opaque condition of the cornea and the 
aqueous humor may be distinctly observed and manv 
opacities can thus be seen that are mvisible in ordi 
nary daylight. By employing atropine to e.xpand the 
pupil, slight opacities of the lens may be made dis- 
tinct and cloudiness of the vitreous humor may be 
observed. These methods of illuminating the eye a!-| 
so enables one to carefully examine tlie condition of 
the iris. 

The opthalmoscope is an mstrument that is used by 
oculists to look at the retina, its blood vessels, fhe 
papilla optica, and to determine the degree of far- 
sightedness, shortsightedness, astigmatism, etc. It^: 
use, however, requires great skill and much practice:! 
hence, direction for using it will be omitted, since they 
would be of little value to the average man. ] 





Fig. 85. — This cut (after Sclitampp) illustrates the double convex lens is employed in illuminating the eye or parts 
of the eye for the purpose ot examinatiun. The examination is made in a dark room or at night; the gass lens is 
moved forward and backward until the candle's rays are focussed upon the di-sired part or various parts, as it is up- 
on the cornea and lens in the above cut. 



Controlling the Horse. 



EDITED BY DR. J C. CURRYER. ASST. SUPT., MANKATO. MINN. 



DEVICES FOR CONTROLLING SOME OF THE It has been our purpose all through life to careful I 

BAD HABITS OF OUR HORSES, ETC. ly study horses' habits and the laws of their controi' 

For the want of a proper education when young, ^ith the least possible inconvenience and punishmeni! 

together with the careless handling and abuse of our and we are thoroughly convinced that the simples j 

horses, they contract habits that are both dangerous and most effective means of control is through dc, 

to themselves, their companions and those who han- vices that harmonize with the laws of his organize 

die them. tion. 



TILLINu THE SDIi- FOR PROFiT AND PLEASURE. 



403 



His strength bclnj, sup:uoi to that of man, pre- 
ludes, at once, the idea that we should ever go to 
lialtle with hmi on anything Hke equal grounds; in 
\ict, we would discourage the idea of ever getting 
;,ito a fight with our horses, for this reason, since 
ihey are endowed with the same passions as our- 
selves, such as, resentment, courage, revenge, etc., 
etc. We must banish the idea that our horses are 
"mere brutes" to be yanked, kicked and pounded at 
will, without the remembrance of the event being 
stored up by them, for some opportunity when they 
will have the best of us. They are not only endowed 
with passions, but intellect as well, and just in pro- 
portion to this latter endowment, and their education- 
al advantages, is the true value of the horse. We es- 
timate men by their natural ability and education, 
then why not apply the same rule to our horses? We 
have good and bad citizens, and for the bad we have 
made laws and prisons for their control, and if we 
would correct the bad habits of our horses we must 
use the means with which to overcome their muscu- 
lar power without injury, or arousing their passion 
toward us, as is naturally engendered by whipping, 
"yanking" and kicking. Let us so confine them that 
they have to operate against themselves rather than 
lis, and, our word for it, the results will be much more 
satisfactory than the usual methods of either indul- 
gence or punishment. 

The usefulness of our horses is. to a marked de- 
gree, just what we make it. We do not advise let- 
ting our horses control us by their superior strength, 
neither do we encourage the idea of conquering our 
horses by punishment and abuse. The true principle 
of control of horses for the best results, is by such 
means as would deprive them of their power to op- 
pose us, and our kind and humane treatment of them 
whenever we are in close contact with them. When- 
ever we get our horses into trouble, confinement or 
entangle, it is far better to be away from them dur- 
ing their efforts to liberate themselves, and. when 
they find all efforts fruitless, then is the proper time 
to go to their assistance and relieve them of any en- 
tanglement or uncomfortable position they may have 
i;ot into in the struggle, bearing this one principle in 
mind strictly, we become masters of the situation, if 
our means and methods are practically applied. 

One point of great importance in the management 
of horses is to be sure we have the absolute means of 
control, without failure either of principle or appli- 



ance and when these are properly applied, any except 
insane horses will readily he made subservient to the 
reasonable requests of man. 

EDUCATION OF THE HORSE IN THE STALL- 

It is a great satisfaction to any owner of a good 
horse to have him understand and promptly comply 
with all requests while in the stall, without excite- 
ment, irritation or annoyance. One of our first du- 
ties is to show the horse what we want of him in the* 
stall and how he should comply. After tying him to 
the manger and getting out of the stall, the next 
thing is to get back into the stall on either side with- 
out his resenting or crowding us in the stall — with 
perfect indifference to being pushed about from side 
to side. 




(No. 1.) 

Many a colt has been forever spoiled the first day 
he was in the stable, by the treatment he has receiv- 
ed in trying to get him to stand over in the stall. It 
is usually commenced by trying to push him over 
from side to side ; if we have not strength enough to 
overcome his, then we are too apt to resort to the 
whip, fork-handle or club to accomplish the desired 
result, and by this last means frequently make a bad 
actor in the stall forever. 

Our first illustration (Fig. i) is designed to show 
not onl}^ the position frequently taken by the horse 
in the stall, but the expression and dangerous action 
towards any one who may desire to enter. He not 
only refuses to stand over, but indicates that he will 
kick if he is interferred with. 

What is to be done? Shall we go at him with a 



404 



Buggies have ruined many horses and mules. 



club, so show him what we want him to do? Or shall 
we anticipate the difficulty, and before placing him in 
the stall provide the means of easy control, as shown 
in our illustration (Fig. 2). This consists of a staple 
and ring just over the manger (to which his halter 
should be tied) about as high up on the side of the 
stall as his back. Another ring and staple at the rear 
of the stall partition (see letters A and B), then tie a 




(No. 2.) 

rope or strap into the ring of the nose band of the 
halter, pass it through the ring A and back to the ring 
B, to which tie sufficiently long to enable the horse to 
eat the entire length of the manger. When we go to 
enter the stall, we place our hand on him, as repre- 
sented in Fig. I, and if he refuses to stand over, we 
reach forward as far as possible in the stall and 
grasp this side-rope or strap and at the very instant 
we say "stand over" we pull on the rope, which brings 



stands over in the stall to the right whenever request- 
ed, without fear, excitement or resentment. When he 
has fully learned what we want from that side of the 
stall, then we change the rope to the other side of the 
stall and proceed as before, and we are soon well paid 
for our trouble, in having a horse that promptly re- 
sponds to our every wish in standing over in the stall. 

This remedy for crowding in the stall is so simple 
and practical that we are surprised that any horse is 
permitted to continue the habit. The principle is that 
when we pull the head to one side of the stall it is 
perfectly natural that the rear end must go to the op- 
posite side which gives room and safety to enter. Do 
not try to whip to submission, but use the means that 
control the actions, treat kindly, and success will 
crown our efforts, in the management of our horses 
in the stable. 

THE HALTER-PULLER. 

This habit when once confirmed is quite difficult to 
entirely eradicate. The first way to avoid this bad 
habit is proper education to the halter when young. 

When we have a confirmed halter-puller, in the 
stable or out of doors, the best method we have tried 
is to take a rope ten or twelve feet long and say 3-8 
to 1-2 inch in diameter, tie a knot in one end, then a 
loop that will not slip, or a ring tied in the end will 
do as well. Place this rope around the body of the 
horse just in front of the hips, with the slip imme- 
diately under the body at the fiank ; then pass the rope 
along under the body, between the fore legs, under 
the noseband of the halter, then through the ring or 




(No. 3.) 

his nose to the side of the stall to which the rope is hole of the manger or post to which we want to hitch 
attached, and, by a slight push at the hind quarter he him and back to the ring of the head-stall, and tie so 
is forced in the opposite position in the stall, and we as to give him about three feet between his head and 
step in by his side with perfect safety from kicking, the place to where he is hitched — all as shown in fig- 
fighting or crowding (see Fig. 2), and this followed ures 3 and 4. Whatever he is afraid of may now be 
up for a few days (often repeated) the horse readily brought in front of him. and instead of waiting to see 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



405 



whether he will pull, we start for him and don't stop 
until we reach the point to where he is hitched, at 
which time, nine times in ten he will be there to meet 
us; as he will only pull while one breath lasts him, 
when he must come forward for relief. Illustration 
Fig. 3 shows him doing his utmost to break loose, but 
being hitched at both ends of his body and the pull 
equal at front and rear, he suddenly leaps forward to 
relieve the pressure at the rear end and appears as 
sliown in Fig 4, with an entire change of expression 
and demeanor. He may try it two or three times al- 
ways with the same results. We should not hurt him, 




'if^jiiit 



(No. 4.) 



;nor should we give way for him when he pulls: but 
irather follow him up to show him that he cannot get 
away from his object of fright, which soon convinces 
him that his efforts are fruitless. He may now be 
tied with a halter-strap that will break at only a mod- 
erate pull, with the rope from his 1jody secured to the 
hitching post or manger so that the pull on his head 
comes first, and when it breaks he comes suddenly 
into the hitch around his body which so surprises him 
that, in a few days, by 'hitching with a still weaker and 
weaker tie-strap, he cannot be induced to pull enough 
to break a mere string. The hitch around his body 
should not be neglected for quite a time, so that 
ishould he pull back and break loose, and get away, he 
jhas intelligence enough to" know when the rope is 
around his body and when it is not. 

Ill 
I Right here we want to say to our readers that there 
jis a principle with horses, that whatever happens at 
the front part of their bodies impels them backward, 
and at the rear part induces them to move forward, 
and with this ever in mind it will greatly aid us in all 
dealings with our horses. 



KICKING AND PAWING IN THE STALL. 

This is a very disagreeable habit, and unless the 
proper means are used at the outset it is also quite 
difficult to break up with a hope of permanent cure. 




Fig. 5- 

It can be prevented at any time; and as soon as the 
horse commences kicking the side of the stall or his 
stall companion, he should be shackled at the hind 
legs as shown in Fig. 5. A good, strong strap buckled 
around each hind leg above the ankle joints, with a 
coupling strap between, as shown, will effectually 
prevent it, and if persevered in its use will usually 
cure the habit. 

Pawing is prevened by shackling the front legs in 
the same manner as shown also in Fig. 5. 

How frequently we see a pair of sharp shod horses 
put into a stall together and very soon find one, or 
both. So badly cut from kicking as to render them 
unserviceable. Now this_ could be prevented by 
shackles on the hind legs of both, and still giving 
them sufficient liberty to step about the stall or lie 
down and get up. It is best, however, to first put the 
shackles oil for once or twice before getting sharp 
shod to get them used to them and to prevent calk- 
ing themselves. Many a valuable young horse has 
been ruined in the hind legs from kicking- the stall, 
generally acquiring the habit for the want of exercise. 
He has no chance to exercise, consequently he goes 
to kicking the stall until it becomes a confirmed 
habit. Pawing in the stall generally results from the 
same cause. The shackles are very effectual with no 



4o6 



danger after the first few minutes, and then only from 
self-calking. A trial will convince the most skeptical. 

EDUCATING THE HORSE TO BACK. 

Almost everybody endeavors to educate their horses 
to back by pulling on the reins, and in the majority 
of cases they are successfulj but there are many 
horses that do not understand what is wanted of 
them, and become sullen, and then it is almost an im- 
possibility to force them backwards by the bits. 

A very simple and effectual method is to stand in 
front of the horse and, by only a gentle pressure on 
the bit with one hand, and a push with the extended 
fingers of the other hand between the point of the 
shoulder and breast-bone, he will readily go back- 



Change feed occasionally. 

CONTROLLING THE ACTIONS OF THE 




Fig. 6. 

ward as shown in Fig. 6. In doing this we should al- 
ways associate the pressure of the lingers with the 
word "back,"' and in a very few minutes the horse 
realizes our v^'ants and moves backward at the word 
alone. If we have a sluggish or sullen horse a piece 
of wood (not sharp) may be used to advantage in- 
stead of the fingers, but usually the fingers alone are 
sufficient. Don't make the lesson very long, at first, 
and by the third or fourth trial the horse will respond 
to the word, together with gentle pressure on the bit. 
It is altogether wrong to "jerk" or "see-saw'' the 
bit through the mouth to get the horse to back, when 
one, two or three lessons, as indicated, will make a 
willing servant in backing the horse without punish- 
ment or excitement. With the horse, backing is an 
art, and must be cultivated with great patience to 
make a complete success. 



HORSE BY HIS TAIL. 

There are other uses for a horse's tail than to brush 
off the flies. In our hands it becomes a great medium I 
for controlling the actions of the horse. Our ex- 
perience with plains' horses is, that there is no other 
means by which we can accomplish so much in so 
short a time, as by hitching the subject's head to his 
own tail so close that he is obliged to gyrate or whirl 
around in a very small compass. Yes, but the natu- 
ral query comes to almost everybody, how we are to 
accomplish this connection of head and tail without 
danger of getting hurt. Our answer is, that it is best 
done the very first time he is ever caught with the 
lasso, and then he should never again have his liber- 
ty until he is thoroughly acquainted with his controll- 
er man. This thing of catching the wild horse and 
then letting him go again and again, soon educates 
him to have a dread fear of man; besides, he is very 
apt to learn how to evade the fatal noose, which only 
serves to make him the more dangerous whenever 
anything out of the ordinary routine of his experience 
transpires. 

When he is lassoed and thrown is just the time to 
put the halter on his head and secure it to his tail be- 
fore letting him up. Then, with a long, limber pole, 
something like a fishing-rod, we begin his education. 
Fle has the use of his legs — his means of escape and 
defense — and at our approach and the touch of the 
pole he attempts to get away by flight ; but his run 
away is only in a small circle, and, notwithstanding 
he exerts himself to the utmost of his ability, he does 
not succeed in getting away from the touch of the 
pole. If he attempts to kick or strike at the pole he 
is almost certain to fall, which, of itself, is an admo- 
nition that he had better not repeat that action. 

This whirling motion requires but a very few min- 
utes to render him so dizzy he must either stop or 
fall, and he generally prefers the former; but in either 
case, it is the time we should get in our work with 
the pole without hurting him. We should bring it in 
contact with every part of his body — as we advised 
with the young colt and the use of the hand 
in our first visit to him when he is but one 
hour or one day old — and as soon as tTie wild hor.se 
finds that the pole does not hurt him, and he has done 
his very best to get away from it and failed, he be- 
comes more docile, and we may now be able to ge:t 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



407 



lear enough to him to touch him with the hand. But 
1 1 is far better to use articles of clothing, such- as an 
jld vest, a pair of pants, a coat or a hat securely fas- 
Mied to shorter poles, and show him that he cannot 
ct away from any of these. We very soon find that 
c makes less and less exertion at each attempt with 
jew objects until finally we get our hands on him. 
If we make no mistakes, in half an hour we have ac- 
uiiplished more in satisfying the wild horse that his 
[tempts to get away from man are fruitless, than 
, ould be accomplished in three months by the ordinary 
recess of "breaking," and no danger to horse or man 
f a serious character. 

The successful manner of tying the halter-strap or 

i|ie to the tail, is so important that we have made il- 

istrations to show to a certainty just how it should 

c (lone for convenience and security. We puzzled 

(Ur brain more than thirty-five years ago to evolve 

his knot, or manner of tying, for this purpose. 

jtANNER OF TYING THE HALTER STRAP TO 
r THE TAIL. 

j; Of course there are a number of methods, but to 

iur mind the best, easiest, surest and safest is the one 

c have used for many, many years. 

A strap with a snap attachment to the head-stall of 

le halter is preferable. Detach from the head-stall, 




Fig- 7- 

len grasp all the hair of the tail just below the ter- 
iination of the tail-bone, pull the tail around to the 
de, lay the strap across the tail with the snap-end 
ist about where the girth or surcingle should encir- 
le the body as shown in Fig! 7. Mark the strap as 



shown by the arrow, so as to preserve this proper 
length ; then turn all the hair of the tail back towards 
the body and hold with the left hand, while we reach 
under and bring the other or tapering end of the strap 
around the tail, and tuck under as shown in Fig. 8. 
This is a knot that is very easily tied, perfectly se- 
cure, and instantly untied by pulling on the pendant 
end of the strap, and we also have hold of the horse 
by the head at the same time when thus untied. When 
we have the knot tied and the strap of the proper 
length to atttach to the halter, we are ready for ac- 
tive operations. 




F 



It is always best to select some place free from 
stones, posts or other objects of injury, and then sud- 
denly bring the horse's head far enough around to his 
side to attach the snap to the ring of the halter and 
let him go. Then, with a long, slender pole, we ap- 
proach him near enough so that the legs of the horse 
come in contact with the pole at every turn, as shown 
in Fig. 9. If he is a sensitive, touchy, wild fellow, he 
will make desperate e.xertions to get away from the 
pole, but if we attend to business and follow him up, 
he does all the work and we look calmly on until he 
stops or falls, when we try to touch all parts of his 
body without hurting him with the pole. 

After he becomes familiar with the pole, then we 
bring other objects of all kinds to him until he no 
longer exerts himself to get away, and then we be- 
gin handling his legs on the side to which his head 
is inclined ; first, by the use of a soft strap, he allows 
us to lift his fore and hind leg, then with the hand. 
Now unsnap from that side securing his head and tail 
on the opposite side and see if he will try to run the 



4o8 



Have good pastures tor your stock. 



other way, (which he may a little) then handle the 
legs of that side to which the head is inclined. If he 
is a western or wild horse that we have difficulty in 
catching, we now put on the shackles on all the legs 
as shown in Figs. 5 and 10, and instead of giving him 
his entire liberty of head, we have a ring or loop tied 




Fig. 9. 

in his tail through which we run the strap of the halt- 
er and attach a long rope, (as seen in Fig. 10) so that 
at any time when we wish to approach him if he tries 
to get away, we have only to pick up the rope, and 
by pulling on it we are able instantly to bring his 
head and tail together as shown in Fig. 11. and if he 
persists in turning around he only winds himself up 
and becomes perfectly helpless, so we can go to him 
without danger of being hurt. We continue going to 




Fig. 10. 

him and handling him, watering and feeding from 
the hand, caressing him, showing him new objects, 
etc., etc., until he seems pleased at our coming. Then 
we unshackle him, or at least lengthen the shackles 
out until he has more or less use of his legs, and then 



begin his education of following us, backing, the word 
"whoa," harnessing him, etc., when he soon becomes 
a valuable horse, if he is endowed v/ith a fair share 
of intelligence. 

It must not be forgotten that the shackle-straps 
must have the edges nicely rounded or lined with 
lamb's wool to prevent chafing. The coupling straps 
for the front and hind legs of shackles should be kept 
about the same length. 

If the reader has followed us closely, with frequent 
reference to the cuts, he can at once see that these 
appliances are founded on right principles and lead to 
the ends to be attained in the control of the wild horse 
withouf injury to horse or man. We should never 
let the wild horse get away from us or take the ad- 
vantage of us in any particular from the first time we 
come in contact with him until he has full confidence 



fc 




Fi.E 



II. 



in us ; neither should we ever hurt him 
mediate contact with him, if we expect 
confidence in us. 



when in im- 
him to have 



NOVEL, BUT PRACTICAL METHOD OF 
HITCHING HORSES. 

On our large prairies it is not always that we can 1 
readily find a post or object to which we can tie or i 
hitch our horses. We have tried various methods, , 
but the one shown in our illustration. Fig. 12, is as 
convenient and practical as any we have used where ; 
we have two horses. The illustration speaks for itself ; 
and consists ouly in tying each horse to the other's ; 
tail, just sufficiently long to enable them to get their 
heads to the ground when we want them to graze, I 
and when we want them they can be found not far 
from the spot where we left them, as each one must ! 
follow the other in a circle. This is a safer manner , 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



409 



of picketing horses than a stake and rope. This is an 
excellent method to educate little colts to the halter 
if they are tied short. They soon learn to follow the 
halter. 




double end of the tail tie, and an assistant can hold 
the hind foot up with ease in spite of the horse's ef- 
forts. 

POSITION OF THE HORSE IN SHOEING 
IMPORTANT. 

The position in which the horse is made to stand 
while being shod or having his feet cared for, is of 
more importance than the majority of people or 
smiths even think. 

Usually when horses' feet are being handled, and 
especially while young, they should always be con- 
trolled by an attendant holding the horse's head. 
Now, the attendant's position in relation to that of 
the horse, is of the utmost importance. Almost in- 
variably we see the attendant standing on the oppo- 



CONTROLLING THE HIND FEET IN 
SHOEING. 

So many people have trouble in handling the hind 
legs of horses, in caring for the feet, shoeing, etc., 
that we think best to give an illustration and a little 
advice in the manner and method of doing it easily. 




Fig. 13. 

We first take a strap or rope two or three feet long 
and double it. Then lay it across the tail double as 
seen in Fig. 7, tying a similar knot with the double 
end of the rope or strap as near the tail as possible, 
as represented in Fig. 13. Into this double end buckle 
a strap or tie a rope, let it drop to the ground ; then 
buckle a short strap around the pastern and over the 
strap or rope ; pass the strap or rope up throug'h the 




Fig. 14. 

site side of the horse from the operator, and general- 
ly with the horse's head inclined towards him as seen 
in Fig. 14, and the result is the weight of the horse 
(to a degree at least) is thrown on the man hold of 
the foot as also seen in Fig. 14, and, as a natural re- 
sult, any struggles of the horse will be towards the 
operator, rendering his position necessarily more or 
less dangerous ; but if the attendant will always stand 
on the same side as the operator and incline the 
horse's head a little to the same side, the operator is 
relieved of the bearing down of the horse, as that in- 
clines the weight on the opposite legs as seen in Fig. 
15. Besides the easy position thus obtained, there is 
little or no danger in the horse's struggles, as they 
will all be away from the operator instead of towards 
him. The reader may, at first sight, think this friv- 
olous, but if it is once tested with care, it will, ever 
after, be practiced, as the results show for themselves. 



4IO 



You haven't much business farming if you don't love stock. 

BEECHER ON THE HORSE. 



The details of any department of animal husbandry 
go to make up the sum total of success, and while 
we have in this article only dealt with a few ol the 
many, a careful study and practice of these will be 
preparatory for the many more to come, the sole ob- 
ject of which is to render, our horses of more service 
to us by showing our fellow men some of tlie little 
details of the methods, as we. fully believe, of true 
horse education, resulting from our long experience. 




Fig- 15- 



We must ever take matters as we find them, and 
conduct ourselves according to circumstances and 
conditions. If we will commence the proper educa- 
tion of our horses when they are very young, we will 
find the same results as with our children who have 
the proper training in their youth — no trouble in af- 
ter life, if naturall}' well disposed ; but if we let our 
horses run wild until they have attained their mature 
growth, we must certainly use such means and meth- 
ods (without violence) as will positively demonstrate 
to them that we are masters of the situation, yet mer- 
ciful to the end. 

We do not obtain our education in a day, v/eek, 
month or year ; then why expect the horse to under- 
stand all that is needed of him in the unreasonably 
sJiorl period that is ordinarily required? Because we 
ha^'e herein indicated, as well as shown, the means 
of control, we sincerely hope none of our readers will 
look upon it as a means of revenge for some of the ac- 
tions of horses and severely punish them simply be- 
cause advantages can be so readily taken of them. 
The whole principle is to avoid danger and trouble 
with our horses, rather than the correction of acquir- 
ed bad habits. Let us commence right, ever keep 
right, and we will always be right. 



The following article from the pen of the late Rev. 
Henry Ward lieecher was published in the New 
York Ledger, April 5, 1862. The title of the article 
as it originally appeared was "Driving Fast Horses 
Fast:" "My Dear ]\Ir. Bonner: You once promised 
me a ride with your never-to-be-excelled horses, and 
to-day is the very day for it. The sky is clear. It is 
a long while since we have had bright, clear days. 
They have been sad and cloudy. Sometimes snow, 
sometimes rain, sometimes a miserable compromise 
between botli. But to-day is of one mind, and that a 
good mind. Nature is in her sweet and grand mood. 
It is -the first day on which she lus cared to have it 
known that her mind was maile up to have spring 
weather. The secret is out now. Snow is melting. 
I saw grass with a fresh growth of green this very 
mornmg. No Lirds yet. But the grass said birds as 
plainly as if i; nad spoken English. They can not be 
far off. 

"Is not this a day for a ride? No mud yet; the 
road is hard and moist. Just the kind for a spin. 
For I do not want any of your lazy, jogging gaits. I 
am entirely of your mind that if a horse has had 
swiftness put in him, it is fair to give him a chance 
to develop his gifts. Of course t'here is a bound. 
Reason in all things. Even in trotting it is easier and 
pleasanter for some horses to go twelve miles an hour 
than for others to go three. They were made so. 
Does it hurt a swallow to go swifter than an ox? 
Why not? Because he was made so. It is easy to do 
the thing we were made to do easily. And a goo, I 
horse was made on purpose to go fast. He does it, 
when wild, of his own accord. He does not lose the 
relish of speed even when domesticated. 

"Take a fine fed horse, who in harness looks as if 
he were a pattern of moderation, a very deacon of 
sobriety, and turn him loose in pasture. Whew, 
wliat a change. He takes one or two steps slowly, 
just to be sure that you have let go of him, and then, 
with a squeal, he lets fly his heels high in the air, 
till the sun flashes from his polished shoes, and then 
off 'he goes, faster and fiercer, clear across the lot, 
till the fence brings him up. And then, his eye flash- 
ing, his mane lifted and swelling, his tail up like a 
king's scepter, he snorts defiance to you from afar, 
and, with a series of rearings, running sidew'se, 
pawings and plungings, friskings and whrls, he s'ar*> 
again, with immense c"'ovment, into another round 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



411 



of running. Do you not see that it is more than fun? 
It is ecstacy. It is horse rapture. 

"I never see such a spectacle that I am not painful- 
ly impressed with the inhumanity of not letting 
horses run. Fastness is a virtue. Our mistaken mod- 
eration is depriving him of it. I drive fast on princi- 
ple. I do it for the sake of being at one with na- 
ture. To drive slow only and always is to treat a 
horse as if he were an ox. You may be slow if you 
tliink proper, but your horse should be kept up to 
nature. He would have had but two legs if it was 
(meant that he should go only on a 'go-to-meeting' 
pace. He has four legs. Of course he ought to do a 
great deal with them. 

"Now why do I say these things to you? Not to 
convince you of your duty : Init I feared lest taking 
me out to ride you would be disposed to think that I 
had scruples, and would jog along moderately, as if 
doing me a favor. Not at all. The wind does not go 
fast enough to suit me. If I were engineer of a six- 
ty-mile-an-hour express train I should covet twenty 
I miles an hour more. 

"Let the horse be well groomed, well harnessed. 
Let the wagon be thoroughly looked to — no screw 
■I loose, no flaw just ready to betray us. Mount. I am 
by your side. The whip is not needed, yet let it 
stand in its place, the graceful hint of authority in re- 
serve, which is always wholesome to men and horses. 

"Now get out of town cautiously. No speed here. 
This is. a place for sobriety, moderation and propriety 
in driving. But, once having shaken off the crowd, 
I give you a look and disappear instantly in a wild 
excitement, as if all the trees were crazy and had 
started off in a race, as if the fences were chalk-lines, 
as if the earth and skies were commingled and every- 
thing were wildly mixed in a supernatural excite- 
ment, neither of earth nor of the skies! 

"The wind has risen since we started. It did not 
Mow at this rate, surely. These tears are not of sor- 
row. But, really, this going like a rocket is new to 
i,\-ery sense. Do not laugh if I clutch the seat more 
firmly. I am not afraid. It is only excitement. You 
may be used to this bird's business of flying. But 
don't draw the rein. I am getting calm. See that 
play of muscle! Splendid machinery was put into 
those horses. Twenty-horse power, at least, in each ! 
And how they enjoy it ! No forcing here. They do 
it to please themselves, and thank you for a chance. 
Look at that head ! Those ears speak like a tongue. 
The eves flash with eagerness and will. Is it three 



miles? Impossible! It is not more than half a mile! 
"Well, draw up. Let me get off now and see these 
brave creatures. What! Not enough yet? No pain- 
ful puffing, no throbbing of the flanks. They step 
nervously and champ the bit, and lean to your caress, 
as if they said, 'All this we have done to please you ; 
now just let us go on to please ourselves!" 

HORSES' TEETH. 

As the art of veterinary dentistry is, as yet, compar- 
atively, only in its infancy, few people understand 
the extent to which a horse's teeth may become dis- 
eased and the amount of suffering the poor animal 
has to endure, says the Kansas Farmer. Colts, un- 
like children, suffer little or no inconvenience from 
their temporary dentition. But during the cutting of 
the permanent teeth is the critical epoch in the life 
of the young horse. Between the ages of two and 
three is where the trouble generally begins, and it 
continues until the process of dentition is complete, 
being at its worst between the ages of four and five, 
this being the time when the greatest number of den- 
tal changes are taking place. Hence the common 
saying that "a three-year-old can do more work than 
a four-year-old." A horse's upper jaw is always wid- 
er than the lowe^ one, and sometimes this difference 
exists to such an extent as to become a malformation. 
The upper teeth are also beveled downward and- out- 
ward, while the lower ones are beveled inward and 
upward, and this, with their limited lateral motion, 
causes sharp projecting points to wear on the outer 
edge of the projecting teeth, which lacerate the 
cheeks, and on the inner edge of the lower ones, 
which lacerate the tongue. Small stones, nails and 
other hard substances often get into the grain, and 
the horse biting on these, breaks off all or part of a 
tooth, then caries sets in, the nerves become exposed, 
and the animal must evidently suffer great pain. 
When a tooth is thus broken off or decayed the tooth 
in the jaw opposite receiving no pressure, keeps on 
growing up or down, as the case may be, until it lac- 
erates the gums of the opposite jaw in a frightful 
manner! These irregularities and diseased conditions 
are generally indicated by one or more such symp- 
toms as slobbering and frothing at the mouth, weak 
eyes or partial blindness, bolting the grain while 
grinding, stopping short while eating and dropping 
the grain from the mouth, quidding the hay, turning 
the head on one side while eating or after drinking 



412 



Regular feed adds much to the life of a horse. 



cold water, loss of appetite, loss of flesh, tender mouth 
when being driven, carrying the head on one side, 
pulling on one rein, nasal gleet, swelling or abscesses 
about the jaws, etc., and the horse is allowed to suf- 
fer on for months, and often dosed with strong medi- 
cines, when an examination by a competent man 
would have revealed the true cause of the difficulty 
and a few minutes' work on the horse's teeth would 
have relieved the animal's sufferings and enhanced 
its value to the owner, as well. 

HOW LONG HAVE HORSES WORN SHOES? 

In the ninth century tlicv began to shoe horses, but 
strange to say, only in time of frost. King W^illiam 
I. introduced horse-shoeing in England, and six horse 
shoes are on the coat of arms of the descendants of 
the man to whom he gave vast estates for caring for 
his horses in this way. No improvement has been 
made in horse shoes for years. Better iron has been 
used and t :':':er nails, but no change has come in 
shape or manner of putting them on. The "smithy" 
is a dingy-loo. ing place, with its rows of shoes along 
the rafter's, its big bellows and its fire and anvil; but 
the "smith — he's a fine, sturdy fellow," full of anec- 
'd'otes and news. The nearest thing we find to the 
horse shoe of to-day was found in the grave of an 
old king of France who died in 481. There were four 
hail holes in the shoe, and this is the first mention of 
nailing on a shoe. It might be well to notice, just 
here, the fact that the horse shoe "kept evil spirits 
away" even as long ago as in the days of this old 
king, 1500 years ago, and was doubtless placed on 
his grave for this purpose. 

MAN'S GREAT HELPER. 

The horse is so closely allied to man he may 
well be considered as his subordinate. Wherever civ- 
ilization extends you will find him. The prosperity 
of a country depends upon the quality, cjuantity and 
efficiency of its horses. His importance to the agri- 
cultural and commercial life of a country is incalcula- 
ble. When the epizootic prevailed so extensively a 
few years ago among the horses in some of our prin- 
cipal cities we remember what a depressing effect it 
had upon business. The street cars ceased to run, 
the familiar rumble of the heavy transportation wagon 
was no longer heard. The freight houses became full 
for the want of this noble animal to move the grain 



away. In fact, the wheels of commerce were in a 
measure blocked. The railroad is but the auxiliary 
of the horse. The railroad could not exist without 
him. As I said before, the agricultural and commer- 
cial thrift of a country depends, largely, upon the ef- 
ficiency of its horses. One reason to which Napoleon 
attributed the failure of his disastrous invasion of ■ 
Russia was the superiority of the Russian over the 
Norman horse. In every phase of social, political and 
national life, the horse fills a conspicuous place. In 
the opening of the mine, the development of the re- 
sources of the country, in the consummation of its 
wars, he forms a component part. In fact, through « 
the modern invention of machinery, he has supersed- I 
ed the slave. In an agricultural sense he does all the 
work. He plows all of the ground, plants all of the 
seed, cultivates all of the crops, cuts down all of the 
grass, rakes it up, loads it, puts it in t'he mow, har- j 
vests all the grain, draws it to market and, m con- 
nection with all this, is burdened with drawing his 
lazy driver over the fields all day, who, v.'hen night 
comes, is often too lazy to properly care for him. We 
should never neglect so great a friend as the horse is 
to us. W^e should not abuse him in any way. We ; 
should take great pains in showing him just what we 
expect of him and in a manner to be intelligent to 
him, and, our wgrd for it, we will greatly improve 
the further usefulness of our horses. 

FEEDING HORSES. 

The great amount of hard work for the horses of 
the farm is over in the fall, and, as now they 
have little or no work to do, it is essential that farmers 
look to the amount of feed they give them, and espe- 
cially to the amount of hay. 

When a horse is working hard all day we give him 
a liberal supply of grain and usually all the hay he 
will eat. This is right; but when he is idle most of 
the time, or at light work, it is a different thing and 
he should be fed accordingly. Some have fallen into 
to erroneous idea that As long as a horse will eat hay 
it should be placed before him, but this is a mistaken 
idea and should be carefully guarded against, espe- 
cially at a time when the dollars roll into the farmers' 
pockets as slowly as they do at the present time. 

Most of our barns in the fall are nearly filled with 
hay, but before spring the mows will present a very dif- 
ferent appearance, and the thought tells us to be as 
saving with the hay as possible. It is better for our 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



413 



horses that we give them a little more grain and less 
hay. They winter better and if they are well groom- 
ed and well blanketed after having been driven, will 
come out in the spring in better condition and be 
much better fitted to dO' the hard spring and sum- 
mer's work than would otherwise be the case. 

A careful farmer will feed a certain amount to his 
■horses each day, at regular intervals, and will always 
be found working on the principle that "a penny sav- 
ed is a penny earned." — ^National Stockman and Far- 
mer. 

ADIRONDACK MURRAY ON SHOEING. 

There never lived a man who ''knew horse'' or bet- 
ter understood the noble animal, his needs and the 
art of caring for him than the once famous W. H. H. 
Murray, "Adirondack Murray." What he did not 
know about making the most of a good 'horse and 
ceeping him sound and healthy no one need bother 
to ascertain, and Adirondack IMurray has laid down 
1 rule in regard to trimming a horse's foot that every 
horseman in the world should cut out and paste in 
[lis hat. "Never," he says, "allow the knife to touch 
:he sole of your horse's foot, nor the least bit of it to 
DC pared away, because nature needs the full bulk of 
it and has amply provided for its removal at the prop- 
er time. Secondly, never allow a knife to be put to 
:he frog, because nature never provides too much of 
t to answer the purpose for which the Creator de- 
iigned it, and the larger it is the more swiftly, easily 
and safely will your horse go." 

TEACHING TEAMS TO PULL. 



It is a real pleasure to have a team that can be re- 
ied upon to pull whenever wanted to do so. Any 
earn, if not of a too highly nervous temperament, 
nay be trained to perfect reliability. We need, first 
■f all and forever after, to recognize that the horse 
as a mind and, at least, the mental qualities of mem- 
Tv and affection. The consideration of paramount 
portance in this matter, according to the view of 
writer in Stockman, is to develop the team's con- 
[idence in themselves and in their driver. It is just 
s true of a horse as of man, that he will not exert 
imself greatly over what he has no hope of accom- 
;lisTiing. But different from man, the horse thinks 
•f previous loads instead of the one to which he is 
ttached. This is the reason a balky horse is apt to 



refuse to pull a very light load. He has no way of 
estimating his load only by pulling upon it. Hitch a 
horse to a very heavy load, let him pull upon it, then 
transfer him to any empty wagon and start him. You 
will see him gather himself for a pull. He has in 
mind the heavy load. Had the horse been stalled 
with a heavy load, and whipped until the driver and 
horse were both certain he could not pull it, you 
would have a horse thoroughly broken not to pull. 
This writer says: 

"Let me impress the truth of this by calling to mind 
another illustration of the result of similar treatment. 
I have seen men who had horses given to pulling up- 
on the halter, put one on them they were confident 
the horses could not break, and then whip them over 
the head in order to make them pull. Nearly always 
when a horse finds he cannot pull loose he will walk 
up to the hitching post. I have heard men argue that 
a horse could be so thoroughly broken in this way 
that a tow-string would hold him. There is some 
truth in it, though not all horses are to be mana;];cl 
in the same way. A horse of nervous temperame:t 
should never be excited. They will always do their 
best in a perfectly calm state of mind. 

"Have a definite and small vocabulary to use with 
your team, and always use the same word for one 
purpose. Keep the same two horses working togeth- 
er, and always on the same side. Use open bridles, 
so that the team can see what is going on around 
them. Keep all attachments strong, that your team 
will not be in fear of straining themselves through 
something breaking. Use close-fitting collars and 
harness, and never allow a horse to become sore from 
any part of the harness. Teach your team to start 
together. Keep them strong and in good spirits by 
good and regular feeding, and good care in every par- 
ticular. Let them come to heavy pulling gradually, 
and not at all until their bones are well matured." 

HORSES NEED LIGHT. 

The importance of having stables ventilated in ac- 
cordance with correct principles of hygiene is gener- 
ally admitted. That the supply of fresh air should be 
ample is frequently insisted upon, but that the light 
should also be abundant is not so commonly recog- 
nized. Some stables are at middav in a state of semi- 
darkness — a condition, to say the least, anything but 
conducive to the well-being of the horse. No animal 
enjoys the light of day more than he. In his wild state 
he frequents the open plain or mountain side in the 



414 



Plant a Forage Crop for the Stock. 



full light of day. Wild horses are never found to in- 
habit gloomy forests or dark ravines. The horse is a 
child of light and he should be treated accordingly 
in domestication, if lie is to be kept in perfect health 
and spirits with his eyesight unimpaired. The fre- 
quent transition from a dark stable into full glare of 
day cannot fail to act prejudicially on his visual or- 
gans, and so also must almost permanent gloom and 
darkness. If we studied only his comfort, we would 
give him at all times a stable full of cheerful light as 
v.-ell as refreshing air. — London Live Stock Journal. 

MEANS AND METHODS FOR CONTROLLING 
OUR HORSES. 

While we shall endeavor to impress upon the mind 
:of ever)' reader the fact that there is fully as much 
virtue in the methods as the means used, we are quite 
certain too many wdl adopt the means of control, (as 
the key of success) and ignore the methods, (man- 
ner of using the appliances) and then failing in the 
desired results, will condemn the author. 

In compliance with the proper methods for using 
electricity, it has been found to be a valuable servant, 
but how is it when the means are used regardless of 
the well established methods? Why, death too often 
results. 

The means and methods herein given 'have often 
been .used by the author and found the most valuable 
of any he has tried. They are not a mere theory, but 
principles established upon experience. AVe have, in 
the preceding paragraphs, tried to impress upon 
the minds of our readers the importance of com- 
plying with the simple laws governing our animals 
and we cannot do justice to our noble servant — the 
horse— without referring briefly to them again, and, 
possibly, in a manner that will make it more impres- 
sive. 

SOME OF THE LAWS GOVERNING OUR 
HORSES. 

ist. Whatever transpires at the front of the horse 
impels him backward. 

2d. Whatever takes place at tlie rear of the horse, 
inclines forward action. 

3d. All side motion effect in like manner — in op- 
posite direction. 

4th. In all of our operations with the horse, it 



should be our highest aim to avoid giving him pain 
when in close contact with him. 

5th. Whenever lie becomes entangled by accident,| 
or we do it purposely, we should stay away from him' 
until he realizes his utter helplessness to free himself,' 
then go to his assistance and kindly relieve him, when' 
he will appreciate us, and readily become our willingl 
servant. But, if, b}- entanglement, we abuse him foij 
it, then, whenever he finds himself encumbered in an', 
way, he naturall}^ goes to work to free himself anc 
get away from his handler — making a dangerousi 
horse, instead of what he should be — kind and gen- 
tie. 

(ith. We should endeavor to control our horses b) 
means and methods that will demonstrate to thenr 
that we are the stronger, (through the means used] 
but associated with kindness whenever in close con 
tact with them. 

7th. In connection with the means to demonstrat< 
our superior power over the horse, we should neve 
forget, that the medium of the stomach is tlie mos 
direct road to his affections — consequently, notwitli 
standing, we may lay him down, deprive him of th 
use of his legs, etc., we should feed him sugar, swee 
apples, cookies, or whatever he relishes from ou j 
hand, and it is astonishing, to the masses, how sooi' 
the wild or even vicious horse is as docile as a lamb 

8th. The reader will observe that the means sc 
forth, in this article, are not intended to injure t'h'j 
horse in any way, but to enable his handler to dc] 
monstrate his superior muscular power (througl 
these means) over that of the horse, without an; 
manifestation of anger or abuse on the part of fh 
handler. 

9th. We should endeavor at all times to keep th 
horse cool and quiet, and endeavor to show him kind 
ly what is expected of him, rather than to try to fore ; 
him to do what he does not understand. I 

loth. We should always make the lessons shor.j 
and impressive, and never try to progress faster thai-, 
the horse fully understands what we want of him. i 

HANDLING BY THE HEAD. 

As most of our horses are controlled, through t1i| 
medium of the mouth, we have thought best to begi ' 
our illustrated part with easy and effective means an^J 
methods of controlling the horse through the moutl'| 
We are decidedly opposed to the use of harsh bitji 
which lacerate and mutilate the sensitive part of th 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



415 




(No. I 



horse (through its sensitive character) by which we 
comnuinicate our very thoughts, to this noble animal, 
through the medium of the reins. For many reasons, 
we like to begin our education of the horse through 
the medium of t'he mouth, with a small (comparative- 
ly soft) rope, instead of iron bits. It is much more 
effective, will not bruise the soft, sensitive tissues and 
by its binding character, in which it is applied, makes 
our work more readily appreciated by the horse. For 
instance, when we pull on the rope, it binds in ihh 
mouth, and does not let go until the horse comes to 
us or we go to Tiim and loosen it, which is at once 
appreciated by the horse, and makes us looked upon 
as a friend in need, and not an enemy. 

STALLION OR SAFETY BRIDLE. 

We take about twenty feet of one-fourth inch ma- 
nilla rope, with which we make a better stallion bridle 
than we have ever used of any other character. 

We first throw one end of the rope over the neck 
of t'he horse, with the left hand ; reach under the neck, 
with tiie right hand and grasp the end of the rope_, 
and tie a bow — bowline knot quite snug to the neck, 
(but not really tight or too close) now .pass the left 
■land under this part around the neck, .and draw 
through enough rope to go in the mouth, as shown in 
cut No. I. Next stand with the face toward the rear 
of the horse, taking the rope in the right Iiand about 



=■' :'^Zf- 



(No. 2.) 



one foot from the neck of the horse, then reaching 
over the rope with the left hand, take hold of the 
rope, with the back of the hand up and forward, as 
seen in cut No. i. 

We now pass this rope, as 'held in this way, over 
the horse's head, bringing the right hand to the base 
of the ear and left hand down under t'he neck, as seen 
in cut No. 2. 

APPLYING THE SAFETY BRIDLE. 

Now change hands, taking hold of t'he rope with 
the right hand where held by -the left and open the 




4t6 



A small patch of millet or sorghum will help out a great deal. 



mouth of the horse by pressing the soft end of fhe 
finger, or thumb of the left hand, against the roof of 
the horse's mouth, when he will readily open the 
moufh, and we pass the rope through the mouth, an J, 
changing hands again, taking hold of the rope, just 
at the left side of the mouth, with the left hand; then 
pull on the long part of the rope, with the right hand, 
to adapt the rope to head, and we have the most ef- 
fective bridle for the control of strong, vicious horses, 
or biting stallions. 

By pulling on this rope, only moderately, the lips 
of the horse are forced between the molar teet'h, so 
that it is impossible for him to close his mouth and 
bite, even though we put our hand into his mouth, 
and hold it there. 

METHOD OF USING THE SAFETY BRIDLE. 

When we have it snugly applied to the head of the 
horse, (not loosely) we permit him to run away from 
us. the length of the rope, and with a sudden pull, 
pivct him on his hind feet, or stop him. He is will- 




izes that he had better not get to the full length of 
the rope away from us, or if he does, the rope binds 
his mouth as before. But if he will come to us, we 
never disappoint him in relief, and kind attentions, 
when in close contact with him, which insures his 
confidence in us, that no matter what troubles he en- 
counters, he is assured we will hcl;i him out of the 
difficultv. 

We have given a full description of the method of 
applying the safety handling bridle, so that our read- 
ers can readily comprehend t'he principle of handling 
our vicious horses without serious abuse or danger. 
The horse is a very apt scholar, to learn either good 
or evil, and it is for us to direct him aright. 

A GOOD CHEAP RIDING BRIDLE. 

Cut. Nil. 3 represents a cheap and very effective J 
riding bridle. It consists of a piece of quarter inch 




(No. 4-) 



(No. 5.) — Blinding the Hoi'se with an Umbrella. 



ing to stop, no matter how well he feels, for he finds 
that 'his head and mouth are in a vice, as it were, 
with apparently no relief. Now, if 'he does not come 
to us, we go to him, pat him caressingly on the cheek, 
and gently loosen the rope in his mouth. He is now 
free again, and. possibly, may be so reckless as to try 
it again, with the same results. We do as before, 
three or four times if necessary, when lie fully real- 



manilla, or cotton rope, from six to eight feet long. 
Bv placing the middle part on top of the 'horse's head, 
drawing down on either side of the face and passing 
through the mouth from each side, up on top of the 
neck, and tying a knot at the withers to keep from 
dropping out of the mouth, you 'have a good bridle, as 
illustrated in cut No. 3 ; down in front of the horse as 
well as applied to his head. 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



417 



HANDLING UMBRELLA. 

For remember the law, as previously Fcferred to, 
that what happens at, or toward, the rear of tlie horse, 
impels him forward, as well as that in front of him, 
forces him backward. It is well illustrated in cuts 4 
and 5 in handling an umbrella on horseback. When 
the umbrella is back of the center of his body, and he 
takes fright, he naturally tries to run, but by bring- 
ing the umbrella over his head, as seen in cut 5, lie 
stops instantly, and reverses his action so suddenly. 



from every object he is afraid of. We must not, get 
in a hurry in the education of our horses, if we would 
have them fully understand our meaning in all we do 
with them. 

POWER OF MAN OVER THE HORSE. 

Whenever we find the horse does not feel disposed 
to give us his undivided attention, with the applica- 
tion of the safety bridle, and its associate treatment, 
then we proceed to demonstrate to him our superior 




\-^ilif- 



(No. C). — Cheap Casting Harness. 








(No, 



hat we must be on our guard, or we will go over his 
lead. Now, how much better it is to understand this 
Uw, and hold on to the umbrella, until the horse finds 
le cannot get away from it, than to throw it away at 
irst fright, and ever after incline him to run awav 



,'ith 



strength, through the means we use, together 
very kind treatment. 

We first take about fifteen feet of three-eighth inch 
rope, double it at about one-t'hird its length, and slip 
a two-inch iron ring over this doubled portion, and 



28 



4i8 



Patience is a great help. 



tie a knot in the double rope, so as to 'hold the ring in 
such position, that the doul:)led end will make a crup- 
per and back piece the required length, to have the 
ring rest at the point of the back, w'here the saddle of 
the harness should be. The remaining portion of the 
rope forms a circingle as seen in cut 6. Now, we take 
a fourth inch rope, twenty or thirty feet long, pass 
one end through the ring on the back, pass it along 
the right side of the neck of the horse, through the ring 
of the halter, and back to the ring referred to on the 
back, and tie securely. Next we take the hold-back 
or side strap to a single harness, or a good ham-strap 
will answer, pass it around the pastern of the left 
front leg, passing throug'h the keeper, so that the 
buckle will be on the outside of the leg when the strap 
is pulled backward. Then we lift up the left front 
foot of the horse, run the strap under the circingle, 
with the hair, and buckle up quickly and s'hort. as 
seen in cut 6. As soon as the leg is securely fasten- 
ed, we let the horse have his liberty to about the 



slight tension on the small rope, he will soon get tire.l 
and drop on his knees, when his head should be pull- 
ed to his side, as seen in cut No. 7. We continue to 
stay away from the horse and, holding him in this 
uricomfortable position until he falls over on 'his side, 
we pull hard enough on the small rope to bring his 
nose to the ring on his back as seen in cut No. 8. 

If the reader does not believe this is an uncomfor- 
table position, let him try to look back over his 
shoulder one minute by the watch and see 'how his 
neck will ache. After the horse has lain in this posi- 
tion one-half minute to a minute, he will make a des- 
perate struggle to rise but if the small rope is kept_ 




(No. 8.J— The Horse in Greater Trouble. 




"^P^ 



i^i'^mmJlh 



length of the rope, when he is apt to be halted, as 
seen in cut No. 6. We do not try to throw him down, 
but allow him to hobble around on three legs, until 
he gets tired, being sure to keep at a distance from 
him all the time, letting him realize that he is in trou- 
ble. By keeping his head inclined to one side, with 



(No. 9.)— The Horse in a Comfortable Position. 

tight it is impossible for him to get up. Just as soon 
as the struggle is over we approac'h him, (keeping the! 
hand rope tight) caress him on the head and neck and 
begin relaxing on the hand rope until he is stretchec 
out on the ground in an easy position as seen in cut 
No. 9. 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



419 



If he fails to appreciate the comfortable position 
' we have given 'him, and attempts to get up, we sim- 
' ply spring away from him and again get him into that 
■ same uncomfortable position by pulling on the hand 
'' rope as before. Now we hold him in this very uncom- 
fortable position a short time, to let him know that 
^e are -one from him and he unable to extricate him- 
Te f If he struggles again, we do as before ; but if he 



bodv, lying, sitting, or standing, we then begin with 
other objects, such as the noise of bells, pans, drums, 
etc. The sight and touch of blankets, robes, or um- 
brellas, open or closed, as shown in cut No. 10. 

Bv bringing objects to the horse when down, we 
can make him acquainted with them, without his get- 
ting away from us, or injury in any way. The horse 
examines all things very much as we do, first by sight, 







(No. 10.)— Bringing Objects to the Horse. 



submits without a struggle, we never keep him long and then by touch. But if the sight is sufficient to 

in this position, but go to him and relieve him as be- frighten him away, he never fully satisfies himself by 

fore. By the second or third round of trial to get up, the touch ; he stays away from the object through fear. 

he fully comprehends that when we are in close con- Consequently, the importance of having him in a po- 

tact with him, he is relieved of his troubles ; also, that sition by which we can bring the objects in contact 

when he attempts to rise we are suddenly gone, and with his body, and shown him, by touch, that there 

lie is at once in that same uncomfortable position is no cause for pain from them. If we have done our 

3-gain. work consistently, and in such order that we have 



As soon as the horse discovers that we do not mean 
to hurt him, and that whenever he is in serious trou- 
ble we corne to his relief, he, very naturally, has con- 
fidence in us, and cares but little what we do to him. 
Or with him, that does not give him pain. 

While we have the horse down in this way, it is a 
good time to make him familiar with us, from every 
position, holding on to the hand rope all the time, and 
being ready to pull his nose to 'his side at any mo- 
ment, he should strive to avoid us. 

As soon as the horse is familiar with us from every 
position, also with our weight, on any part of his 



carried the horse along with us, in understanding, 
step by step, we may now take every incumbrance 
from him, and he will appear as seen in cut No. 11, 
confident and contented. 

The above cut was made from a photograph of a 
handsome four year old mare, and the writer, after 
having had a lesson of about twenty minutes, on the 
fair grounds at 'Madison, Minn. She was a powerful 
mare, active and very nervous to begin with, but very 
soon became remarkably docile, as almost all horses 
will, when properly handled. 

Now, dear reader, please remember what we have 



420 



In breaking stock, be as easy with them as posible. 



repeatedly said, that there is as much virtue in the horse through the medium of his legs, we will men-j 
methods as the means. To be sure we can, by the tion but two or three. 



means here represented, throw the horse with consid- 
erable violence, and punish him severely while down 
and in close contact with him, without his being able 
to help himself; but by so doing we defeat the very 
object aimed at, viz., every time thereafter, remember- 



\Ve commence our operations by taking the saddle 
and crupper of a single 'harness. We use both girthsi 
in order to retain the shaft-holders down in position. 

The lines, for driving, we pass through the shaft- 
holders, instead of the terrets on the saddle. By liav- 



ing the punishment received, he would refuse to ing the lines through the shaft-holders, the horse is 

submit until entirely exhausted. But by our cool, prevented from turning around, and facing us, as th« 

quiet method and not being in too great a hurry, the lines pull across his thig'hs, instead of over his back. 

horse realizes his trouble, gets weary, lies down, finds and we are enabled to keep his head from us. 




(No. 11.) — Contentment of Horse and JTan. 



he is unable to rise of his own efforts, yet finds he has 
a friend in us, who comes to his assistance in time of 
need, and he certainly appreciates it with a kindly re- 
membrance. Don't let us ever forget that the horse 
is endowed with intelligence, kindness, fear, passion 
and revenge ; and we must conduct ourselves accord- 
ingly, observing closely the laws of correlation be- 
tween men and animals. Having made ourselves fa- 
miliar with the horse, by laying him down and prov- 
ing our superior power, (through the means used) 
and at the same time relieving him when he got into 
any serious entanglements, if he still persists in as- 
serting his wisbes as soon as he is assisted to his feet 
again, tTien we use other means to control his pow- 
ers of locomotion. 

CONTROLLING THE HORSE BY HIS LEGS. 

Of the many ways and means of controlling the 




(No. 12.)— Reins to the Legs. Better than the Bits. 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



421 



When we have the lines so adjusted, we then buckle 
a strap around each front pastern. Then take about 
twenty feet of quarter inch rope and with one end in 
the hand we put it under the girth of the harness 
against the hair, pass it down, and under the strap of 
the pastern, of the right leg, and back under the girth 
again, with the hair, and down to, and attach to the 
strap of t'he pastern, of the left leg, when we take the 
rope and lines in hand, and get behind the horse, and 
commence proceedings as seen in cut No. 12. If with 
this means applied, the horse persists in trying to get 
away from us. or rears, we proceed to draw his front 
feet to his body, as seen in cut No. 12, by pulling on 
the rope; or if he attempts to run from the start, we 
pull on the rope, for the same purpose as seen in cut 
No. 13. 



for a few moments and give him time for reflection, 
ur rest, as you may choose to call it. 

If we observe conditions carefully, he will soon be 
driving about cool and docile as seen in cut No. 15. 

FIRST LESSON IN HARNESS SATISFACTORY. 

The extremes of use and abuse of this appliance for 
the control of our horse is very wide apart. 

One handler will use it with t'he most satisfactory 
results by going slow and careful, not dropping the 
horse on his knees, but once or twice, and the horse 
realizing the advantage taken of him. and not becom- 
ing confused, quietly adapts himself to the wishes of 
his teacher. While another handler with the same horse 
would make some mistakes, get confused or angry 
himself, and soon get the horse excited and have a 




(No. 13.) — The Woi-.Icl be r.unav.-ay Cecured. 



When the horse is determined to get away, with 
even good treatment, the use of the double foot at- 
tachment, is ver}' effective, if in the hands of a con- 
siderate, , and affectionate horseman. If the horse 
starts by rearing, or running, and we pull on the rope, 
'Ij t'he result is the same, in both cases, and is very well 
shown in cut No. 14. 

Now, that we have the horse, in this helpless con- 
dition, we must not keep him here long, or he will get 
discouraged, and lie down, and possibly refuse to get 
wp. But if we hold him in this position but a moment, 
or until he becomes comparatively quiet, then go to 
him calmly, caress him, put our arm under his neck, 
loosen t'he reins, and rope, and lift on him a little, with 
I an encouraging word to get up ; he will get to 'his feet 
i promptly, and be a little more careful afterwards. If 
' we find he is getting warm and excited, we must stop 



rtai light between horse and man; a condition that 
should be avoided at all times and under all condi- 
tions, as no good can result. The natural query to 
the reader, then, would be, is this method valuable or 
dangerous in my hands? We can answer only by 
saying, that by these means we can prevent the horse 
from running away, or doing mu-ch mischief in any 
way, which we consider valuable to both man and 
horse. But we would urge all 'handlers not to put the 
horse down on his knees any more than can possibly 
be avoided, for the best results. The horse can trav- 
el with this appliance about as well as without it. 
We would advise the use of knee-pads if. the horse is 
to be driven on the 'hard rough roads. 

This appliance is more serviceable in driving with 
only the harness on single, than double harness, and 
our next device is well adapted for double team. 



422 It would be well to put yourself in your horse's place occasionally. 

PERSUASIVE CONTROL OF THE HORSE. 



Now, dear readers, please don't complain of our 
heading; because we mean it in its most forcible 
sense. Persuasive influence, with both men and ani- 
mals, is certainly the most effecti\-e, as we shall try 
to show here ; and if our readers will apply the means 
and methods here laid down," instead of the whip and 
other brutal force, we are confident of jjaining our 
point, with both the horse and his handler. 

Means and methods, you will observe, are our prin- 
ciples of convincing the horse, that if he is determin- 
ed to have a struggle, it must be mostly with himself. 
We want to take as little part in it as possible, con- 




(No. 14.) — The Hor.se in a Helpless Position 







(N,j. 15.) — ?e;■sua^ive Coatrol of tlie Horse. 



sequently, try to devise the means, by which he can 
demonstrate to himself that he is fighting himself 
rather than 'his handler. In the preceding example of 
handling the horse by his feet, and taking both front 
feet from him, we thereby stop him in further pro- 
gress of locomotion, of which if persevered in. will 
have a tendency to anger or discourage t'he horse. 
While we like this method of taking the front feet 
from the horse, in his very first lesson in harness to 
convince him that at the word whoa, or in an attempt 
to run away with us, to rear, or kick, we can at once 
demonstrate to him (without pain) that he is power- 
less to do so, to any satisfactory degree. But it has 
its objectional features, as we have before indicated, 
beyond the first short lesson, which we always use to 
begin with, to be sure we have all the advantage on 
our side; after which, we use the persuader, until the 



horse fully understands What we wish him to do for 
us. 

We do not like to depend on the bit, and especially 
harsh bits, to control the young, ambitious, or even 
vicious horse, because, in his eagerness to get away, 
or do mischief, we are too apt to injure his mouth, to 
such a degree, that it is ever after tender and sore, 
or. so calloused, that he is a "puller," (lugger.) ever 
after. But, if we apply our "persuasive" influence, as 
hereinafter described, we are of the opinion all users 
will be pleased with its effect, and not take the 
chances of making a runaway, kicking, dangerous 
horse, in his primary lessons in harness. By the ues 
of the "persuader." we are enabled to make the horse 
a cripple, for the time beine. and vet not necessarily 
slop, or hurt him ; but impede his progress to such a 



TILLING THE 



degree that it is not really dangerous to his handler 
or encouraging to the horse. 

If ,the horse proves to be a runa\vaj% we let him 
run upon three legs instead of all four. If he is a 
kicker, he must stand on one front leg to do fhe most 
of his kicking. If he is restless and uneasy about 
standing, we let him stand on three legs, part of the 
time. 

When we find we have a confirmed kicker it is best 
to attach, bells, tin pans, a fourth of a sack of bran, 
or other objects to the crupper of t'he harness, and let 
it hang down to the hocks or near there, and drive 
about without being hitched to a vehicle at first, as 
seen in cut No. if). 

The cut represents the horse in tlie act of doing 'his 
utmost to rid himself from the bells attached to the 
'crupper of his harness, before the persuader has been 
put into operation. The "persuader" is applied, by 
having a strap around one front pastern only, t'hen 
take the end of the small rope, and pass under the 



SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



423 




(No. 10— The -Persuad-ei'" applied to a Kicker. 




4.^ - 



(No. 17.)— Tlie ■■Persuader" applied to a Rest:e:;s Horse. 



girth from the rear, down under the strap around the 
pastern and tie to the girth. See cut No. 17. With 
the confirmed kicker, we prefer to first give him the 
opportunity once or twice, or even more, at t'he ob- 
ject attached to induce him to kick, before making it 
hard work for him by the use of the "persuader." 

As soon as he gets warmed up to his work in earn- 
est, or starts to run, we pull on t'he rope which takes 
one front foot from him, so that he is compelled to 
balance 'himself on one foot while he does his kick- 
ing, which soon persuades him that he is making hard 



work of it for himself. Cr, if he attempts to run and 
kick, he must do so on three legs, by which he is soon 
persuaded is too hard work to be enjoyed. If he is a 
powerful horse and starts to run and kick, we always 
incline his head toward the opposite side from the leg 
that is held up, which induces him to run in as small 
a circle as possible, and by a sudden turn of the head 
he is very apt to fall broad side, Which again per- 
suades him he is making hard work of the kicking 
business, which must be the object to be attained in 
the correction of the kicker. 



424 



If you were a horse how would you like to be treated? 



Mere preventives, such as kicking straps, high 
checking, etc., rarely ever cure the kicking habit. 
But if vvc give the horse the opportunity to kick at 
something that cannot hurt him, and have him in such 



Before closing our remarks in regard to all the pre- 
ceding appliances for the sure and safe education of 
our horses, we would again impress on the reader's 
mind that a knowledge of the methods is of more 



position that does not necessarily prevent him from importance than to know how to make and adjust the 

kicking, but makes hard work of it, 'he is soon per- means. They go hand in 'hand and must be used hu- 

auaded, that he prefers to have anything hanging tO' manly, or the objects aimed at will be utter failures, 

him or hitting his heels, rather than work so hard to We consider this one of the very best appliances, 

get rid of it and fail. too. properly used, to persuade the horse to become man's 

Evervthing attac'hed to the harness to induce him willing servant, that we have ever had anything to do 

to show what his natural inclination is should be se- with. It can be used without any inconvenience to 



curely fastened, as every time he succeeds in getting 
rid of it, is an evidence to the horse that he can ac- 
complish his object if he only tries long enough, and 
he is perfectly willing to try as long as he sees any 
possibility of succeeding. 

The restless, uneasy and impatient horse can, ordi- 



the action of the horse and, if required, can be put in- 
to immediate effect with the very best results. 

THE WILLFULLY VICIOUS KICKER. 



If the persuader. 



jlher means and methods, fail 



narily, soon be persuaded to stand until we are ready to accomplish the desired results with the confirmed 
to give him the word to move, bv simply letting him kicker, then we try a means of self-punishment that 
stand on three legs a part of the time when he is most, we have never had fail us with this class of unruly 



horses. It is valuable for t'he reason that the punishment 
is dealt out the very instant of the \'iolation, and at the 



anxious to go. But as soon as he becomes at all quiet 
— even for a few seconds — he should have the benefit 
of all four of his feet, to assure him that we will give 
him this benefit if he will only be quiet. This is fair- 
Iv well shown in cut No. 17. 

It will be seen by cut No. 17, that the horse is stand- 
ing on two feet only, which requires good balancing 
power to maintain his equilibrium. 

Now isn't it plain that if this is all done quietly, 
and without apparent effort to simply annoy and tease 
the horse, that he will soon be persuaded that 'he is 
only working against himself, and conclude that he 
is doing a great amount of hard work for nothing? 
Isn't it also apparent, to even the casual observer, 
that we can permit the horse to still keep going, 
though somewhat crippled in one leg, that he will be 
persuaded to go quietly, much sooner than he will if 
we take bot'h front feet from him, which stops him 
from moving entirel}'? 

We neglected to state before, that when we are 
ready to hitch the kicker to a vehicle, we prefer to 
first drive in double harness and be sure to have the 
"persuader" on the outside front foot, so that if he other, or front end of the horse, which,, naturally, at- 
should fall at any time he will fall outwardly, instead tracts his attention to the point of punishment with 
of on the pole, and so, possibly, break it. As a pre- such force that he, as naturally,- forgets what has 
cautionary measure we always apply the "persuader" transpired at the rear. The means to accomplish the 
to every colt when first harnessed to a wagon or oth- work, consists of one piece, of one-fourth, or three- 
er vehicle, so as to persuade him, at once, that if he eighth inc'h rope, about twelve or fourteen feet long 
attempts to run or kick, that 'he must necessarily find and another piece of five-sixteenths inch rope, about 
it a hard undertaking. p'>^ feet long; a pulley; four straps one inch and a 




(No. IS.) — ICicking Attaohmi-nt for Single or Double Harness. 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



425 



ourth wide and about one foot long, each, and two 
ron rings, one and a half inches in diameter. 

First, thread the long rope through the eye of the 
)ulley, and the sliort rope around the pulley itself, 
^ow, check the horse's head, the desired height, with 
. good, strong, overhead check. Next draw the short 
ope backwardly, from the front, and under the girth, 
the pulley will rest just back of the girth, as shown 
n cut No. 18. 

Next, take the ends of the small rope, carry each to 
he rings of the bridle-bit,- at either side, passing 
hrough the rings, from the outside, (whic'h will bring 
he rope over the head, under the headstall of the 
iridle), and carry over the head, from each side, and 
lass through the rings again from the inside, and let 
hem hang there until the balance of the attachment 
las been adjusted. First, by buckling the straps, 
hove, and below the hocks, and through the rings, as 
een in cut No. 18. Then tie the larger and shorter 
■fope into these rings at the hocks, by half hitches, so 
,s to leave the pulley just back of the girth, and fur- 
.ish the adjustment by drawing the ropes, moderate- 
Y taut, at the bit, and tie on either side, by half hitch- 
s, also, (which makes the rope easily untied, no mat- 
er how tight drawn), and we are ready for the first 

jrial. 
1 
We always prefer to commence this first lesson 

fiih only the harness and reins, because the first kick 
lay be a terrible one : but, in all probability, it will 
e the 'last severe one, as it will never be forgotten 
!by the horse. We are, naturally, asked why. Well, 
re Avill tell you. It is for the reason that, when the 
|ind legs are forced backward, the rope, over the 
ead, has drawn the bit so far up into the angles of 
he mouth, and holds it there, that the horse forgets 
Wiat happened at the rear, from the fact that he is 
pto so much trouble at his front end (the mouth.) 
It should be our dutv to go to the horse's 'head and 
raw the bit down intcf the mouth away from the an- 
gles, and caress him immediately after a hard kick, 
atisfying him that notwithstanding he got himself 
|hto trouble we are c'haritable enough to help him out 
If it. If, by the first hard kick, any part of the kick- 
ng attachment has been broken, it should be repair- 
jd before relieving the horse at the head. This at- 
,|achment is applicable to either single or double har- 
ifess, the wagon, plow or other vehicle ; but we never 
(ke to hitch a kicking horse to any kind of vehicle, 
f'here he can injure himself or break the carriage, un- 



til we are satisfied he knows better than to kick hard, 
at least. 

AVitli this kicking attachment the horse can walk, 
trot or pace, but cannot run to much purpose, as 
when the hind legs are brought backward together it 
must produce an effect on the mouth ; whereas, the 
movements of walking, trotting or pacing, move one 
leg at a time, the leg rope plays back and forth, 
through the pulley, withqut any appreciable affect on 
the mouth. 

Except, in a very straight hock, the straps will stay 
in their places, especially if both upper and lower 
straps are of the proper length to allow the ring to 
draw from the center of the hock. 

The reader may wonder why we want to pass the 
long, small rope up over the horse's head and tie in- 
to the bit-ring on the opposite side; but, say to him- 
self, it is just as well to tie to the bit-ring on either 
side, instead of going to the trouble of passing it over 
the head and tying on the other side. We answer by 
saying, if tied directly to the bit-ring, and the horse 
should kick hard, he will certainly bruise his mouth 
badly, and may break the bit and get his freedom; 
whereas, when the rope is passed over the head, as 
directed, the hard kick draws the bit up intq the an- 
gles of the mouth so tiglitly (and the rope being un- 
der the head-stall of the bridle), that the pressure 
continues until relief is brought to the horse by his 
handler pulling the bit down into the mouth, which, 
if done in the spirit of kindness, will soon satisfy the 
horse that it don't pay to kick any more. Its use 
should be persevered in for a considerable time. 

THE SWITCHER AND REIN CATCHER. 




(No. 19.) — PreventiCB and Prob.ible Cure. 



426 



See that the stock have plenty of fresh air during the summer. 




(No. 20.) — The Balky Horse, Hitched for the Start. 

The rein catcher, witli tlie tail, is often a dantjer- 
ous character; notwithstancHnt; he, or she, may other- 
wise be a verv vakiable animal. 



Alares are generally worse than geldings, and, while 
they have free use of the tail, may constantly keep, 
trying to catch the rein under the tail. 

\Yhen the habit of catching the rein, with the tail,, 
lias become a constant practice, we endeavor to pre- 
vent it by tying into a portion of the 'hair of the tail, 
a little above the terminal end of the tail bone, the 
middle portion of a string of sufficient length to ex- 
tend to the tugs, or traces, on either side, and .secure' 
ly tie. as sliown in cut No. ig. The tie in the tai 
should be made securely: something in manner of ty 
ing the tail of the horse, in the first section of this de- 
partment, Figs. 7 and S, but, with oidy a small portion' 
of the hair on the under side of the tail, about the size' 
of a pencil, to that of the size of the finger. If it is done^ 
in this style the string should be wrapped two 0' 
three times around the bunch of hair to prevent it:' 
becoming loose. 

The string* to the tugs should be drawn taut to be' 




m^^ 



(No. 21.)— The Balky Hor^e PrUins ty His Tail. 



It is very bad policy to try to suddenly pull the rein 
from under the tail whenever caught by accident or 
purposely. But, if it is possible to let the rein loose, 
or t'he tail can be lifted from off the rein, quietly, by 
the hand, the animal may soon recover from any ner- 
vousness in consequence. 

It too often happens that the mischief is done by 
some unthinking, or inexperienced driver, and the 
animal rendered dangerous, or, at least, troublesoiue, 
to say the least. 



gin with, and, as the animal becomes used to the reir 
it luay, from time to time, be tied more loosely. 

It will thus be seen that it is impossible for the an 
mal to securely catch and hold the rein with the ta 
w'here this device is used ; and, by gently droppin 
the rein from side to side, without teasing the anima 
we soon establish confidence between us and the an 
mal. and the habit is eventually forgotten. We niic , 
used this device a whole summer on a very nervor] 
mare before she entirely gave it up. Prevention an 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



427 



confidence must be established before the habit is 
broken up. 

THE BALKY HORSE. 

The reader will, naturally, say to 'himself, you have 
"tackled" a subject in which we are all interested. 
But few of us know how to handle it (we refer to the 
horse), but all of us want to learn. 

WHAT IS A BALKY HORSE? 

A balky horse is one that has been badly han- 
dled or overloaded. His shoulders are sore or he 
is discouraged, disgusted, or prevented from going 
w'en he wanted to, and, naturally, says to 'himself, 

;i have stopped me, now I will go when I get 
' readv. Here wc are, and the question is "what are 
we going to do about it?" \\'ell, most people will be- 
gin to whip, yell, yank and pound the poor horse, and 



at the rear, sends 'him forward. Now we must take 
advantage of this lav/ in applying the remedy to the 
balky horse. Instead of the usual confusion, excite- 
ment and punishment, we quietly get down from the 
wagon, caress him as though nothing was wrong. 
We then take a rope or strap strong enough to draw 
t'he load, and from eight to ten feet long, with the 
short end toward us we lay the rope or strap across 
the tail of the horse, as seen in the first section of this 
department, Figs. 7 and 8, just below the end of the tail 
bone about three feet from the end of the rope or strap; 
now turn all t'he hair of the tail back toward the body 
of the horse, holding the same with the left hand. 
Reach under the tail and grasp the long part of the 
rope or strap 'with t'he right hand, bring it around the 
tail and tuck it under that part around the tail dou- 
ble, as shown in cut No. 20. 

As soon as t'he knot in the tail is drawn firmly, we 
tie the short end of the rope or strap to the end of the 




(No. 22.) 

so confuse him that he loses what horse sense he had 
and stands there like a post, puts his head over the 
other horse, or, throwing himself to the ground, 
breaks some part of the harness or wagon, and thus 
gains his point in the large majority of cases. 

REMEDY FOR BALKY HORSES. 

Before giving the remedy, we must repeat the law 
governing the horse, to-wit: Whatever happens at 
the front of the horse impels him backward ; and that 



then we quietly get into the wagon, taking the long 
tnd of the rope or strap into the wagon, as is well 
shown in cut No. 20, ready for t'he start. When we 
are all ready to start (not before) we touch the other 
horse with the whip or rein for a sudden start, which 
pulls on the other fellow's tail, and he wonders w'hat 
has so suddenly happened to him at the rear end, 
which induces him to, at once, move forward with- 
out further ceremony, wdiicli is very nicely repre- 
sented in cut No. 21. 

We prefer to keep the horse pulling by his tail un- 



428 



Stpck that are driven hard should not be confined too close stalls immediately. 




The Stake Winner. King Leaf, Chestnut Horse. Bred by 
J. D. Smith, Muir, Ky., Registered No. 15T3.5. Owned 
by The Errol Farm. Plymouth, Fla. 



til he becames fairly reconciled to that way of draw- 
ing and going steadily, when we quietly pull on the 
rope or strap we have in the wagon, whicli releases 
his tail and permits him to pull in the usual manner 
without stopping. This .'^hould he done while the 
horse is in motion, and, if he does not appreciate the 
change and should stop, we again get down, as quiet- 
ly as before, and connect him to the wagon by the 
tail and start as before, and keep it up much longer, 
repeating as often as necessary, until the liorse de- 
cides that he prefers to draw the loads by his shoul- 
ders, rather than his tail, as shown in cut No. 2.2. 

Our object in writing these articles is twofold ; 
first, to give a more complete description of the means 
and especiallv the methods, tlian we 'have heretofore 
observed Ijy other writers on the subject ; second, to 



be able, at least, to a degree to ameliorate the suffer- 
ings of our horses in the hands of those who would 
treat them more humanely if they only knew the 
means and methods by which they could effectively 
do so in an intelligent manner. We do not charge 
the abuse of our horses to the naturally cruel disposi- 
tions of their handlers, but to want of the proper 
means, and, also, to t'he iidierited impression that 
the horse is only a brute to be driven, driven, driyen, 
without giving this noble servant credit for scarcely 
any of his innate intelligence. 

We have given this subject close attention for more 
than 40 years, and have studied the natural laws by 
which the horse can be made as obedient, and useful 
an animal, as treads tlie earth through the means 
and methods of his education, ^^'e hope our articles 
will awaken an interest in the voung men of the 
South, to a better treatment of our greatest animal 
servant, the Horse. 




A Typical Southern Horse. Owned on Diversification Farm 
No. a, Uniontown, Ala. 



NOTE -Photographs on pages 339, 347, 370, 372, 379 and 395 were taken by Mr. 

William F. Nelson especially for this Book. 



Doses and Actions of Drugs 



NAME OF DRUG 


ACTION 


HORSES 


CATTLE 


SHEEP AND 
SWINE 


DOGS 


Acetanilid . . 


lleduces fever 


1 to 8 drams . 


2 to 10 dr. . . . 


10 to 60 gr . . . 


2 to 10 gr 


Acid, Boric. . . . 


External and intestinal antiseptic 


2 to 8 drams . 


2 to 10 dr. . . . 


30 to 60 gr . . . 


5 to 15 gr 


Carbolic 


External and internal antiseptic 


15 to 30 graina 


15 to CO gr. . . . 


5 to 10 gr ... 


1 to 2 drops 


" Gallic . . . 


Internal astringent 


1 to 2 drams . 
1 to G dr . . . 


2 to 3 dr . . . . 

2 to 10 dr. . . 


10 to 30 grains 
15 to 30 gr . . . 


5 to 15 gr 


Salycylic 


Intestinal antiseptic, anti-rheumatic 


5 to 10 gr 


'•inuic . ■ 


External and internal astringent 


1 to 4 dr ... 


2 to 5 dr. . . 


30 to 00 gr ... 


1 to 10 gr 


Aconite, Powder . . 
'• Extract . - 


Decrease the force and frequency of the heart 
Decrease the force and frequency of the hearf. 


€ to V-i gr . . . 
2' to .J 


5 to 20 gr. . . . 
2 to G gr . . . 


!X to 2 gr .... 
1/5 to Vi gr . . 


1. 10 to 1 gr 
1 10 to 1/3 gr 


'• Fluid extract 


Decrease the force and frequency of the heart. 


S to 20 m . . - 


5 to 30 m . . 


;-l to 2 m .... 


1,5 to 1 m. 


Aconitlne 

Alcohol 


Powerful heart depressent and toxic .... 
Increases force and frequency of heart. . ,. 


1/30 to 1/10 gr 
1 to 2 oz 


1/30 to 1/8 gr . 
2 to 3 oz 


1/100 to 1/50 gr 
1 to 3 dr. . . . 


1/200 to 1/50 gr. 
Yi to 1 dr 




Purgative 


2 to 10 dr. . . . 

1 to 3 dr .... 
1 to 2 dr .... 
4 to 12 dr . . . . 


3 to 12 dr ... 

1 to 4 dr ... 
1 to 4 dr ... 
5 to 15 dr. ... 


1 to 4 dr .... 

10 to 30 gr . . 
■A to 1 dr .... 
1 to 2 dr .... 


4 to 60 gr 






tines. ... 


1 to 5 dr 


Ammonia water . . 
' Spirit 


Heart and respiratory stimulant, antl-acjd. . . 
Heart and respiratory stimulant, anti-ac.d. . . 


2 to 10 m 
5 to 30 m 


* Spt aromatic . 
Ammonium Acetate . 


Heart, respiratory stim. expectorant, stomachic. 
D uretic, deaphoretic and anti-acid 


4 to i2 dr ... 


5 to 15 dr . . . 


1 to '^ dr 


.5 to CO m 


2 to 6 oz 


3 to 7 oz . . . . 


4 to 8 dr .... 


1 to 4 dr 


** Carbonate . . 


Heart and respiratory stimulant, expectorant, 
emetic 


1 to 3 dr ... 


1 to 4 dr .... 


15 to 40 gr . . . 


■■ to 8 gr 


Areca Nut 


Kills round and tape worms in Intestines. . 


4 to S dr . . . . 


5 to 10 dr ... 


30 to 90 gr . . 


l5 to 00 gr 


Arnica, tinct. of 

flowers .... 


Stimulates skin. Little valuelnternally. . . 


■4 to 1 oz ... 


'/4 to 1 oz 


1 to 2 dr .... 


15 to 40 m 


Arnica, tinct of root 


Stimulates skin. Little value internayy. . . 


,■4 to 1 oz . . . . 


% to 1 oz . . . . . 


1 to 2 dr .... 


Ul to 20 m 


Arsenic 

" Fowler's so- 


Poison. Destroys intestinal parasites. Tonic. 


3 to G gr . . . . 


i to 10 gr. . . . 


H to 1 gr .... 


1/60 to 1/10 jr 






2 to S dr 


3 to 10 dr . . . 


■/< to 1 dr ... 


2 to 10 m 


" Donovan's so- 










2 to 8 dr . . 

3 to 6 dr . . . 


3 to 10 dr ... 

4 to 8 dr .... 


!4 to 1 dr ... 
;/> to 1 dr ... 


2 to 10 m 


Aspidlum F Ext. . . . 


Destroys round and tape worms in intestines. . 


15 to 00 m ^ 


Oleo res'-n . . 


Destroys round and tape worms in intestines. . 


S to 6 dr . . . 


4 to 8 dr .... 


■/2 to 1 dr ... 


15 to 60 m 


Atropine sulphate. 


Increases frequency of heart. Checks secre- 


Vz to m gr . . . 
1 to 2 dr . . . . 


',< to 2 gr . . .' 
1 to 3 dr . . . . 


1/15 to 1, 12 gr 
10 to 15 m ... 


1 100 tn 1 -^0 gr. 


rtellartonna F. Ext of 


Increases frequency of heart. Checks secre- 
tions 


1 to 3 m 


Barium Chloride . . . 


Purgative, stimulates involuntary muscles. . . 


1 to 2 dr . . . . 


2 to 4 dr .... 


2 to 5 gr ... 


1/3 to 1 gr 


Bismuth Subnitrate . 


Protects mucous surfaces 


1 to 4 dr .... 


2 to 5 dr ... 


1 to 2 dr .... 


10 to 30 gr 






2 to 4 oz 

1 to 2 oz. ... 
1 to 2 dr. ... 

1 to 2 oz 

20 to 60 gr. . . 
1 to 2 oz. ... 

•4 to W" pts. . . 


3 to 6 oz 

2 to 3 oz 

2 to 4 dr .... 

1 to 2 oz 

20 to 00 gr . . 
1 to 4 oz .... 
1 to 2 pts . . . 
1 to 2 oz 


1 to 2 oz . . 
% to 1 dr .... 

2 to 20 gr . . 

2 to 4 dr .... 
5 to 15 gr ... 

2 to 6 dr .... 

3 to fi oz ... 
1 to 3 dr .... 


1 to 4 dr 


Buchu leaves 




10 to 30 gr 
1 to 5 gr . 


Calomel 


Purgrativo 


Camphor spirits . . 


Stimulates lieart. respirations of stomach and 


14 to 1 dr 






1 to 8 gr 
10 to 60 gr 

2 to 4 dr 


Charcoal 




Castor Oil .... 






Depresses brain, heart, respirations, antl-septlc 
r'sed ia eolio, diarrhoea, rough, anasthesia . 


1 to 2 oz. ... 


-5 to ''O gr 


Chloroform 


1 to 8 dr. . . . 


2 to 10 dr ... 


20 to CO m ... 


10 to 30 m 


Cinchoric bark . . . . 


Ton=c. r.stringent. anti-periodic 


2 to 6 dr 


■-.' to 10 dr ... 


1 to 4 dr ... 


10 to GO gr 


Copper Sulphate . . 
Crotoni oil 


Antiseptic, astringent, kills round worms. . . 
Irritant purgative 


1 to 2 dr 

15 to 30 m. . 


2 to 3 dr .... 
20 to 40 m . . 


3 to 20 gr ... 
5 to 10 m ... 


1/4 to 2 gr 
1/2 to 3 m 


Digitalis tinct . . . 


Increases force of heart, and diuretic 


■A to dr. ... 


1 to 8 dr . . . . 


!4 to 2 dr ... 


10 to 40 m 


Epsom salts 


Saline purgatives for cattle and sheep. . . . 


4 tu 10 oz. . . . 
V2 to 1 oz. ~. . . 
1 to 2 oz. ... 


S to 32 oz. ... 
Vi to 1 oz . . . . 
1 to 2 oz .... 


1 to 3 oz .... 

1 to 2 dr .... 

2 to 4 dr .... 


1 to 4 dr 
J^ to 1 dr 


Ether, nitrous .... 


General stimulant and diuretic 


10 to 60 m 


Gentian 




H to 1 oz. ... 


I'z to 2 oz .... 


1 to 3 dr ... 


5 to 30 gr 


" tine comp . 

linger 

" Fid ext . . . . 




1 to 4 oz. ... 

2 to 8 dr. . - . 
2 to 8 dr. . . 


2 to 4 oz 

4 to 10 dr ... 

3 to 10 dr . . . 


4 to 8 dr .... 
1 to 3 dr ... 
1 to 3 dr ... 


1 to 4 dr 


Improves appetite, aids in expelling gases. . . . 
Stomachic and carminative 


5 to 30 dr 
5 to 30 m 






1 to 2 oz. ... 

2 to 4 oz. . . . 
4 to 8 dr. ... 

1 to 2 oz. . . . 

2 to 8 dr ... 


1 to 3 oz .... 

"i to 6 oz. ... 
5 to 10 dr . . 

1 to 2 oz 

3 to 10 dr . . . 


2 to 4 dr 

1 to 2 oz .... 
1 to 4 dr .... 


10 to 60 m 


Glycerine 


Laxative and protective. Turgative 


1 to 3 dr 

^0 to CO dr 




Aptringont used in diarrhoea 

Stimulates motion and secretion in stomach 


2 to 4 dr .... 


;^ to 2 dr 


Ilydrast's (Goldeu 


1 to 2 dr ... 


5 to 60 gr 


Seal) 

itTdro'en Dioxide . . 




1 to 2 oz . . . 


1 to 3 oz . . . . 


1 to 4 dr .... 




Ant'sppfc external and interral; ....... 


'J to 2 dr 


Ilyascyamus 


Increases frequency of heart beats. rhecris 


>4 to 1 oz. ... 


4 to 10 dr . . . 


/, to 1 dr .... 


.f, to ^r, BT 


- 









-!"9 



NAME OF DRUG 

Ilyasi/yaniiis, fid. 

ext 

Hypopliosphltes, 

c. syr 

Iodine 

LugaTs Sol. . 

'• Tiuct 

Iodoform 

Ipicac 

Ipicac 

Iron chlorde tlact. 
Iron and Qninine 

citrate ., • • . • 
Iron su'.piiate. . . . 

Lime water 

Liuseed oil 

IVIagncsia 

Magnesium sulphate . 
Mercury wllli clialk 
Mercury bidiloride . 

Mercury red iodide 

Morpliine and its 

salts 

Mustard 



ACTION 



Mustard . . 
Nux vomica 



Oiive oil 
Opium . 



Increases frequency of Iieart beats, dilate 
pils. 



1)U- 



.Siimulates cell activity, and nutritive. 



ntiseptic, irritant, checks secretions 

Antiseptic, irritant, checks secretions 

Antiseptic, irritant, checks secretions 

.Vni;scpt;c, Irritant, checks secretions 

;;xpecturant - 

L^metic 

Ponic, astringent, antiseptic, desiroys worms. . 

Tonic, astringent, antiseptic, antiperiodic. . . 
Tonic, astringent, antiseptii!; destroys worms. 

Anti-acid. Checks diarrhoea 

Purgative and protective 

Used to check diarrhoea in- calves and cults 

Saline purgative (best for catf.e) 

For diarrhoea in calves and colts 

Externally antiseptic 1 to 1000, Internally an 

tiseptic, etc 

Used as blister, 1 part in 4 to S of lard or 

vaseline 



arcotic, antispasmodic 

i water, externally, mild blister, int. a sti 

mulant 

as an emetic 

ilespiratory, heart and bowel stimulant. . . . 
Uespiratory, heart and*1joweI st-mulant. . . . 

Laxative, purgative and protective. 

Xarcnric, depresses actityi and secretion of 

bowels 

X.ircolic. depresses action and secretiou,of l^n 

els 



*• " Camphtn 

Pumpkin Seed . . . ■ 
Petroleum (vaseline) 
Physostigmine .... 

Pilocarpine and salts 

Podophyllin 

Potassium Carbonate 
Iodide .... 

" nitrae 

" permanganate . 

Pyrethrum 

Quinine and Salts 

Santonin 

Sodium bicarbonate. 
Sodium bromide . . . 
Sodium hyposulphite 

" salicylate . . . 

" sulphate . . . 
Stramonium, fid ext. 
Strophonthus tinct . 

Strychnine and salts 

Rulpliur 

Sweet spirits of nitre 

Tallianine 

'j'urpentine 

Tiirpentine 

Turpentine 

Veratrum viride, 

fid. ext 

Virburnum. prun, fid 

ext 



Paregoric, narcoiic, depresses action and 
cretlon of bowels. 

Destroys tape worms 

For sore throat when dry. rougn or raw. 

^alycylate or sulphate, purgative, hypoderml- 
(■ally 



HORCL3 



CATTLE 



1 li. S dr. 



to 2 oz. . 
to 1 dr. 
to 4 dr. . 
to 4 dr. . 
to 8 dr. . 
to 2 dr. . 



1 to 



oz. 



1 to 4 dr. . . 
1 to 2 dr. . 

4 to 6 oz. . 
V2 tolVi pt. . 
1 to 4 dr. . 
1 to 2 lb. . 
10 to 15 gr 

5 to 8 gr. . . 



3 to 10 gr. . 

4 to S dr. . 

K to 2 dr. . 

: to 6 dr. . 

I to IK' pt. 

1 to 2 dr. . 

1 t(.) 2 oz. . 

2 to 4 oz . . 
1 to 8 oz. . . 



Increases saliva and stimulates intestines. . . 

Stimulates liver, purgative 

.\nti-acid, alkalizer of the plasma of the blood 
Stimulates cell activity and lymph glands. . 

Depresses heart, stimulates kidneys 

Used chiefly as mild antiseptic externally. 

Used chiefly to drive away fleas, etc 

Tonic (small doses) to reduce fever large dose 

Destroy intestinal worms 

irastric Sedative, alkalizer of blood plasma. . 

.Verve depressent. Narcotic 

Gastro-intestinal. antiseptic. Jaxative 

.Vnti-rheumatic, intestinal antiseptic 

(rlaubers Salts," pur.gative 

( Jimson weed) action same as Belladonna. . . 
Decreases frequency and increases force of 

heart 

Stimulates heart, respirations and spinaLniotor 

nerves 

Gastro-intestinal disinfectant. Purges . . . 

Same as nitrous ether 

Given intravenously in lung fever, etc. . . 

To destroy intestinal worms 

To stimulate the kidneys . . 

To expel gases from intestines and antisepi 



Depresses heart and acts like aconite. 
Depress Uterus, prevent al>ortion. . . 



1 to 1V4 gr. 

1 to 3 gr. . 

1 to 2 dr. 

4 to 8 oz. 

4 to 8 dr. . 

4 to 8 dr. . 



;4 to 5 dr 



4 to S dr. . 

1 to 4 oz. . 

1 to 2 oz . . 

1 to 2 oz. 

2 to S dr. . 
8 to IG oz. 
20 to 00 m 

1 to 4 dr. . 



Vi to 2 gr. 
2 to* 4 oz. 



2', dr. . . 

1 to .■> oz. 

2 to dr. 
1 to 2 oz. 



2 to ."i dr. . 
1 to 4 oz. 



JHEEP AND 
SWINE 



-1 to 10 dr 



1 to 3 oz . 

1 to 2 dr. 

2 to 4 dr 
to 4 dr 

5 to 10 dr 
2 to 3 dr . 

t to 2 oz . 

1 to 8 dr . 
1 to 3 dr . 
to 8 oz . 

1 to 2 pts . 

2 to 4 dr 
1 to 2 lbs 
10 to 30 gr 

5 to 10 gr 



4 to 12 gr 
4 to 10 gr 

2 to 3 dr 

2 to s dr 
1 to 2 pt 



2 to 4 dr . 

1 to 3 oz . 

2 to G oz 
1 to 10 oz 

1 to 2 gr 

3 to G gr . 

2 to ! dr 
to 10 dr 

4 to 8 dr . 
4 to 10 dr 



1 to 8 dr . 
4 to 10 dr . 

2 to 5 oz 
1 to 3 oz . 

1 to 3 oz . 

2 to 10 dr 
1 to 2 lb . . 
30 to 00 m 

1 to 8 dr 

1 to 2 gr . 

3 to 6 oz 



3 dr . . . . 

2 to 4 oz 

3 to 8 dr 

1 to 3 oz . 

2 to 3 oz 
2 to 5 oz 



y< to 1 dr . 

2 to 4 dr 
ill to 20 gr 
20 to 40 m . 
2U to 40 m . 
10 to 30 gr 
;i to 1 dr . 
■4 to 1 dr . 
20 to 60 m . 

;ii 10 oil gr . 
20 to oi' *gr 
1 to' 3 oz . 
(r to 12 oz . . 
1 to 2 dr . 
4 to S oz . . 
I to 10 gr. . 



1 to 2 gr . 

1 to 2 dr . 
4 to 8 dr 
10 to 20 gr 
20 to 40 m 
4 to 8 oz . 



,T to 30 gr . 

2 to dr . 

4 to 8 dr 
4 to 8 oz . 
2 to 4 dr 



r^ to 30 gr . 
30 to 60 gr 
10 to 30 gr 
30 to 60 gr 



5 to 40 gr 

1 to 3 dr 

2 to 4 dr . . 
2 to 4 dr . . 
30 to GO gr 
■-;. to 2 dr 

1 to 2 oz . . 
.-. to 10 m 

r. lo 30 m . 



1/30 to 1/5 gr 
1 to 2 oz . . 



5 to 15 m . 
I.; to 1 oz 
1 to 2 dr . . 

1 to 4 dr . . 

40 to 60 ra . 

2 to 4 dr . 



DOGS 



to 15 m 

1 dr 

'- to 8 gr 

2 to 10 m 
2 to 10 m 
2 to 8 gr 
V4 to 2 gr 
1.1 to 30 gr 
5 to 30 m 

5 to 10, gr 
1 to 5 gr 
1 to 8 dr 

4 to 8 dr 

5 to GO gr 

1 to 3 gr 

1/30 to 1/8 gr 



1/8 to 1/2 gr 

10 to 15 gr 

4 dr 

1 to 2 gr 

5 to 15 m 
1 to 3 oz 

1 to 3 gr 

'i to 30 m 

1 to 4 dr 
1 to 2 oz 
1 to 2 dr 



1 to 3 gr 
5 to 20 gr 

2 to 15 gr 
5 to 20 gr 



to 10 gr 
lo 20 gr 

to 30 gr 
to GO gr 
to 30 gr 
to 30 gr 
to 30 gr 

to 5 m 



2 to 10 m 

1/120 to 1/30 gr 

1 to 4 dr 

2 to 6 m 
K to 4 dr 
5 to 10 m 
10 to 30 m 

2 to S m 

10 to 60 m 



430 



Book XII 

« 

Hog Dfpartment 



EDITED AND REVISED BY 



GEN. THOMAS T. MUMFORD, 

Manager 
U. S. Diversification Farm No. 3, at Oakland, near 
Uniontown, Alabama. 




A Southern Scene. 



A Good Farmer Raises His Own Meat. 



433 



INTRODUCTION. 

The Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. 
C., has opened the way for a new era. They have 
estabHshed a Diversification Farm No. 3, on Oak- 
land, the Munford Plantation, near Uniontown, Ala- 
bama. It is an object lesson, a reality, and not .an 
experiment. There they teadh how hogs are raised 
economically. It is a specialty. The hogs are graz- 
ed and fed on alfalfa, Bermuda grass, hairy vetch, 
white clover, peas, beans and sorghum, and the last 
three weeks of their lives corn and cotton seed thor- 



to the importer of these Western shippers, who sup- 
ply not only their corn fed hogs, but also a large part 
of their corn. 

We now come to the real business of this matter. 
Prof. W. J. Spillman, representing the Bureau of An- 
imal Industry, at Washington, D. C, paid a visit to 
this section of Alabama, and addressed by invitation 
a body of planter^ of this vicinity. He made this 
proposition: "That the Department of Agriculture 
could demonstrate at a minimum cost the price of a 
pound of bacon, which could be raised on our lands, 
if the opportunity was afforded." He said that he 




SHOrNER'S L. & W. PERrECTION Z^96l C. 



Fig. 1. — Weighed wlieu 1 year old 535 lbs. Present weiglit 901 lbs. Owned by B. C. Sliafuer, Mulberry, Tenn. 



ougTily fermented in their food. The aim is not to 
winter pigs which are intended to be slaughtered, but 
that the brood sows should be farrowed in April and 
May and their pigs killed in January or February, the 
I same year,- weighing froin 150 to 200 pounds, and 
j raised at a minimum cost. 

I I have heard it said that everybody cannot raise 
hogs for profit. Our population increases over 2,- 
|i 000,000 annually in the U. S. The census shows that 
I about 47,000,000 hogs are raised annually, and that 
'their money value points to $289,000,000.00. Every 
I man knows that in every village and town of the 
i South, tons of hog products are brought into the 
(town, and heavy tribute is paid to the railroads and 



was prepared to furnish the proper seed and to de- 
monstrate how the land should be prepared, and 
would guarantee the best results, if the owner of the 
land would furnish the land and do the labor, and 
follow implicitly his plans and specifications. I of- 
fered him all that he required, and have been delight- 
ed with the progress and results. He suggested that 
hogs be the specialty and the entire product of the 
land should in one form or another pass through the 
hog, — in other words, we would raise hogs. 

I asked what kind of hogs? He replied that, per- 
sonally, he preferred one kind, that it was a matter 
of fancy or taste; that there are many valuable breeds 
and that he would leave that to me. The Berkshire 



29 



434 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



breed pleased both of us, and I at once formulated 
my plans, but he winked at me and suggested that 
time was an important factor, for said he. "we must 
first prepare the food and then get the hogs." "Ours 
is an object lesson, and I will have sent to you enough 
alfalfa seed to occupy fifteen acres, and some varie- 
ties of corn and peas different from what you have, 
and some sorghum seed, and when these have grown 
in sight, we will talk about how to use them." We 
began to prepare for alfalfa in February and in ]\'Iarch 
it came up beautifully. We used twenty lbs. of seed 
per acre. In April we had a beautiful green field and 
in May it was ready to be foraged. This was for the 
hogs. We had a first-rate old Bermuda pasture well 
sprinkled with white clover, which is invaluable in 
wet and muddy weather, as the hogs do not cut it up. 

We "ring" all our hogs in their noses, and find that 
a good piece of wire answers as well as anything seen 
on the market as "Hog Nose Rings." With a keen 
punch we make an opening, through which the wire 
is promptly inserted, a stick a half an inch in diam- 
eter is placed next to the nose, pulled over and 
twisted and cut with a pair of nippers, and it will 
generally stay there as long as they live. The wild 
hog's maxim is "root pig or die" and a choice tuba 
of many kinds whets his appetite, but it is work. If 
he is placed where he can get tender herbage at will, 
and plenty of fresh water, he will eat until he is full 
and not "pester" himself much about what is under 
the ground, unless there are roots planted for his 
consumption, and upon w'hich he has to depend. W^e 
planted fifteen acres in early corn and laid it by. by 
seeding about two bushels of peas to the acre, which 
we covered with a weeder. (And we here exhibit an 
object lesson from a photograph of the alfalfa, corn, 
peas and sorghum.) 

Having seen what was intended to be fed, I col- 
lected as fine Berkshire hogs as I could find in Mary- 
land, Virginia, North Carolina and Kentucky, includ- 
ing crossing of the best imported English Berkshire. 
Our young boar is a picture. At eighteen months 
old, he weighed four hundred and fifty-three pounds 
gross, and we have endeavored to keep down his 
flesh, rather than crowd him by extra feeding. 

I now come to shelters. When I asked what I 
should build, the reply was "that depends upon your 
taste and surroundings." Professor Spillman only 
wished an object lesson. Men must be governed by 
their ability, and are here to raise hogs economically, 
but there are prerequisites or cardinal principles in- 



volved to ensure success. I see no necessity for elab 
orate buildings. What we demand for our hogs ii 
good, warm, dry shelter from cold Avinds and rains 
Good beds and plank floors are needed, and goo) 
troughs to feed in that are not in the mud. Thj 
hogs must be kept free from dust and vermin, fq 
these are enemies to hogs and pigs. A plenty o 
fresh, clean water is absolutely necessary for then 
to drink. It is a good plan to 'have charcoal fo 
them, as it is a fine sedative. It is carbon in a dif 
ferent form, and is assimilated in large quantitie' 
and hogs improve on it. Also salt, wood ashes anf 
a little sulphur mixed is acceptable to the hogs 

They will eat it when they require if 
When anything is wrong with a hog he should b 
immediately taken from the rest, and if he dies h,i 
should be burned or buried. Dogs and buzzards, th" 
scavengers of the farm, often contaminate water b| 
their voiding, and propagate diseases as violent a 
the fly and the mosquito does, and should be guarc' 
ed against. All ill-formed, sick or injured pigs ha 
better be given away than mar the beauty of a fin 
herd of hogs or pigs. 

Lice can readily be detected and gotten rid of b 
using a sprav of kerosene oil, turpentine soap an 
warm water. The hog in self-defense seeks a wallow 
plasters head, ears and back with soft mud, which n 
vermin can live in. The vermin are encased in thi 
mud and when it dries, the. hog rakes it all off by 
scratching post. If this scratching post is wrappe 
with a bag which has been saturated with kerosen 
oil, the hogs will rub agains it, and this will greatlj 
aid in keeping the vermin off. I 



FEEDING. 



We believe that the hog will consume as muc 
grass in proportion to size as any other animal, an| 
when just grain enoug'h to keep them gentle, wi 
thrive as much, and grow as fast towards maturitj 
as any other animal. They delight in tender herbage 
A handful of meal given to them daily seems to stici 
to their kidneys and they lay on fat rapidly. A littl! 
corn or rice meal, and well fermented cotton seed fe 
daily to hngs will make an astonishing increase i 
their weight, and it is a perfectly safe feed. Ra' 
cotton seed in any quantity is a poison to them. Fc 
fancy hogs, skimmed milk is an ideal ration, also wi 
be found to be excellent for pigs. Alfalfa will mal<! 
a hog as cheap as any ration I can use. 



You Can Raise Meat Cheaper Than Your Can Buy II. 



435 



Brood sows should be especially provided for. She 
should have a good, dry place to sleep and a dry floor 
sloping so as to drain well. A rail should be arrang- 
ed as a shield for the young pigs. It should be about 
eight inches from the floor to prevent the sow from 
laying upon 'the pigs and killing them at farrowing 
time. 

We believe that the Berkshire thorough--bred boar 
is the most desirable head of the herd. They seem 
to propagate their great muscular power and activity, 
their fine forms and their luniforniity of color and 
marks. Tlie boar should be .kept separate from the 
brood sows, except vv'hen to be mated. He should 
have e.xercise, and should not be used more than 
once a day. 

The cross of the Berkshire boar with the native 
sow produces the best crosses for what is known as 
Smiihfield bacon. These hams sell a'j v.diolesale for 




^i^^:.-.'Ustai.t^: -^ 



Fig. 2. — Hogs on Erroll Farm, Plymuuth, Fla. 

twenty to thirty cents per pound and the demand far 
exceeds the supply. Breakfast bacon of this kind 
brings twenty cents per pound. A good brood sow 
should raise from twelve to nineteen pigs each year, 
and the pigs if kept thrifty are marketable at any 
season of the year. 

SALT AND ASHES. 

A box of salt should always be kept in one corner 
of the pen where the hogs can have free access to it. 
They should also have free access to wood ashes. If 



you give them plenty of salt and wood ashes, you 
will not be troubled with disease, as otherwise you 
would be. 

PURE WATER. 

Investigations carried on by the Bureau of Animal 
Industry of the Agricultural Department show that 
hogs often contract diseases, although there is no ap- 
parent cause, when they have access to stream of 
running water. Invesligation shows that germs which 
cause many of the diseases of hogs are transmitted 
by means of the water from one locality to another. 
Hogs need plenty of fresh water, and they need it a 
great deal. A good place to wallow will help them, 
provided it is kept clean. Alud is not filthy, but the 
wallowing place can become filthy. Keep plenty of 
good, pure water for him to drink and bathe in. They 
do this in order to cool off. 

RAISING HOGS A PROFITABLE INDUSTRY. 

The farmers of the South certainly need to raise 
their own meat. Every farmer can raise meat enough 
to do his family and hands without any cost practi- 
cally, and when he fails to do so he is not taking ad- 
vantage of the opportunities that are his. There is 
more money in hogs than there is in cotton. The 
great advantage in raising hogs is that they consume 
a great deal of matter that would otherwise be wast- 
ed were it not for them. In raising hogs it will pay 
you to have a pasture for them to run in. Raise your 
own meat. If you cannot do this you cannot succeed 
in the highest sense of the word as a farmer. 

THE BREEDS. 

It does not make so much difference as to the breed 
of hogs a man uses. He should select that breed 
which best suits his taste or fancy best. One breed 
would suit one man, while another breed would suit 
another. The better the breed of hogs, the more care 
they will have to have. If you are not going to look 
after your hogs, you had better get old familiar razor 
back, for they require little attention. However, you 
do not secure as good pork from the old razor back 
as you would from a better breed. If you have 
fine Poland-China, and are going to allow them to 
root for a living as you would the razor back, you 
will get very poor returns. The raising of hogs is a 



436 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



business and requires attention and thought. If >xiu mature. They sunscald easily in the South, but are 
succeed you must study your business. very popular breeds in the East and North. 



Berkshire. — The Berkshire is a black hog with 
white feet, white line in the face, pug. up-turned nose, 
with occasional white spots over the body. Ears are 
erect. The sows are prolific and active. Good s'hoats 
weigh from 250 to 300 pounds at from nine to twelve 
months old. Their bones are small, and consequent- 
ly are not so good for shipping, as their legs are easily 
broken. This is a very popular breed in the South. 

Poland-China. — The Poland-Chinas are black and 
white spotted hogs weighing from 250 pounds and on 
upwards from nine to twelve months old. They 'have 
large hams, short, strong legs, and for that reason 
make fine shippers. This breed is grown more by 
the Western farmers. 



Victorias. — The Victorias are made up of two dis- 
tinct breeds, the Davis and Curtis. Both are white 
hogs and weigh from 300 to 400 pounds from nine to 
twelve months old. It is claimed for the Victorias 
that t'hey are little subject to mange and sunscald 
here in the South. The sows are prolific and are 
good mothers. 

Yorkshire. — The small Yorkshires are pure white 
hogs with pink skin. These hogs weigh when ma- 
ture from 375 to 400 pounds. They will do as well 
in t'he South as any of the white breeds, but "it is 
claimed that they cannot compete with the black 
haired hogs. 

Let it be added here with emphasis that the larger 




Fig 



-Hugs ou U. S. Divei-siUcaliou P'arm No. o. Uuiontuwu, Ala. 



Duroc-Jersey. — The Duroc-Jersey is a red haired 
hog, and very much resembles the Poland-China. 
Well matured shoats from nine to twelve months 
weigh about 250 to 300 pounds. They are excellent 
feeders, stand forcing well, and never sun scald. The 
bones are large, and the sows are very prolific. The 
hogs when mature weigh from 600 to 700 pounds. 

The Chester-Whites and the Improved Chester- 
Whites are both white breeds. The hogs dress from 
17s to 250 pounds when from eigfht to nine months 
old, and go anywhere from 600 to Too pounds when 



breeds do not always pay. If a good large prize is 
offered for the largest hog grown in the country, you 
may compete for the prize, but I would advise not 
to attempt to raise extra large hogs. Large hogs are! 
not wanted at t'he butcher pen, and they are not as 
profitable to the producer as a medium size hog. It 
does not pay to keep hogs until they are old, for they 
will soon eat up the profits. Spring pigs should be 
fattened the same year, for it does not pay to keep 
them over. They are more liable to disease, and eat 
too much. Anywhere from 200 to 300 pounds is a^ 
very good weight for a hog. To go over that weight 



^ 



Peanuts Make A Very Fine Feed For Hogs- 



437 



is a waste of money. The same corn will produce 
more meat in smaller hogs. 

HOW TO RAISE HOGS. 

In raising hogs common sense should prevail. They 
must be protected from the cold. Now, of course, it 
will not be argued that they should have as elaborate 
buildings as are required in the North. But they 
should have ample protection. Their sleeping places 
should be dry and clean. When it comes to pastures 
and pens, circumstances will have to determine. We 
would not advise using pens for any length of tmie. 
It is much cheaper to have a pasture. A hog pasture 
does not mean a dust lot with a few old weeds in it, 
but it means a good range with a lot of good feed 
in there for them. It is a losing game to try to raise 
hogs in a dry lot, using nothing but corn for food. 
While in the pen some green food, such as Bermuda 
srrass, should be fed. 
i In raising hogs, the owner must have good fences 
about tiis pasture. A hog can make himself an intol- 
I erable nuisance unless he be kept in an enclosure, 
and good fences are necessary to keep him there. 
The boar is ready for service at from six to eight 
|, months old, but it is far better to allow him to be- 
|i come ten months old before he is allowed to serve. 
The sow is capable of breeding when she is seven or 
I eight months old, but it is better that she not bring 
her first litter of pigs until she is fourteen or fifteen 
months old. Two litters of pigs per year is all that 
a sow should be allowed to raise, and many breeders 
are satisfied with one. It is better that the first litter 
eome by the first of March, and then by the first of 
the following year they are ready to kill. Pigs thus 
raised will bring one cent per pound more than if 
■ they had been wintered and weighed fifty pounds 
more. The thing to do is to push their fattening 
l| from the time they are born until they are killed, for 
the daily increase in flesh becomes less and less as 
; the animal increases in age. 

Pigs should be weaned in the spring from six to 
seven weeks old, and in the fall from seven to eight 
weeks old. In weaning them they should have skim- 
' med milk, butter milk, corn meal, or some soft feed. 
Corn meal is a very poor food for pigs, as it furnish- 
es fat only, and should not be used except to fatten 
hogs. Pigs should be castrated when from two to 
three weeks old, as it is far better to castrate them 
then than to allow t'hem to get older, as they should 



have ample time to get well, which requires three 
weeks, before they are weaned. Castration is a sim- 
ple operation. Anyone who has ever seen it done can 
do so without any trouble. Gestation in sows is ac- 
complished in three months, three weeks and three 
days. When you once get a good sow, hold on to her, 
for young sows are quite frequently bad mothers. A 
sow should continue to be prolific for about eight 
years, unless she is allowed to become too fat. 

HOG FEED. 

Since hogs must be fed the question of greatest im- 
portance is the feed question. We will consider brief- 
ly some of the best foods that are used for hogs. 

The peanut is hard to beat for hogs, especially in 
the South, and in counties where the land is poor. 
The good part about peanuts is, that they will grow 
on land where nothing else scarcely will grow. Land 
that will not produce other things, often will produce 
fine peanuts, and these cannot be better used than in 
feeding to pigs. The place where they are planted 
should be fenced, and the hogs will do their own har- 
vesting. The value of peanuts as a fattening food 
was tested by experiment, and found that it is great- 
er than either soy beans, corn or chufas. The fat 
produced by the peanuts is softer and more oily Uian 
any of the others. Perhaps the table of the experi- 
ment will be of interest to some. This expe'-iment 
was published in Bulletin No. 54 of the Arkansas 
Station. 

UEST'I.TS OF riO.FEEDI\n EXrEKIMENT. 











SO 
















^ ^ 


J2 


ID 


^§ 






61) 


= 5 


C3 

.4- ai 






l& 









f," 




:5 i" 


3" 


a a, 








% "S 






>: 


£5 






s 


be =3 

"S 'to 


M 






8 a 


Lot 1 


(peanuts) . . . . 


1 


406 


760 


844 


294 


2.2 


Lot 2 


(soy beans) . . . 


4 


499 


590 


... 


91 




Lot 3 


(corn) 


3 


417 


646 


754 


T2i) 


2.4 


Lot 4 


(chufas) .... 


•i 


3fi4 


482 


562 


118 


1.4 



Corn and corn meal are used to fatten hogs, but 
should not be used when the pigs are growing. In 
other words, while the pig is growing they must have 
something that will produce bone and muscle, and 
this corn does not do. Shorts is one of the very best 
feeds for growing pigs, as it -contains a plenty of mat- 
ter for bone and muscle. 



438 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE 



There are many other feeds that can be raised in 
t'lie South, and they should be adopted. Molasses 
that until recently found no sale, has been found to 
be quite valuable as a hog food, and now commands 
a good price as such. 

As to pastures, rape makes a very fine pasture, 
and is being grown for that purpose quite a great 
deal now. It makes a quick pasture, and you get 
quick returns. 

SCRATCHING POST. 

Hogs enjoy a good scratch. They are not only 
comfortable to the hog, but they can be of great ser- 
vice to hog men, in that they can be wrapped with 
burlap, which is oiled, and when the hog scratches 
he gets greased, which will keep vermin off of him. 
Or you may wrap around the post a good ^Manilla 




Fig 



4.— Head of tne Herd. 



rope as high as the hog stands, and saturate this with 
crude petroleum, or kerosene, though petroleum is 
better, and you 'have an ideal scratching post. This 
oil is fatal to lice and mites. 

KEEPING MEAT THROUGH THE SUMMER. 

Allow all the animal heat to escape by killing the 
day before packing. Block out the meat over even- 
ing, taking off the head, feet, loose fat, backbone andt 
spareribs, and allow it to cool in such blocks, being 
careful not to let it freeze. After the meat has thor- 
oughly cooled in that manner, then trim it, taking off 
the lard and sausage meat that is needed. Cut the 
meat in sizes that you desire, being careful to rub 



each piece thoroughly with salt, and pack in a box 
with plenty of salt. When the meat has taken enough 
salt, take it out of the box, scrape the salt off, and 
hang it up. Smoke it with hickory, or corn cobs, us- 
ing a pod of pepper to drive away flies. When dry, 
pack away the meat in a box, but do not allow the 
meat to touch the box, using corn cobs between the 
meat and box. The 'hams should not be packed down, 
but should be hung after you have covered them with 
a paste made from ground black pepper and syrup 
or molasses. This paste should be thoroughly rub- 
bed in, and the hams hung where the rats cannot get 
to them. Borax spoils the flavor of the meat, and 
should not be used. Saltpeter should not be put on 
the meat if it will take the salt without it, as it har- 
dens the meat. 

TO PICKLE MEAT. 

Dress the hog late in the afternoon or evening. 
Cut up and remove the bone, and let it lie until morn- 
ing. Make a strong brine, — just as strong as salt 
will make it, boil and skim, and allow it to cool. Then 
place the pork in it, taking care that it be covered. 
Let it stand forty-eight 'hours. Then remove the 
pork, and empty the brine, and bo'l for five minutes 
and skim. Cool the brine, and place the meat in as 
before. Allow it to stand for twenty-four hours, re- 
move the pork and boil as before, placing it back af- 
ter the brine has cooled. Then place the brine and 
pork in a cool place and allow it to stand there. If 
t'he meat gets too salty^ soak in water before cook- 
ing. 

Another good plan is as follows: 

To 400 pounds of meat (fresh) : 

One-fourth ounce pulverized red pepper. 

One-half ounce saltpeter. 

Four pounds sugar. 

One gallon salt. 

Mix together and salt down in the usual way and 
keep t'he meat weighted down tmder the brine. Of 
course, meat managed in this manner would have to 
be well bled, hung up to drip an hour or two. That 
is, leave the hogs hanging after dressing so there will 
be as little blood as possible, as you do not take it 
up after first putting down. Beef is especially nice 
pickled this way. 



Ycu Ought to Have a Good Hog Pactur 



439 



WHY HE FAILED V/ITH HOGS 

Because he bred from worn-out stock. 
Because his pigs tools: the scours from sleeping in 
cold, damp beds. 

Because he failed to provide ample range for his 
sows. 

Because he had some litters coming in mid^winter. 
j Because he did not know that a pig's stomach is 
j small, and needs constantly replenishing. 
i Because he did not keep his pigs in clean beds. 

i Because he did not use his train in keeping and 
I looking after his pigs. 

Because he did not feed them plenty of good, whole- 
some food. 

Because he did not provide that his pigs should 
have plenty of good water. 

Because he did not 'have a good pasture for his 
hogs to run in. and depended on keeping them up 
and feeding them corn. 



HOG PHILOSOPHY. 

The bacon hog does not stay a bacon hog very long' 
on corn. 

Seven or eight pigs to the litter is the proper ca- 
per; if you will just save and raise them. 

A runty pig is one that eats his head off three or 
four times a year. 

Hogs when properly raised are good mortgage lift- 
ers. 

Do not feed the sow until the litter of pigs is a 
day or two old. It is better that she go hungry a 
day or so, than to feed her right away. 

The bed for the brood sow should be changed oc- 
casionally. 

In choosing a brood sow, look well to one that has 
depth of body, good quarters and length, with nice 
ears common to her kind. 

Keep the pigs growing from the start. 'A setback 
to growing pigs is quite easy and it takes more time 
and feed to recover the loss than many are aware of. 



STATION OFFICERS. 



J, M RICHESOM. HI 5. OmtCTOB AND StCBETARJ, 
J F C0NN6R. V M VETERINARIAN 
WM MUnrORO, TREASURER. 



GANEBRAKE AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT STATION. 



BOARD OF CONTROL. 



W h. TAVLOE. CHAIRMAN 

R A BARDIE. WM M'. ■ FC^O. 

J S CAREER. J HUCCIKS. 

R. R POOIE. COM.'B ACR.. EX-OFflCIO 



■LrTHOMTOViTM, AL^ 



^ /^¥ /^^e 







6-'l^H--l-Ty 



OjL 









6 -.^Lyi-^ 




/ky^ ^ CiiTPt^^^tytn^ 



440 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Contagious Diseases 



SWINE PLAGUE OR HOG CHOLERA. 

Cause. — The greatest draw-back to the hog indus- 
try is the disease commonly known as Hog Cholera, 
or Swine Plague. The two diseases, Swine Plague, 
and Hog Cholera, are so closely related that it is in- 
deed difficult to tell them apart, and the treatment 
for one is the same as that of the other, so they will 
be treated together here. This is a germ disease of 
a virulent nature and very contagious and proves 
fatal nearly every time. The disease is so important 
that it will doubtless be well to go into details. 
While it is a germ disease, and is brought on by be- 
ing w'here other hogs have it, or in any manner re- 
ceiving the germs from t'hem, still there are certain 
surroundings that cause hogs to be affected when 
they would not be, were they in different conditions. 
It is almost invariably the case that hog cholera is 
due to the owner not having suitable accommoda- 
tions for his hogs. It used to be that the woods af- 
forded plenty of shelter for hogs, but not so now. A 
great many people have the idea that hogs do not re- 
quire any shelter. A greater mistake was never 
made. Pl'ace a lot of hogs in a filthy lot, with a foul 
hole of water in it, without a shelter to go in, and 
feed them filthy food, and you cannot be surprised 
that you have the hog cholera. Just such as that 
puts the hog in first-class position to get sick. The 
disease cannot spread without the small microbes 
getting from the affected animal to those not affect- 
ed. These germs or microbes can be carried in sev- 
eral ways: by the 'hogs themselves; on the clothing 
of persons, so you see how unwise it is for you to go 
over to see your neighbors' hogs that are affected, 
and come back and give yours the same disease, by 
bringing the germs with you; by vehicles; in feeds; 
dogs; streams, and, in fact, several other ways. It is 
very important not to let your hogs get the cholera. 

Symptoms. — The disease seldom appears in the 
summer, and usually appears when the first cold spell 
appears in the fall, the hog taking cold. Some of 
them run at the nose, others thump at the sides^ w'hile 
others refuse to eat. Sometimes they swell up in the 
joints and get down so that they cannot walk. They 



frequently have high fevers, and the hair comes out. 
Sometimes t'hey die inniiediately, and sometimes they 
linger for a month, or perhaps not quite so long. 
Frequently they swell up all over, and their eyes 
will close up. The appetite is very poor. At times 
their jaws appear to be locked, and their ears will get 
sore and rot off. 

Treatment. — Hog cholera is a very difficult disease 
to treat. Prevention is far better than cure. We 
give, however, some remedies that have been used ^ 
extensively: 

One-half pound sulphur, 
One-half pound copperas. 
One-half pound black antimony, 
One gallon powdered charcoal. 
One pint of salt. 

One peck of 'hard vvook (oak, liickory) ashes. 
Mix thoroughly and place under shed where the ' 
hogs can get to it at will. I 

Another treatment: i 

One pound wood -charcoal, I 

One pound sulphur, I 

Two pounds sodium chloride, or common salt, i 
Two pounds sodium bi-carbonate, j 

Two pounds sodium hypo-sulphate, ' 

One pound sodium sulphate, ■: 

One pound antimony sulphid, (black antimony.) ;, 

A large tablespoonful once a day for each 200J 
pounds live weight of hogs to be given as a dose. 
These ingredients should be thoroughly pulverized 
and thoroughly mixed. The medicine should be thor-i 
oughly mixed with the feed, which should be soft,! 
such as bran, middlings, corn meal, ground wheat or' 
oats mixed with hot water. If the hogs will not eat,! 
they should be drenched. Now there are wrong ideasj 
about drenching hogs. They can be drenched, but, 
should never be turned on their backs to drench i 
them. The medicine should be poured very slowly^ 
down them, as it is an easy matter to suffocate them.; 

Prevention. — There are several ways of preventing 
t'he disease from spreading. The following remedy 
is said to be a good preventative : 



It Is Easier to Prevent Diseases Than to Cure Them. 



441 



Two parts common salt. 

One part pulverized sulphur, 

One part pulverized copperas. 

Cooking soda, one ounce to ten pounds of the mix- 
ture. 

Give one tablespoonful to each grown hog twice a 
week in their feed. 

Cleanhness is certainly needed with hogs. It is a 
wrong idea that hogs should not be kept clean. Hogs 
i should have dry, warm, well ventilated pens. The 
j average hog pen of the South is a disgrace to the 
owner. Many people have no business whatever with 
hogs, for they certainly do not take care of them. A 
' hog is not going to stay in a filthy place, unless com-, 
pelled to do so. The trough in which a hog is fed 
should be kept clean, and the drinking water pure. 
I know that this is not the practice, and I also know 
that losses in hogs are caused by tliis. Care should 
be observed that the hogs do not drink watef, or go 
into a stream which is infected. Keep the hog wal- 
lows filled as well as possible. Another thing that 
should be kept v\-atch on, and that is not to allow too 
many hogs to sleep together. It is better to have too 
few in a pen, than to have too many. 

The effect of a quarantine is good, and when a 
man's hogs take the cholera they should not only be 
kept up, but the farmer himself should not visit his 
neighbors, and he should not allow his neighbors in 
his own hog lot. The contagion is so easily carried 
that the strictest measures should be adopted. 

As soon as sickness appears in a herd of hogs, the 
unaffected hogs should be removed at once to a clean 
disinfected spot. If any of the hogs die, the carcass 
should be burned, as this is the only safe method of 
disposing of them. It is, a good idea to burn the car- 
cass at the place where it dies, but if it has to be re- 
moved, see to it that this place is thoroughly infect- 
ed. The quarters in which the sickness first occur- 
red should be thoroughly disinfected. The hog chol- 
era bacilli can live in the ground for three months, 
so it is very important that everything that is liable 
to be infected be thoroughly fumigated. Hogs should 
not be allowed to run at large, for they will cause 
much trouble. Use lime whitewash to disinfect the 
premises. Whitewash everything about the place. 

PNEUMONIA OR INFLAMMATION OF THE 
LUNGS. 

Cause. — This disease is caused bv the same thing 



that produces it in other animals, that is, sudden 
change in temperature, allowing the animals to suf- 
fer from colds or exposure to winds and storms, tak- 
ing animals exposed to the weather in the pasture. 

Symptoms. — The animal stands up or sits up most 
of the time; temperature is raised, hog has shivering 
fits; limbs become cold, frequent cough. 

Treatment. — Put t'he animal in comfortable quar- 
ters. Give the following mixture ; 

Two drams bi-sulphate of soda, 

Two drams nitrate of potash. 

This should be thoroughly mix'^d with a pint of 
gruel, and fed to the animal. Feed the hog all the 
nourishing food that he will eat. 

APOPLEXY, STAGGERS OR CONGESTION OF 
THE BRAIN. 

Hogs are affacted with the staggers quite frequent- 
ly. The animal will be stupid, eyes red ; pulse very 
rapid ; bowels constipated. After the disease has de- 
veloped, the animal becomes blind, running against 
objects, and finally becomes unconscious. 

Treatment. — If possible let a stream of cold water 
fall on his head from a considerable height. 

PARALYSIS OF HOGS. 

Cause. — This disease for the past few years has 
been quite prevalent. The young pigs are the ones 
affected most by the disease, and it is caused by 
over-feeding pigs, especially feeding them too much 
corn and water. Fat is put on the pigs too rapidly, 
and as a result the bones of a growing pig are un- 
able to support the flesh. 

Symptoms. — The first symptoms of paralysis is 
that the hogs refuse their feed and walk rather stiff- 
ly, continuing to grow worse until they are not able 
to drag themselves about, especially are their hind 
quarters weak. 

Treatment. — Prevention is certainly better than 
cure, especially with hogs, for they are not very good 
patients, and it is a difficult thing to administer treat- 
ment. Pigs while nursing their mother should be fed 
very little corn, but they should be fed some, grad- 
ually increasing the amount of corn. Wlien they are 
weaned, feed ground feed or bran shorts, corn meal^ 
mjlk, etc. 



»0 



!5 
Si 



r 

c 





c 

P 
B- 
O 

B 







'^ 



The South Is The Place to Raise Hcgs. 



443 



After young pigs become parah'zed, all corn should 
be taken away from them, and see to it that they are 
placed at a trough of milk in which has been stirred 
bran, and the following tonic, which is recommended 
by the Bureau of Animal Industry as a preventative 
against Swine Plague, or Hog Cholera, and which is 
a very good tonic for hogs. 

One pound wood charcoal. 

One pound sulphur, 

One pound sodium chloride. 

One pound sodium bi-carbonate. 

One pound sodium hyposulphite. 

One pound sodium sulphate, 

One pound antimony sulphide (black antimony.) 

These ingredients should be thoroughly pulverized 
and mixed. The dose of this mixture is a large ta- 
blespoonful for each 200 pounds of live weight of 
hogs to be treated, and should be given once a day. 
It is a good idea not to feed corn at all, but feed soft 
feeds. It is said that hogs are very fond of this food, 
and when once fed on it, they will eat it although 
nothing else tempts them. If the hogs are too sick 
to eat their food, they should be drenched. Care 
ijs-hould be observed in drenching them, not to pour 
jthe medicine down too fast, as hogs are easily suffo- 
cated. A great many hogs are lost .in this manner. 
Never turn a hog on his back to drench him. 

I Another Treatment.— After removing hogs to a 
Icomforta'ble place, stop feeding corn at all, but in- 
Istead feed some soft food, and give very little of that. 
(Give the 'hog ten drops tincture of nux vomica twice 
jja day for ten days. 

RHEUMATISM. 

It 

1 1 Rheumatism is caused by cold, damp premises, and 

liiexposure. When the hog is affected with rheuma- 

I'tism, It is with difficulty that the animal walks, and 

,|,can only stand on its front legs. When standing, if 

i^)it stands at all, looks like a badly sprung kneed horse. 

I When the hog attempts to walk, it falls on his knees 

sand goes that way. 

Treatment. — Remove the hog from the others, so 
that it can be quiet, in warm, dry quarters. Admin- 
ister a purgative, such as from one to five grains 
!) calomel, or one to two ounces salts, or an ounce of 
castor oil. After this medicine has acted, give the. 
hog from twenty to twenty-five grains salicylate of 



soda three times a day for five or six days. Re- 
covery should take place in from one to two weeks. 

SUNSTROKE. 

During hot weather hogs in a pasture that is not 
abundantly supplied with shade are subject to sun- 
stroke. Also hogs that are driven any distance in 
hot weather are subject to sunstroke. The first 
symptoms are fatigue, drooping of the ears, stagger- 
ing gait, which result in collapse and unconscious-« 
ness. Convulsions set in at this stage and death re- 
sults. There is no treatment for sunstroke, so the 
only thing to do is to prevent the trouble. No ani- 
mal can stand t'he rays of sun so little as the hog, 
therefore all hog men, or people who raise hogs 
should provide them with plenty of shelter. You do 
not realize how much better they will do where they 
have access to a shelter during the hot days of the 
summer. Feeding is not all that is required to pro- 
duce hogs, you should look to the comfort of the 
animal. 




Fig. 6.— As tliey are 'bred in tlie South. 

THUMPS. 

Thumps is caused, like most of the diseases of the 
hogs, on account of not having a good place to sleep 
in. Also to lack of exercise. Give pigs three grains 
of calomel to the 100 lbs, which should be mixed with 
some kind of gruel. 

ECZEMA. 

Eczema is a breaking out that appears on the hogs. 
They are' frequently weak in the back. If it is al- 
lowed to continue they become sore all over. 

Treatment.— Have the hogs to sleep in new places, 
where they will have clean bedding. Give them a 



444 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



good washing with soda and water, and then apply a 
two per cent, creolin solution, such as zenolium. If 
you cann.ot get the zenolium, use a mixture of tar and 
lard, using the same amount of each. 

KIDNEY WORMS. 

For kidney worms which affect the loins of the 
hogs, causing them to be crippled in the fore and 
hind legs, use one teaspoonful spirits of turpentine per 
hundred pounds live weight, given in milk. 

Another Treatment. — Take equal parts oi worm 
seed and arnica nut and give one teaspoonful in corn 
meal to each animal once a day for three days. 

PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF VER- 
MIN. 

Hogs often sufifer very much from vermin. Lice 
are introduced from neighboring herds, and the losses 



In this case a dipping tank will be a great conveni 
ence. 

One of the most effective and cheapest prepara-\ 
tions to use as a dip is a two per cent, solution of cre- 
olin. The common tobacco dips used for sheep scab 
are also efficacious. If the hogs are washed, apply the 
solution with a broom ; if they are sprayed, use the 
ordinary spray pump ; for dipping, use a dipping tank. 
When being washed or sprayed the hogs should stand 
on a tight board floor. 

Newly purchased hogs should be carefully exam- 
ined for vermin, and they should not be turned with 
the herd until they are known to be free from these 
pests. 

When the herd is found to be badly infested with 
lice, all bedding should be burned and loose floors and 
partitions torn out. Old boards and rubbish should 
be burned. The quarters should then be thoroughly/ 
disinfected by spraying with one of the solution - 
mentioned. (The creolin solution is good). After 
disinfection, as in the case of a disease outbreak, ev- 



in feeding are often severe, especially among young ery thing about the place, inside and out, should bej 

pigs, where death is sometimes a secondary if not an thoroughly whitewashed. 

immediate result. When very numerous, lice are a 

serious drain on vitality, fattening is prevented, and 

in case of exposure to disease the lousy hogs are 

much more liable to contract and succumb to it. 

Vermin are most common around the ears, inside 
the legs and in the folds of the skin on the jowl, sides 
and flanks. In light and isolated cases they may be 
destroyed by washing the hogs. In severe cases, 
however, especially where the whole herd is affected, 
thorough spraying or dipping should be resorted to. 



In these remarks on sanitation no attempt has been 
made to go into the details of the disease affecting 
hogs or their treatment. They are simply intended 
to call attention to the simple measures whicTi may 
be used by any farmer to avoid, to a large extent, the 
decimation of his herd by epidemics. Cleanliness an- 
rational methods of management are relied upon bj 
thousands of farmers to keep their herds in health 
and vigor. They are the marks of the good farmci 
and successful hog breeder. 



Book XIII 
Sheep Department. 



EDITED AND REVISED BY 

WILLIAM LEA, 

Marietta, Georgia. 





Anoora Goats, Anderson's Farms, Marietta, Ga. Young- Does, Anderson's Farms, Marietta, Ga. 




A Typical Angora Goat. 



It Does Not Cost Much to Raise Goats, But it Pays. 



447 



Sheep Department. 



Many sections of the South have found it profita- 
ble to engage in slieep raising. They are profitable 
both for wool and for mutton. I^roiu the very earli- 
est ages the raising of sheep has been found to be a 
profitable industr)-. Away back in the Biblical times 
we hear much of the sheep industry. Abraham 'had 
great flocks of sheep. The demand for mutton is 
steadily on the increase.. New York City requires 
over a million pounds of mutton per year. JMutton is 
taking the place of pork on many tables, and the rais- 
ing of sheep for mutton is largely increasing. One 
reason why sheep have not received more attention is 
on account of ignorance on the part of the sheep 
raiser. As to the kind of sheep that are in deiuand 
now, one of the greatest needs of to-day is a mut- 
ton sheep, distinctively, which is represented by legs 
of from i6 to 20 pounds in weight. The sheep pro- 
ducers as a rule, especially in the South, do not give 
sufficient thought to sheep raising. Not onlv is the 
item of food produced by the sheep important, but 
the returns in fleece are quite important, and must be 
taken into consideration. It will require a great 
many more sheep in the United States to produce the 
wool needed, for a great deal of wool is imported. 

WHAT IT TAKES TO SUCCEED WITH SHEEP 

There are two or three requisites for sheep busi- 
ness. In the first place, it is important that you get 
a suitable location. Sheep cannot stand \vet quar- 
ters, therefore you do not want an undrained pasture 
for sheep. Land that is best suited for sheep is a 
well drained sandy loam or gravelly loam. It should 
be hilly or rolling rather than flat or level. Low 
spots or marshes should be avoided, for one place of 
this kind on a farm that is all right in other respects 
may cause the sheep to contract deadly diseases. 
Perhaps there is no animal so easily affected by sur- 
roundings as sheep. There is more in prevention of 
disease in sheep than there is in curing them. If the 
proper care is observed in handling sheep, there will 
be little sickness in the flock. Another requisite for 
success in sheep raising is that the raiser have a love 
for tlie work. Not only must he have a love for his 



work, but he must possess tact, patience and perse- 
verance. There will come seasons of depressions, and 
there will come temptations to abandon sheep rais- 
ing for some temporarily more promising pursuit. 

BREEDS OF SHEEP. 

There are many breeds of sheep, but attention will 
only be given to those breeds that are adapted to tne 
South. 

The Hampshire-Downs. — This is a mixed breed 
brought about by crossing the South-Down on the 
native breed of the tiampshire, followed later by the 
Gotswold. This breed was very popular before the 
Civil War, in the South. They are a hornless breed, 
and have a black face, Roman nose. 

The South-Downs. — This was once one of the most 
celebrated breed of sheep, but here of late it is not 
produced so much. They are models of what a mut- 
ton sheep should be. Wherever it is desired to pro- 
duce a mutton sheep, perhaps this breed will answer 
the requirements better than any other. The ewes 
are very prolific. 

The American Merino. — This breecj is known all 
over the L'nited States. It is not necessary to give a 
description of them. 

SHROPSHIRE. 

A breed of sheep that has won popularity more 
than all the others in the same length of time is the 
Shropshire. 

They are some larger than the South-Down. The 
face and legs are a blackish brown ; the ears are of 
the same color, and should be short and thick. The 
wool should extend down over the face, head and on 
the legs to the hoof. The fleece of the Shropshire is 
longer than on the South-Down, and closely set on 
a clear pinkish skin. A good ordinary flock of Shrop- 
shire will shear from seven to eight pounds per head. 

The Shropshire is a short legged block budt 



448 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



slieep, furnishing a carcass for mutton that is not sur- 
passed by. any breed. 

For the grading up of the comnioii sheep of tlie 
South, tlie Shropshire ram by experience, has proved 
his superiority over all breeds. Adding size, increase 
of fleece, and stamina to his offspring. 

An industry that would be very profitable to the 
Southern farmer is that of growing early or hot-house 
lambs, as if is termed in the East. The two breeds 
of sheep used for this purpose, are the Dorsets and 
the Tunis. The Dorset sheep are white faced and 
white le;''::ed, with a tuft of wool in the forehead. 

The ewes are horned as well as the bucks. They 
are very solidly built, having a broad back and short 
Ic'^s. 

Their most prominent characteristic, however, is 
their unrivaled feucidity. The ewes will take the ram 
in Aiay, thereby dropping the Iambs in October so 
that they are ready for the holiday markets. They 
can be bred again soon after dropping this fall lamb, 
and bring another, or other lambs in March and 
April. 

With the proper management and handling this is 
the most prolific of all the breeds of sheep. The 
Dorse's are pretty well raised in the Eastern States 
and as far South as Virginia, supplying New York, 
Boston, Washington and other Eastern cities with 
tl;eir early lambs. 

The sheep is a great scavenger, and can be used on 
the farm to clean the weeds to a great advantage. 
But the idea that has gotten into the Southern farm- 
nier's liead that a s'heep does not require much feeding 
'has brought about his great failure along this line- 
When we learn to know that w'e can grow fine root 
crops he-.e in tlie .South, such as turnips, rutabagas, su- 
gar beets, etc , and that rape, rye, clover and the cul- 
tivated grasses will furnish us plenty of grazing for the 
winter, we will be on the road to success along the 
sheep line. Then added to this, Bermuda and other 
native grasses, with the by-products of our cotton, 
cotton-seed hulls and meal, pea vine hay and sor- 
ghum hay, we have a ration that cannot be surpass- 
ed. The growing and feeding of root crops to sheep, 
has made England famous along this line. 

The Englis'hman can grow sheep profitably on land 
worth $4.00 to $5.00 per acre. Why can't we on land 
worth from $5.00 to $25.00 per acre? 

The next in importance to good feeding is dipping. 
This should be done twice a year to free the sheep of 
lice, ticks, and other external parasites, as well as im- 



proving the condition of the skin. A good healthy 
skin produces a good fleece. 

As to the kind of dip that we should use, will sayj 
that the day of the home-made dip is past. By ac- 
tual experience it has been proven that home-madef 
dips that are made from lime and sulphur are very 
injurious to the wool, and the sheep as well. 

We have on market at present a number of prepar- 
ed dips that are safe, effective and cheap. 

Every sheep shed or barn should have a creep for 
the lambs to go to for a feed of chopped oats and 
bran. This creep should have entrances so that 
only the lambs could go into, keeping the old shee;i 
out. There should be rollers on each side of the en- 
trance so that the lambs would not tear their fleece 
in squeezing through. The lamb must be kept grow- 
ing, as it is the steady advance that counts. 

Of all the diseases of the sheep the internal para-' 
sites are the most trouljle, and the worst of these art 
the stomach worms — strongylus cnntertus. They in 
habit the fourth stomach of the sheep and goat 
These worms are little thread-like worms; red, am 
from five to ten inches long. The symptoms arising 
from this parasite in the stomach are weakness, pale 
ness of the skin and membranes, some fever, diar | 
rhoea, and wasting of the body generally. A flock o 
sheep that are infested with these worms is a prett- 
liard proposition. 

The eggs pass out with the droppings of the sheep! 
waiting a favorable time to hatch out on the ground 1 
then the young worm crawls up on a blade of gras: 
awaiting an opportunity to attract the young lambs 
One reason why sheep should never be allowed tc 
drink water around stagnated places is on account o 
such places being the breeding grounds of stomacl 
worms. A remedy that has proved very effective foi 
this disease is gasoline given to the lambs in tea 
spoonful doses, well sliaken up in^a half pint of swee j 
milk for three mornings in succession. ' 

The lamb should be kept away from feed for twelvi 
hours before administering the gasoline. This an( 
dogs, we consider the two greatest enemies to tht 
sheep industry of the South. 

THE AVERAGE WOOL PER SHEEP. 

In the United States the average weight of woo 
per fleece is over five pounds, in Australia it is ovc 
four pounds, in Great Britain four and three-quarte- 
pounds, in the German empire three and two-third: 



It Takes Very Little Feed For Goats. 



449 



■ pounds, in France nearly five pounds. So we see by 
this comparison that tlie United States has a greater 
average than any other country in the world. And 
yet the United States does not produce all the wool 
necessary for home use. 

THE BREEDING AGE OF. SHEEP. 

The proper age for s'heep to breed is two years. 
In the aivtumn after the ewe is one year old, she may 
be placed with the buck. As a rule it does not pay 
to breed sheep after they are seven or eight years 
old. One ram should be kept 'for forty or fifty ewes. 

WATER FOR SHEEP. 

Some people claim that sheep do not require water 
when they are pastured. This is a mistake, and you 
should not pay any attention to such folly. On very 
juicy grasses t'hey will use very little water, but they 
need some, and they should always have access to 
plenty of fresh water. At times they require more 
water than at others. Sheep are especially sensitive to 
impure water, and therefore do not depend upon stag- 
nant pools to furnish them water. This is quite im- 
portant, for it is a very easy matter for them to con- 
tract disease from impure water. 

SHELTER FOR SHEEP. 

The house for the sheep need not be expensive, but 
SDHie place should be provided where they can get in 
J' from the rain and wind. There are two or three im- 
]lj portant things in connection with the barn for sheep. 
In the first place it must have a good location, and 
ibe well drained. Sheep and water do not go well to- 
gether. Do not place your barn on a location where 
it is wet and marshy. It is a poor policy to place 
any barn in a damp location, but to place a sheep 



barn in such a place is the heig'ht of folly. The barn 
should be well ventilated. Sheep need plenty of 
fresh air, but do not need a draft. 

FEEDING PLACES. 

It will be found necessary to feed sheep some, and 
this should not be done on the ground. Have a 
trough made for them, but do not place it too higii. 
The feeding arrangement here in the Sout'h need not 
be so extensive as in the North, where t'hey have to 
feed more than here. 

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

GRUBS IN THE HEAD, OR GADFLY. 

The gadfly deposits eggs in the nostrils of the sheep 
in July and August. When these eggs are hatched 
out, the magots find their way through the meat, 
causing the sheep much pain. You can generally tell 
when the gadflies are seeking- the slieep, for the sheep 
will crowd together, keeping their nose to the ground, 
stamping violently. 

Remedy. — After the gadfly has once taken hold, it 
is a difficult job to dislocate him. The following 
remedy will do good sometimes: Inject up the nose 
equal parts of sweet oil and turpentine, but be care- 
ful not to strangle the sheep. 

Prevention. — It is much easier to prevent sheep 
from getting sick than it is to get them well after they 
have taken sick. Smear the nose of the sheep wit'h 
pine tar durmg the fly season. If you have a large 
flock, smear the inside of the salt trough with pine 
tar, and when they go to get salt, they will do the 
rest. 



Goat Industry 



The goat industry is not so important in America 
dS it would be were it not for the prejudices of peo- 
ple. It is quite frequently the case that you hear peo- 
ple say that they do not like kid, but they are fond 
of mutton. Now, the truth about the whole matter 



is, that few people can tell the difference between 
mutton and kid. When we come to consider the 
facts in the case, much so-called mutton that is sold 
from our city butcher shops, is nothing else but kid. 
Yes, it is just a goat that lias been killed and named 



30 



'450 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



mutton. It is very often the case that people who 
say they cannot eat kid are fooled and eat it very 
gladly when it is called mutton. ]\Iost authors tell 
us that goat is not much esteemed in the United 
States as a food, but notwithstanding this assertion, 
kids always find a ready market in the cities. 

The goat will live and do well on less attention 
t'han any animal known. They require practically no 
attention in the summer, and ver)- little in the win- 
ter. They will live where other domestic animals 
would literally starve. If farn^.ers wl:o have a few 
hill tops that are unproductive will fence it. and place 
a few goats in there, tl'.ey will find it quite profita- 
ble. The goats will often bring them in some return 
when cotton is out of the season. What the South 
wants is diversification, and the adoption of the goat 
industry will help to bring this about. jMany farm- 
ers are now laising cotton, and depending upon that 
crop altogether, when they could raise a few goats 
without any outlay of money, and find it a paying in- 
vestment. And one great advantage in the goat bus- 
iness is that they are so hardy. There is one enemy 
to tb.e goat in the South, and that is dogs. If you 
can keep the dogs away from them, there should be 
little trouble in raising goats. They are subject to 
ver}' few diseases, have unusual digestive ability, will 
thrive on oak leaves and a little of nothing. 

As to what kind of goats you should raise depends 
upon t'he object }-ou have in raising them. If you de- 
sire to raise, them for the fleece, you would want the 
Angora, but if you simply wanted to raise them for 
the meat, a short haired goat would answer your pur- 
pose better than a long haired goat. You should not 
cross the long haired and the short haired goats, for 
they will not do well. 

THE ANGORA GOAT. 

The Angora goat gets its name from Angora, a 
province in Turkey, Asia Minor. People who are not 
posted on the subject often make the mistake of call- 
ing the Angora goats Cashmere. \\'e feel safe in 
saying that there is not a Cashmere goat in America. 

During the adrriinistration of President Polk, the 
Sultan of Turkey requested of him that he recom- 
mend some one who would experiment in the culture 
of cotton in Turkey, S. D. James B. Davis, of Co- 
lumbia, .S. C, was recommended, and received the 
aijpointinent. Dr. Davis' work proved so satisfac- 
tory to the Sultan, tliat he desired to reciprocate the 



courtesy of the President, presented him with nine 
choice goats of his domain. 

So these were the first Angoras ever brought into 
the U. S. During the year 1S54, Col. Richard Peters, 
of Atlanta, Ga., boug'ht all or a part of these 
goats from Davis, and from all information at hand 
Col. Peters owned about all the Angoras in the U. 
S. previous to the outbreak of the Civil ^Var. Two 
of these goats were sold in the spring of 1854 to \\'i\- 
liam M. Landrum, of San Jeaquin County, California. 
}\Ir. Landrum is still breeding Angoras at Laguna, 
Tex. More than half the Angora goats of the U. S. 
would trace back to these nine goats. W'e mention 
this little sketch just to show what wonderful devel- 
opment can come from a small beginning and it will 
interest many, especially in the South, to know that 
this great industry had its origin here. 

A\'e will say in the outset that there are three 
principal reasons for the present interest in the in- 
dustry, wdiich are as follows: (i) They are very 
effective brushweed and weed destroyers ; (2) they 
are mohair producers; (3) they yield a carcass 
tb.at is very palatable and highly nutritious. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE MODERN ANGORA 
GOAT. 

While there has been no effort by an association 
or body of goat breeders to adopt a standard or a 
description of an ideal goat, we believe that the fol- 
lowing description will be accepted by most breeders: 

The Angora is smaller than the ordinary goat. It 
will weigh from 60 to 100 pounds, although some will 
weigh considerably more. The back should be straight 
with shoulders and hips of equal height. The chest 
should be broad and deep, denoting a good constitu- 
tion, the body round, legs short and strong. The 
head should be erect, clean cut, with bright eyes and 
broad muzzle. The horns are grayish, never 
black. All grades show more or less kemp- 
There is a demand for fleeces that are over 
twelve inches, and they Avill l>ring on the New York 
market from one to two dollars per pound. New 
York and Bosto;i are the markets for mohair in the 
United States. 

All goats are browsers by nature, but the Angora 
is more so than all others. We have never seen any 
kind of weed, vine or bush that an Angora would not 
eat. After he has 'his fill of pine tops, sumach ber- 
ries, sassafras buds, and what not, he will finish up on 



I 



Kids Bring a Good Price at the City Markets. 



451 



the bark gnawed from thunder wood, (or poison, for 
sumach is a very deadly poison.) never seeming tlie 
worse for the same. They will clean up all the un- 
dergrowth in two years where enough is put on for 
the space to be cleaned. Every leaf and twig in their 
reach is greedily eaten, and this constant nibbling off 
of the leaves and buds soon kills out the weeds and 
bushes. They will desert the finest grass pasture for 
such an outlay. A thicket so denje that a man can- 
not get through will soon be converted into an open 
woodland. Angoras have done some wonderful work 
for us here, cleaning up such places, while at the 
same time he is paying more t'han any other live 
stock on the farm. The South has thousands of acres 
v/here they could be used profitably for the only pur- 
pose of cleaning up the land. Then the land is left 
rich after they have cleaned it up. from their drop- 
pings, and the grasses native to the locality "come 
in," making a fine pasture for other stock. 

Different from most other animals, the Angora 
buck comes into heat. Their breeding season is from 
July through a period of about six months and the 
gestation in goats is about five months. The mating 
cf the buck to the does should be along in November 
so as to have the kids to drop in April or May, so 
liiat there will be plenty of green browse for the does 
; I furnish a good flow of milk for the kids. Angora 
1 ids are delicate for the first week or two and cannot 
s'.and exposure to cold, damp weather. After the 
l.ids are two or three weeks old they are very hardy 
and active, and can care for themselves as well as any 
animal of the same age. We think that there is no 
animal so pretty and intelligent as the Angora kid. 

A good, strong, healthy buck that is in good health 
can be mated to from forty to sixty does. A buck 
like any other domestic animal should be in the best 
possiible condition wlien put to service. Pure bred 
Angoras do not generally drop more than one kid at 
a time. We always figure on an increase of 100 per 
cent, during the year. There is generally enough 
twins dropped to make up for any losses that may 
occur. When an Angora buck is used on common or 
prade does, they drop the usual number of kids, two 
to three. The increase in a flock of Angoras depends 
on the care and management of the same. We have 



known of an increase as high as 120 per cent, from a 
pure bred flock. 

In this section of tl.e country we shear only once a 
year, during April or May, but in some sections of 
the South-west they shear twice a year. The shear- 
ing of the goat is the same as the shearing of sheep. 
Anyone who is a good sheep shearer can shear goats, 
the only difference being that one should use shears 
with short, blunt blades when they are sheared by 
hand. We have used here with success the hand 
power clipping machine. With the clippers there is 
no double cutting of the mohair, and then it does 
smoother work. 

Another source of profit from Angoras is their 
skins. Taken when the mohair is from 4 to 6" inches 
long they make the most beautiful rugs and robes. 
The mohair retains its original luster and may be 
used in the natural white, or dyed any color desired. 
The demand for these rugs cannot be supplied. They 
bring on the market from four to eight dollars each. 
The kid's finest fleeces adorn the collar and border of 
the ladies' most handsome opera cloaks. In the stores 
they are sold under some peculiar name, the purchas- 
er being unaware of the true name of the "furs." 

Angoras can stand any amount of heat and cold. 
They must not be allowed to stay out in the cold 
rains. If they stand in a cold rain during the winter 
season, when they are carrying heavy fleeces, it will 
prove detrimental to them, causing them to take cold, 
bringing on rheumatism, and the does to lose their 
kids. They need a good dry shed to go in. It need 
not be a warm one, just so it is dry. 

Goats need very little feed in the South. A few 
cotton seed during the severest weather, along with 
some hay will ke?^ them in good shape. 

There is a ^reat demand in the South for Angoras 
at the present time, and we know of no like stock 
that will pay Z3 well. It has been fully demonstrat- 
ed that they will do well here. Tliey are subject to 
no disease and much of our 'hilly or rough country 
could be profitably turned into this industry. We 
have the browse, the good, pure water, and an abun- 
dance of rough land that is good for nothing else. 
We think that the opportunity is ripe for the goat 
industry -in this section, and the first man into the 
field \vi\\ reap the benefits of the same. 







^Ego:^iId-r 



Book XIV. 
Cow Department 



EDITED AND REVISED BY 

C. L. WILLOUGHBY, B. Agri. 

Secretary Georgia Dairy and Live Stock Associption; Dairyman and Animal Husbandman, 

Georgia Experiment Station, Experiment, Ga. 



454- 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Diseases of Cattle 



CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 

Contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia. 

Cause. — This is a contagious disease, and one of 
tlie most fatal that cows are subject to. It was in- 
troduced in America in 1843 in Brooklin, L. I. when 
a cow was purchased from an English captain. It is 
caused by a specific virus which gains access to the 
system through the lungs. It is slow in developing, 
sometimes going for two months before there is any 
outward manifestation. It was stamped out by the 
U. S. Bureau of Animal Industrj', and no cases re- 
ported in America for several years. 

Symptoms. — The first symptoms likely to be no- 
ticed are a rise in the temperature to 103 to 106 de- 



germs live a long time before they develop, and the 
whole herd is liable to be affected. 

Treatment. — There is no medical treatment that 
will a\-ail anything. When the disease gets started 
there is no cure. Sometimes people think that they i 
have a cure, but not so. Mild cases show signs of ' 
recovery; they appear to be in good health, will feed 
well, fatten fast; the milk cows produce -milk again, 
but they 'have not recovered, and are lialile to break 
out at any time. As soon as the disease is known to 
be contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia, have the animal 
killed at once, and buric<l. Do not attempt to save 
the bides, for it may mean the loss of more of your 
cattle. Place quick lime on the carcass. 

Prevention. — It is certainly true in this case that \ 
"an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." 
There are three methods of prevention : 



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1. — View of farm uf \V. 



R. Clittun, Waldu, Te.\.. where lied Follerl caltlc are 
blood, proper breeding aud treatineut can mal-te them. 



bied as neai' ijeifuctioii as pure 



grees Fahrenheit, there is a loss of appetite, cough, 
slight shivering, loss of milk, scanty urine. There 
will follow tenderness upon pressure between the 
ribs over the lungs; cough increases; the hind legs 
will be drawn under the body. Later on there will 
be a watery, or sometimes a thicker discliarge from 
the eyes and nose. Sometimes the disease kills im- 
mediately, and sometimes it runs from two to eight 
weeks. If one suspects that his cattle are affected 
he should have an expert veterinarian called in at 
once, as it is of the most contagious type, and the 



First. Quarantine Regulations. Stock imported 
to this country shduld l)e quarantined for at least 2 
months so that there can be no danger of disease 
from them. 

Second. Inoculation. — Inoculation for Contagious 
Pleuro-Pneiuuonia is a recent thing, ha\-ing been 
practiced for only a few years. At first it was not 
successful, but it has been improved, until now it is 
used with great success. Inoculation does not pro- 
duce the disease itself, but a fever which the animal 
overcomes readih'. The virus w'hich is taken from 



Salt- Your Cattle Regularly. 



455 



the lungs of an affected animal is used to inoculate 
the animals. The tip of the . tail is the place to in- 
oculate, for the danger from gangrene is less liere 
than at any other place. One drop of the virus is 
sufficient. 

Third. Disinfection. — When any animal has suf- 
fered from the disease, the rest of the herd should be 
isolated, and the premises thoroughly fumigated. The 
best and cheapest wav to do this is to burn sulphur 
in the buildings, closing them as tight as possible, 
and to whitewash every part of the building, roof, 
shed and all with lime whitewash, using one pint of 
crude carbolic acid to each bucketful of whitewash. 



especially clover, great changes in the temperature 
between day and night favor its development. 

Symptoms. — Anthrax has two ways of manifest- 
ing itself: with external wounds, and without them. 
Black Leg is not a typical anthrax, but is related, and 
occurs in young, fast growing cattle. Its effect is 



VARIOLA VACCINAE OR COW POX. 

Cause. — This is also a contagious disease. It is to 
the cow what smallpox is to men ; either can be pro- 
duced in either men or cattle by inoculation from 
the other species. To have either, secures immunity 
from the other from a subsequent attack, at least for 
a time. Cow pox is a blood poison that has a period 
of incubation from three to nine days. It is a very 
common trouble, and almost every cow will be sub- 
ject to it at some time of life. 

Symptoms. — The local symptoms of cow pox are 
heat, swelling, tenderness of the teats for three or 
four days, followed by irregular pimples on the teats, 
udder, flanks, around the vulva, nose, mouth and 
eyes. These pimples are red at first and enlarge from 
day to day until they become about a half inch in di- 
ameter, and then they become yellow and burst. 

Treatment. — The best treatment is good nursing. 
The disease rarely proves fatal. Give the cow a good 
dose of salts, and after each milking bath the teats 
and udder with diluted carbolic acid, and smear with 
lard, vaseline, or any healing ointment. 

ANTHRAX, OR CHARBON. 

Cause. — This disease is known by different names, 
such as Anthrax, bloody Murrain, Black Leg, Black 
Quarter, etc. It is contagious. It rises spontaneous- 
ly in low. dam pastures, also in pastures where there 
is a great amount of organic matter, and on account 
of catHe being fed on food that is too rich and juicy. 





Fig. 2.— tHypodermic Syringe for injecting Blaclvleg Vaccine. 
(Bureau Animal Industry) 

very rapid. In the morning a calf is dead of blackleg, 
when nothing appeared to ail it the night before. 
There is a stiffness in the affected quarters, with 
some diffuse swelling and heat, fever, the swollen 
part soon mortifies, becomes cold, gas forms under 
the skin, and crackles if rubbed. The black tongue 
as seen in animals is known by the red. purple, or 
black blisters on tjie tongue, jjalate and cheeks, and 
these blisters at times get as large as a hen's egs;. 
Then they burst and run a watery, colorless matter, 
and the sore becomes an ulcer in appearance, and has 



456 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



discharges. As it runs from the mout'h, the dis- 
charge is bloody, the fever runs higli. 

Treatment. — There is no successful treatment for 
Anthrax or Blackleg, The only thing to do is to pre- 
vent it by inoculation with vaccines prepared for 
the purpose. They should be inoculated every year. 

Prevention. — Prevention is better than cure with 
all contagious diseases. Drain the soil in the pas- 
tures, do not give the cattle much juicy food. Late 
in the summer, and early fall shelter the stock at 
night, when the days are 'hot, and the nights cool. 
Give the stock plenty of fresh, good water. Stock 
appreciate good water as much as people do, but they 
do not always get it as they should. The dead ani- 
mals should be burned, hide and all. Fumigate the 



For this reason, we go into details. The disease is 
caused by micro-parasites getting into the blood of 
cattle, and using up the red corpuscles of the blood. 
The disease is, as a rule, carried from one cow to an- 
other by ticks. As to wdiether the disease originates 
in the blood of one cow, and is carried to another, or 
whether it originates in tlie tick, and is transmitted to 
the cow is not settled. Indeed, there are many pecu- 
liarities of this disease t'hat are yet, to be explained. 
It sometimes appears where there are no ticks, but as 
a rule it only appears where there are ticks. When 
the ticks l)itc through the skin of susceptible animals, 
and introduce t'he fever germs, they begin to multiply 
very rapidly. After being in the blood for eight or 
ten davs they attack the red cells of the blood and de- 
strov them in large numbers. Thev have destrovcd 




Fig. 3. — Adult Cattle Ticks and their eggs. 
(From Mississippi Experiment Station, (Bulletin No. 73) 



buildings where animals have died or been sick. Do 
not 'handle stock with blackleg any more than pos- 
sible, and when it is compulsory wash the hands be- 
fore and after handling them with a solution of car- 
bolic acid, using one part acid to one hundred parts 
water. 

TICK FEVER OR SPLENETIC FEVER. 

Cause. One of the greatest drawbacks in the South 
to the cattle industry is the tick or Splenetic fever, or 
what is commonly known as Texas Fever. The dis- 
ease was called Texas Fever because of so many 
deaths in Texas on its account during the early histo- 
ry of the disease. It is hard to compute the amount 
lost by the South eaoh year on account of this disease. 



half the usual number in a week's time by actual 
count. This drain of vital force of course weakens 
the animal, and it finally dies, because of the great 
amount of broken down waste matter which must be 
disposed of by fhe kidneys, liver, spleen and bowels. 

Symptoms. The svmptoms of Tick Fever are loss 
of appetite, constipation, hot, dry muzzle, tempera- 
ture from 104 degrees to 106 degress F. If it be a 
milk cow the flow of milk will cease almost suddenly. 
These symptoms are intensified as the disease ad- 
vances, the head is held down, the back arched, ear 
drooped, red urine is frequently passed. The Ticks 
that are seen at this time are frequently small. If the 
animal has never 'had ticks on her before, and has any 
at all now, or has been where she could get them on 
her, there can be no doubt but that she has tick fever. 



A Poor Milker Is No Good at any Price 



457 



After the fever lias run for a while, the animal be- clean off all t'he ticks immediately, and give the fol- 
comes weaker, and shows that she is suffering great- lowing purgative, one and a half pound Eipsom salts, 
ly. The animal holds her head either back in the one quarter pound table salt, one tablespoon ground 
flank or straight forward, when she is lying down. ginger, all dissolved in a quart of warm water to be 
Many die within two or three days, while others go given as a drench. In case the salts is not conveni- 
ent, one or two pints of castor-oil may be used. .Give 
the animal plenty of fresh, cool water. After the fev- 
er is over, say after eight or nine days, the fever may 
suddenly leave, and the temperature drop suddenly 
below the normal temperature of the body, and t'he 
animal dies from collapse. The animal should be 
watched at this time, and should there be much fall 
in the temperature, stimulants should be adminis- 
tered. 

Prevention. Since Tick Fever is spread as a result 
of ticks, we will enter into tliis matter in details. 
At birth calves are only slightly susceptible 
to Tick Fever. Few calves under six months 
old ever die of Tick Fever. After six months old, 
the Tick Fever becomes more dangerous. When 
cattle once have the Tick Fever, there is little, 
if any danger of their having it a second time. There- 
fore cattle raised where ticks are plentiful become im- 
mune to the disease from tick bites early in life whe'i 
the disease has little or no effect upon them. How 
long they are immune from disease is a matter of 
doubt among veterinarians. It is known, however, 
that after cattle have been where there are no ticks for 
a few years_, they can contract the disease again. 

Perhaps something of the life history of ticks 
would be of interest here. The most common tick 
that we see is the adult female tick, which is about 
t'he size of a grain of corn, and of a dull lead or blu- 
ish color. These ticks drop from the cattle to the 
ground, hide under grass or trash, and in four or five 
days begin to lay eggs. Each tick will lay from 1500 
to 3000 eggs, and then die. After about twenty or 
thirty days these eggs begin to hatch, if the weather 
is favorable. As soon as hatclied, these small ticks 
begin to crawl about, getting on grass, waiting until 
some animal comes near enough for them to crawl 
upon them. As soon as a cow lies down they get a 
foothold upon her, and crawl to the tenderest parts 
about her, such as the neck, brisket, belly, inside the 
thighs, around the udder. The male tick always re- 
mains small, someth.ing about the size of a pin-head. 
The female ticks begin at once to grow, and gorging 
themselves with blood. In about three or four weeks 




fPig. 4. — Instninipnls used in Blood Inoculation. 1. Trocar 

and Canula. 2. lancet or Knife. 3. Wire Whip Stirrer. 

4. Glass Jar. 5. Hj'podermic Syringe. 



'from five to ten days. If the animal is able to go over 
<i,ulit days, there is hope for recovery. 

Treatment. There is no specific treatment for Tick 
Fever that can be relied upon. The most important 
I thing is to get the bowels open freely as early as pos- 
isible, and to keep them in good wor'ving order, also 
keep the kidneys working well. In fact, much de- 
pends upon the kidneys, for the recovery is dependent 
upon the ability of the kidneys to throw off the waste 
matter. As soon as the animal is discovered sick, 



45S 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



they are mature, when they fall to the gTOiiiul. begin 
laying eggs, and then die. Thus they go on from sea- 
son to season. If t'here is no agency to destroy these 
eggs, it would be a matter of lilitle time until they 
would take the world. These eggs cannot hatch in 
the sunlight, 'hence we have more ticks in the woods, 
and places where they can be in the shade. The ef- 
fect of the rays of the sun has doubtless had a great 
deal to do with keeping them down. The effect of 
water upon the tick eggs is very little if any at all. 
They are often carried some distance by water, from 
one pasture to another. This is only true when 



liy disinfection of the pastures, and second by killing, 
the ticks on cattle. 

Ticks may be exterminated from the pastures by 
keeping the cattle away. The cattle can be taken off) 
in the spring, and by November all the ticks will have 
starved to death. Or the cattle may be taken off inll 
mid-summer, when there will be no ticks by the next 
spring. If the cattle are taken off in November, by 
the following July there will be some ticks left, as 
t'hey will be carried through the winter unhatched, 
and will hatch out in the summer, and will not starve 




Fig. 5. — Diawing Immune Blood from Supply Animal. 



they float in bunches, for when the individual ticks be- 
come separated, they soon drown in the water. The 
effect of cold is very slight, if any. on the tick eggs Za 
long as they remain unhatched. The seed ticks, how- 
ever, cannot stand so much cold. The voung ticks af- 
ter being hatched will live four or five months without 
food, that is, without getting onto an animal. 

There are two methods of getting rid of ticks; first 



before July 1st. A better <plan is to divide the pas- 
tures, keeping the cattle in one pasture one year, and 
the next year in the other pasture. In doing this 
care should be observed that the cattle do not carry 
the ticks into the disinfected pasture. If von hn ■. 
not sufficient land to allow one pasture to lie out. 
then you may cultivate the land not in use for a pas-j 
ture. Ticks do not crawl far, nor do thev go from one' 
animal to another,, ro t'-c-- will be I'ttle difficulty i:i 



I 



Many Men Fcil in the Dairy Business Because of Lack of Attention. 



459 



keeping them from going from one pasture to anoth- 
er. A board placed tight on the ground, or two fences 
of wire, say six or eight feet apart will be sufficient. 

The "feed-lot" method of cleansing cattle advocated 
by Professor Alorgan, of t'he Tennessee Experiment 
.Station, is based upon the fact that the parasitic per- 
iod (from attachment as seed tick to dropping to 
ground as a fully engorged female) of the fever tick 
is not more than forty da}-s; less in summer. In this 
method a portion of the ground is set apart, half of 
which is of sufficient size to accommodate the number 
of cattle on hand. The area selected should be conven- 
ient to plenty of feed and water. Surround and divide 
the lot with a double fence (8 to 10-foot space). 
Feed the cattle for 20 days on one side, then remove 
them to the other for 15 or 20 days longer. Every 
tick will 'have dropped, and the cattle may then be 
placed upon such field or pasture as may be tick-free 
and available. Cy this method entire farms may be 
cleaned during a summer period of not exceeding four 
months. In the early spring select a field with water 
and shade available to be devoted to broadcast sor- 
ghum, corn or millet, or all three. On June 1 fence 
off the feed-lot (within the forage field), in which 
place all the cattle on the farm, and feed and rotate 
as described above for forty days. At the end of this 
period the cattle may be turned into the field of sor- 
ghum, millet or corn, and there pastured until Octo- 
ber 15 or November 1, by which time all fever ticks 




upon the entire property outside of the feed-lots will 
have perisl.ed. 

After the animals are removed the feed-lots should 
be immediately plowed and thoroughly cultivated, 
and their edges completely sprayed with crude petro- 
leum, zenoleum solutions, or other substances de- 
structive to tick life. 




Fig. 6. — luocuJating Calf with Immune Blood. 



Fig. S.— Dipijiug \'at for Catilo. 

The second plan of getting rid of ticks is to kill 

them on the cattle. This plan requires more labor 
than the other, but it is quicker, and more successful 
than the other. The plan is to grease the legs, belly, 
and under parts of all cattle once or twice a week, and 
pick or scrape off all ticks, taking care to desti'oy 
those that you get off by burning them . The grease 
used should be one part kerosene and three parts of 
son-.e crude, cheap oil, such as cottonseed oil in crude 
form, or axle grease, and it may be applied with a 
large paint brush. However it frequently happens 
that the herd is too large to give so much attention to 
each cow. in which case we use dipping or sprayin"-. 
The cattle can be held in a chute while they are 
sprayed with a kerosene emulsion, or with a ten per 
ceuL. solution of Chloro-Naptholeum or Zenoleum. 

The plan used by the U. S. Government is not prac- 
tical for the average farmer or cattle raiser, but we 
give it for the benefit of those that can use it. Have 
a narrow wooden vat some thirty or forty feet long, 
and about six feet deep. At one end have the floor 
slanting so that the cattle will have no trouble in get- 
ting out. This vat is filled with water, and on top is 
placed a layer of oil or disinfecting fluid about an 
inch thick. The cattle are driven to this vat, and 
either pushed into it, or allowed to drop in there by a 



460 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



hinge trap door, and the_v have to swim out the 
other end. By this time they become coated with 
oil all over. The oils that are used are cottonseed 
oil, although it is quite expensive, Virginia Black Oil, 
crude Beaumont oil. The Beaumont oil is said to be 
the cheapest of all. To install such a plant will cost 
about $150.00 and will cost anywhere from ten to 
fifty cents per head to dip the cattle. 



dusty, and th^ animal ceases to lick herself, a dry, 
dull cough will be noticed; if the cow is with calf, 
abortion will take place; indigestion followed by 
diarrhoea; the animal is soon reduced to skin and 
bones. An infallible te^t for tuberculosis is tubercu- 
lin, which can be had from chemical supply houses, 
the Bureau of Animal Industry at Washington, D. 
C, or from some State Experiment Stations. The 




Fig. 7. — Aterdeeu Angus Heifers Nos. 14 anil ii. 
TUBERCULOSIS. 



Cause. — Tuberculosis is caused by the introduction 
into the system of a germ, the bacillus tuberculosis. 
It has not been definitely settled as to whether it is 
the same disease that affects man or not. Dr. Koch, 
who discovered the bacillus of tuberculosis, says that 
the two are altogether different diseases. It is sup- 
posed to be caused by inhaling the germs as t'hey are 
blown through the air, or it may be taken by the di- 
gestive tract. Close stableing, poor ventilation, feed- 
ing on innutritions foods, all predispose the animal 
to the disease. Of course, no matter how weak the 
animal may be, if these germs are not taken in the 
bodv, there will be no trouble from tuljerculosis. 



Symptoms. — It is hard to tell tuberculosis until it 
has developed to a great extent. The first sign is an 
unthrifty condition of the animal, the milk becoming 
poor in quality and quantity, appetite changeable, 
first good and then poor; skin and hair dry and 



animal's temperature is first taken morning, noon 
and night in order to get the average temperature. 
Then at eleven o'clock at night inject the tuberculin, 
and the next morning at six o'clock begin taking the 
temperature, and take it every two hours until six 
o'clock at night. If the injection causes a rise in the 
temperature to 106 degrees Fahrenheit at any time 
during t'he day, the animal should be considered tu- 
berculous. If an animal reacts or shows a rise of 
temperature between 103 and lOo.O degrees it should 
be tested within two weeks to confirm the work. Do 
not test an animal that has fever, nor cows just be- 
fore nor just after calving, nor when in heat. 

Treatment. — If an animal reacts to the test and is 
also in poor physical condition, it will be best to con- 
demn and slaughter her at once. The carcass may be 
used for beef if it proves after slaughter to be only 
slig'htly affected with the tubercules. If extensively 
diseased, the carcass should be buried with lime. 

If the reacting- animals seem otherwise strong and 



Your Cows Will Need Shelter in the Winter. 



,6l 



healthy, and are valuable for breedinc;- purposes, they 
can be saved, if such cattle are given li.g'ht and airy 
quarters and plenty of good food. The calves fror.i 
such cows will invariably be free from any disease, 
but should be taken from their mothers immediately 
after birth and raised on milk cows that are known to 
be healthy. 

Young animals may be vaccinated wit'li mild tuljcr- 
culosis serum, which seems to prevent them from 
contracting this disease during life. The German 
scientist, \'on Behring, and Dr. Pearson, of Pennsyl- 
vania, are at work upon the production of vaccined 
which have this effect, with much hope for success. 
It may be possible that a cure will be discovered be- 
fore manv vears for tuberculosis in mild stages. 




Fig. 9. — Sue, a grade Jersey, having a rec-ortl of over 500 lbs. 

of butter per year. Owned by Mr. Williamson, 

Commerce, Georgia. 

Disinfecticn.^Stables, yards or bedding used by 
animals affected s'hould be kept well disinfected with 
lime or carbolic solutions, especially before putting a 
healthy animal in the same quarters. 

LUMPY JAW, OR ACTINOMYCOSIS. 

Cause. — This disease is said to be contagion.-^, and 
is due to a ray shaped fungus germ called actmomy- 
cosis, which is taken with the food, and may locate 
anywhere in the body. It generally affects t'he jaw 
bones, tongue, glands around the head and throat, 
lungs, liver, and in t'he walls of the small intestines. 
The germ enters the Jaw bone through a split or de- 
cayed tooth, and destroys the bone in every direction. 

The disease is known by tumors being formed at 



the seat of the infection. From this seat of infection, 
sprouts or small portions of the germ are carried by 
means of the blood to other portions of the body of 
the animal, 'hence it is important to stop it before it 
has time to spread. If the jaw bones are affected they 
frequently swell to an enormous size, the teeth get 
loose, the tumor bursts, and discharges a thick, yel- 
lowish white matter, containing little yellow masses 
or clusters of the fungus about the size of grains of 
sand. The bone has soft spots in it surrounded by 
hard shell. 

Treatment. — If you find what the disease is before 
it has had time to develop too far, there is hope for a 
cure. But when it has had time to develop and get 
scattered over the system there is little hope for a 
cure. Give the animal one dram iodide of potash 




Fig. 10. — Aetinomycogis cf the I^o'wer Jaw- 
morning and evening in bran mash for three weeks. If 
the eyes sliould get watery, and a considerable 
amount of saliva run from the mouth, stop for a few 
days, and then begin the treatment again. Rub the 
lump once a week with a dram of biniodide of mer- 
cur}', and one ounce of lard. 

NON-CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES. 
PLETHORA. 

Cause. — Plethora is caused by an over-fat condi- 
tion of the blood. It is caused by feeding too rich 
food to young animals. When digestion and assimi- 
lation are unusually active the blood is supplied wifh 
more material than t'he system requires, and can use; 
the excess not being assimilated, degenerates and 
poisons the blood. 

Symptoms. — Plethora is known by the full bound- 
ing beat of the pulse; redness of the mucous mem- 
brane, and a tendency to .store tip fat. Sometimes 
there is a slight fever which lasts only a short time. 



462 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Treatment. — As the disease is brought on by feeding 
too rich food, the first thing to be done is to remove 
the cause. Give four or five ounces of Epsom or 
Glauber Salts every six hours, until you have given 
one or two pounds. Bleeding for Plethora is not re- 
commended. 

ANAEMIA. 

Cause. — This disease is just the reverse of plethora, 
and is seen when the animal is thin in flesh, on ac- 
count of insufficient quantities of good, w'holesome 
food; exposure to weather: impoverished by para- 
sites. 

S3''mptoms. — This disease is known ^jy the lack of 
energy, languor, loss of appetite, tendency toward in- 
di;;est;on, and rapid wasting away. 

Treatment. — Give the animal a complete change of 
diet. See to it thai, the food is who-Iesome. If the 
bowels be torpid, give a laxative; if diarrhoea is pres- 
ent, the bowels must be checked. If any parasites 
iirc plastering the animal they must be destroyed. 
Give the following tonic in one dose in the feed, re- 
peating morning anrl night: 

One half ounce of copperas. 

One liandful oil cake, meal, or ground flaxseed, 
Powder and mix thoroughly. 

RHEUMATISM. 

Cause — The cause of rheumatism is the accumula- 
tion of an acid in the blood which settles around the 
joints, covering the joints, lining membranes of the 
heart, muscles and ligaments. The affected parts in 
the acute form, swell, and discharge a considerable 
amount of pus, also some synovial fluid with the pus. 
Thin flesh, exposure to cold, dampness in stable and 
poor ventilation often arc the indirect causes of it. 

S5nnptoms. — Rheumatism is often known by the 
disinclination of the animal to move, and in the 
course of a few hours or days a swelling of the joints, 
which are quite hot and painful. The disease moves 
rapidlv from one joint to another. The temperature 
is increased, tlie mucus membrane becomes red, bow- 
els apt to be constipated. 

Treatment. — If the disease be in its acute form. 



give a good dose of Glauber's or Epsom Salts, follow- 
ing with the treatment here given, two or three times 
a day. 

Two ounces bicarbonate potash. 

One pint of water. 

Another Treatment. — After placing the animal in a 
good, dry, warm place, give the following receipt 
morning and night in soft feed: 

Two drams colchicum. 

Two drams Nitrate of Potash. 

Give this for a week. Then give the following 
treatment for a week ; giving as a dose morning and 
night : 

One-half ounce copperas. 

One handful cottonseed meal, or ground flaxseed. 




Fig. 11. — 1 iiiiinncii. Au:iip,:is I'nxuii Ki'Oiic 1st prize yeai'ling 
bull. Atlanta, 1905. 

Then in a week change back to the treatment oi 
colchicum, etc. 

HAEMATURIA OR RED WATER. 

Cause. — This disease is caused b_v the kidneys se- 
creting with the urine large quantities of albumen, 
and some iron, which gives the urine the appearance 
of having blood in it. The disease is most commonly 
seen in low, swampy lands, and disappears in su:;i 
cases as soon as the land is drained. 

Symptoms. — Haematuria will be known in the first 
place by the color of the urine, which will assume a 
pale, pink color at first, and then change its color un- 
til it reaches a dark brown color. The urine increas- 
es greatly in quantity. For the first two or three 



During the Winter Mcntks, Your Cattle Should Have Some Feed. 



463 



■weeks there will be no damage noticeable, but then 
the milk will begin to fall off, the animal becomes 
thin ; the bowels at first are loose, but become cos- 
tive. 

Treatment. — ilake a complete change in the food, 
feed linseed meal as much as possible. Give the fol- 
lowing as purgative : 

Twelve ounces Epsom Salts, 

One ounce Ginger, 

One ounce Gentian. 

Four ounces syrup. 

Enough water to make two quarts. 

Mix t'his thoroughly,, and give as one dose. Follow 
the above dose with the following: 

One half-ounce copperas. 

One handful oil-cake. 

Give night and morning. 

Continue this dose for two or three weeks. 

MALIGNANT CATARRH. 

Cause. — This disease is due to a specific virus 
which affects the mucous membrane lining, the sin- 
ews of the head and the nasal chambers. 

Symptoms. — The disease will first be noticed with 
rigors, or a shivering fit: dullness and debility: the 
mucous membrane becomes a bluish red color, eyelids 
swollen ; eyes closed : tears flowing over the cheeks, a 
kind of waterv fluid, salh-a flows from the mouth, a 
dry cough ensues ; there is a great thirst but no appe- 
tite, urine scanty but high colored. 

Treatment. — Enemas should be given to relieve 
constipation. Give two ounces of sweet spirits of ni- 
tre every four hours diluted in a pint of water. Make 
the animal inhale hot steam. 



DISEASES OF THE RE- 
SPIRATORY OR. 
GANS 



SIMPLE CATARRH OR COLD, OR HOLLOW 
HORN. 

Cause. — Catarrh is brousjht on bv sudden change 



in the temperature especially v^dien the animals are 
poorly fed : damp, badly drained stables, exposure to 
storms and winds: sleeping on the cold ground, etc. 

Symptoms. — The mucous membrane of the nose 
and e3",e is red and dry ; more or less fever and fits ol 
shivering; watery discharge from the eyes; pulse rap- 
id and rather hard : appetite fails ; urine scanty and 
highly colored. It soiuetimes affects the horns, since 
the 'hollow of the horn connects with the nose, and 
■catarrh in the nose often affects the sinews of the 
horn. This is possibly the reason for the belief in 
hollow horn. 

Treatment. — If the horns are affected, and the own- 
er desires to keep the horns on the cow. little can be 
done to relieve the situation, but the trouble 
in the horns will usually get well as soon as 
the catarrh is cured. However, if the owner does not 
object to 'having the horns removed, and I can see no 
reason why he should, the horns should be sawed or 
clipped off close to the head, taking a ring of hair' a 
c|uarter of an inch all around with the base of the 
'horn. Clip off all the liair around before cutting, and 
dust the cut surfaces with a mixture of equal parts 
pOAvdered alum and boric acid. If the cavities of the 
liorn are filled with matter, take it out and wash the 
parts with a five per cent, solution of carbolic acid, 
that is, using one part acid, and nineteen parts wa- 
ter. Repeat the washings daily, and keep all matter 
out of the cavities. .Squirt a little water into her 
head to make her thrc>vv out all matter. Thev should 
heal up in three or four weeks. If the bowels are con- 
stipated, give a pint of melted lard. If the bowels are 
loose, give the following as a drench of one dose: 

One pint of infusion of quassia. 

One ounce laudanum, 

One-half ounce sulphuric ether. 

One pint thin gruel, cold. 

Repeat the dose in six or eight hours if there is no 
action. But w'hether the bowels are loose or consti- 
pated, use the following remedy: 

Three ounces spirits of nitre. 

Two drams tincture aconite root. 

One-half ounce fluid extract belladonna. 

Two ounces nitrate of potash. 

Two ounces muriate of ammonia. 

Water enough to make one quart. 

}.rix thoroughly, and give a half-teaspoonful every 
three hours until better. If the animal exmeriences 



464 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT aND PLEASURE. 



difficulty in breathing, steam the 'head by placing 
blanket over head as shown in the illustration. 



sound will be heard. The cow lies down a great deal 
in this disease. 



SORE THROAT OR LARYNGITIS. 

Cause. — This disease is caused by the same thing 
that produces cold, that is, standing in bad weather, 
lying upon damp, cold ground, exposure to Avinds and 
storms, etc- It is an inflammation of the upper wind- 
pipe, and interferes with the breathing. 




Fig. 12. — Nose-bag for Steaming. 



Treatment. — Place the animal in a warm, well-ven- 
tilated place. By a well-ventilated place, we do not 
mean where there will be a draft on the animal, as 
some would suppose, but where she can get fresh air 
•without a draft. If the disease be in its first state 
give the following: 

Two ounces acetate of ammonia, 

Twenty drops tincture of Aconite root. 

One half-pint of water. 

Mix thoroughly, and give as one dose. Repeat ev- 
ery two l.rurs until the chill is over, and tlie pulse 
beats naturally. Then give the following remedy un- 
til the cow gets well: 

Three drams cooperas, 

Two drams Gentian : '■ 

One dram Ginger, 

One dram Foenugreek Seed, 

Mix and give as one dose morning and night. 

Mustard applied to the sides will be of much bene- 
fit to the animal. Allow her to drink all the water 
she desires, and give her plenty of soft feed. 



Symptoms. — The cow experiences difficulty in 
swallowing, has hard, tickling cough, loss of appetite, 
cud not chewed, and there is a flow of saliva from the 
mouth. Avhen it is open. If the cow attempts to drink 
water it comes back through t'he nose. 

Treatment. — Place a bran poultice on the back. If 
this docs not relieve, rnb mustard paste well on the 
throat. This s'ho-uld be washed off in an hour and 
more rubbed in. Give one-h.alf ounce of salt-peter or 
chlorate of potash in the water, morning and evening. 

BRONCHITIS. 

Cause. — Bronc'hitis is an inflammation of the mu- 
cous membrane of the bronchial tubes. It is caused 
by exposure to wet and cold, inhaling smokes, fumes, 
or the introduction of foods and fluids into the wind- 
pipe. 

Symptoms, — Wheezing, difficult breathing, deep, 
hard, distressing cough, and after it has run for sever- 
al hours, a high fever will be noticed. By placing the 
ear by t'he front and sides of the chest, a dry, grating 



PNEUMONIA. 

Cause. — This is an inflnmmation of the lungs them- 
selves, and should ha\-e prompt attention, for if re- j 
lief is not furnished, the d'isease will pr.ove fatal. In 1 
most cases it is the result of a cold or catarrh, laryn- 
gitis, bronchitis, etc. It is sometimes caused by per- 
mitting medicines to enter the windpipe and lungs 
when drenching the animal. 

Symptoms. — The disease is first shown by the ani- 
mal lia\ ing a shivering fit, loss of appetite, cjuick and 
labored breathing, severe cough. The cow does not j 
like to lie down as it increases the pressure upon her 
chest. If you tap the sides of the animal a dull, 
heavy sound is heard, the muzzle of t'he cow becomes 
dry and hot, the expired air is hot, the ribs are fixed. ' 

Treatment. — The animal should be placed in a 1 

warm stall, which should be kept thoroug'hly clean. 
Feed the animal plenty of good, nutritious 'food, and 
give plenty of fresh water. Give the following each 
morning in a pint of gruel: 

Two drams saltpeter. 

Two drams Bisulphate of soda. '\ 



Be Careful to Keep Everything Very Clecn. 



46: 



Apply mustard to the chest. 

Another Treatment. — U?e the same treatment as 
prescribed for Bronc'hitis. 

PLEURISY. 

' Cause. — Pleurisy is an inflammation of the lining 
which lines the cavity of the c'hest, and infests the 
lungs. It is caused by exposure to cold, and injuries 
to the wall of the chest. This may be done by the an- 
imal swallowing a nail, and it working itself into the 
chest throughout the intestines usually from the sec- 
ond stomach. 

Symptoms. — The breathing is painful, something 
like a person with pneumonia ; the ribs fixed ; pres- 
sure between the ribs cause intense pain. By apply- 
ing the ear to th.e side, a grating, rasping sound is 
heard; the head is hung low, t'he ears drooped; the 
expired breath is not hot as in pneumonia. 

Treatment. — No matter how slight the attack, the 
animal should be placed in a drv stall, with plenty of 
fresh air, t'he animal's body should be well clothed, 
the legs rubbed well, and l^andaged. To reduce' the 
fever, give from fifteen to twenty-five drops of tinc- 
ture of aconite every two hours, and one-half ounce 
nitrate of potassium. If the animal appears to be suf- 
fering great pain, give one dram of opium three times 
a day in a little gruel. Blankets dipped in liot. boiling 
water and wrung out, and applied everv half hour, 
should be used. If the pain continues after using the 
above treatment, apply a blister made of two drams 
of cant'harides and one and a half ounces of lard. Af- 
ter the acute stage has passed, give the following stim- 
ulant: 

One ounce tincture of Gentian, 

One ounce Ginger, 

One ounce chloride of Iron. 

Give as a dose in a pint of water three times a dav. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGES- 
TIVE ORGANS. 



INFLAMMATION AND PARALYSIS OF THE 
TONGUE. 

Cause. — Paralysis of the tongue is t'lie effect of care- 
lessness in drenching, that is, wounding the tongue, 

3J 



and mouth, also by getting foreign bodies in the fod- 
der, such as fhorns, etc. 

Symptoms. — By an examination of the tongue, one 
can readily tell if the tongue has been injured. Fre- 
quently the tongue will swell, and if the paralysis be 
complete, the tongue will hang out lifeless. 

Treatment. — First examine the tongue and remove 
the cause, if it still be persistent. If the tongue 
hangs out of the mouth it should be bled slightly. 
Apply the following solutions : 

One ounce vinegar. 

Two ounces honey. 

One half pint water. 

Mix thoroughly and apply with swab three or four 
times a da}'' to the tongue. 

BLOAT. HOVEN. OR TYPHANITIS. 

Cause. — This is a swelling of the painich wit'h gas 
on account of fermentation in the first stomach. It is 
usually indigestion. It is caused by feeding too much 
clover, green feed, or changing food too qnicklv. 




Pig. 13 — Trocar and Canmila. 

Symptoms. — At first the animal shows signs of un- 
easiness, swells up badly, groans all the time; back is 
arched ; if the hide is tapped between the last ribs and 
the point of the hip, it is resonant and sounds like a 
drum, especially on the left side; the nostrils are dis- 
tended, the eyes blood-shot, and run matter, the pulse 
at times very slow and at other times verv rapid. 

Treatment. — Give one and a half pounds of Epsom 
salts in a 'half-gallon of water as a drench to cleanse 
the system. Add one ounce of vinegar to the drench. 
Then take 

Four ounces sulphate of iron, 

Two ounces of nu.x vomica, 

Mix thoroughly together and divide into twenty- 
four doses, giving one morning and night in a bran 
masli. 



466 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE 



Another Treatment. — Pour col 1 water continuous- 
ly over the back and loins of the animal, and lead or 
drive her around the lot until the exercise brings re- 
lief. 

Another Treatment. — If the animal be sufferiiiT 
too much, perhaps the following treatment is better. 
I'lunge a trocbar and cannula into t'.'.e region o; t'.ie 
greatest swelling at the point midway between tlie 
spines of the loins, last rib and point of hip, on the 
left side, pointing the trocl ar downwards, letting it 




Fig. 14. — Showing where to insi^i-t trocar. Where aib dc cross 
is the place to insert trocar. 

pass in obliquely to avoid the kidneys. The trocar 
is an instrument as shown here in this illustration. 
If the trocar be not convenient, use a pocket knife, 
keeping it in the wound until the largest quill obtain- 
able can be inserted in its place, and the gas allowed 
to escape. \Mien the gas has passed off, give a good 
dose of linseed oil. The wound being small, will us- 
ually heal without trouble. 

IMPACTION OF THE THIRD STOMACH. 

Impaction is otherwise called Dry Murrain, and 
Grass Staggers. It is occasionally mistaken for Spin- 
al Meningitis. The trouble occurs in the third stom- 
ach, called the manifold, manyplies, or honeycomb, 
which becomes overloaded with coarse, hard feed, 
causing inflammation and stoppage of the entire di- 
gestive apparatus. Impaction in ay be caused by an 
excess of green feed, but it usually comes from eat- 
ing hard, withered grass late in the summer when 
pastures are dry and short and the supply of water 
is insufficient. Eating smutted cornstalks, withered 
wheat or oat hay, or uncurcd vetch are also frequent 
causes. 

The symptoms vary considerably with the severi- 
ty of the disease. In light cases the signs are loss of 






appetite, stopping of rumination or chewing the cud, 
1/owels constipated, and the aniinal appears dull and 
feverish or sluggish. The cow lies down most of the 
time on the left side and moans frequently. There is 
much tenderness on the right side under the short 
ribs when punched with the fist, the back is often 
arched, and the hind legs unsteady. The hardened 
contents of the stomach can sometimes be felt with 
the hand, or bloating will occasionally be present, 
which should be treated by tapping. 

In acute stages the animal becomes highly 
excited, bellowing and staggering, turning round 
and round, or falling in convulsion. They will 
rush blindly about, running over objects as if 
blind, or pushing the head against trees or fences 
for ininutes at a time, and pawing the earth. The 
breathing is loud, the heart beats hard and fast, and 
toward th.e last profuse diarrhoea may set in. Death 
will occur often in a few hours after the first symp- 
toms appear. 



Treatment for Impaction. — As will be readily recog- 
ni.'^ed from the r.ature of the disease, the first treat- 
ment should be to induce action of the stomach and 
bowels to throw off the offending substance. To ac- 
comjdish tl is, it is sometimes neccssar)- to use the 
strongest purgatives known to medicine, as well as 
frequent injections throu'^h the rectum. It would be 
best to begin with a medicine purgative, such as the j 
following formula: Epsom salts, one pound, common 
salt, half-pound, pinger, two ounces, all dissolved in ! 
two or three pints warm water given as a drench. An- 
other formula wdiich is just as good would be; Castor- 
oil, one ])int, raw linseed oil, half-pint, mixed and 
given as a drench. The animal shoidd have plenty of 
water if it will drink and watery foods if it will eat. 
An injection with a large syringe or a sprav pump 
and hose, forcing two or three gallons of warm watery 
soap-suds into the bowels should also be used. 

If the bowels do not operate in eight or ten hours, 
repeat the purgative, or if the case is becoming des- 
perate, use the following formula; Sulphate or soda. 
(Glauber salts) half pound, calomel, two drams, dis- 
solved in a pint of water, and Croton oil, twenty-five 
or thirtA' drops, given as a drench. The only chance 
IS to use sufficiently strong cathartics to break up the 
hardened contents of the stoinach and force them out- 
During the time while the purgatives are acting, the 
strength and nervous force of the animal shotdrl be 



Milk Absorbs Many Impurities. 



467 



kept up by stimulants, Any of tlie following will 
serve well; Powdered Nux Vomica, forty grains dis- 
solved in a little water, or Carbonate of Ammonia, 
five or six drams in pint of water, or half-pint of whis- 
key diluted with wate-, This tonic may be giveii 
three times daily during the sickness. After 

free action of the bowels is secured it is best 
to use green foods, soft mashes^ and plenty of water 
and even keep up small doses of salts to insure per- 
fect breaking up of all the impaction. The tonic 
mig'ht also be continued for several days in small 
doses. It would probably be best to move the cattle 
away from land that has been in pasture many years 
to fresh spots. 

DYSPEPSIA OR INDIGESTION. 

Cause.- — Indigestion or Dyspepsia is caused by im- 
proper feeding, exposure tc colds and storms. 



Treatment. — Give the cow one pound of Epsom 
salts, and one ounce ground ginger, dissloved in half- 
gallon cold water, at one dose. After this medicine 
has acted, boil a teacup of linseed into a pulp with a 
gallon of water, and while hot pour it over a half-pail 
of bran, making a mash of it. When the mash is cold 
put in some of the following powders: 

Four ounces sulphate of iron. 

Four ounces nitrate of potassium. 

Divided into twenty-four doses. Give one daily 
for several weeks, if necessary. 

Another Treatment. — Give phosphate of lime in the 
form of ground bones, and a little lime water, about a 
half-teacupful morning and night in bran mash. 

Still Another Treatment. — Give morning and night 
the following prescription : 
Three drams bicarbonate of soda. 
Two drams gentian. 
Two drams ginger. 




Fig. 15.— Herd pure bred Jerseys, Anderson's Farms, Marietta. Georgia. 



Symptoms. — One of the first symptoms that will 
be noticed in a cow suffering from indigestion is ca- 
pricious appetite. They will eat constantly, but are 
never satisfied, will sometimes eat heartily of one 
diet once of twice, and then will not eat again until 
the diet is changed Sometimes the animal will be 
seen licking the walls, eating dirt or lime, chewing 
sticks, trying to eat straw, rocks, coal, or other indi- 
gestible materials. The animal loses flesh, belches up 
most everything that she eats, manure is small in 
quantity, dry and glazed ; she frequently has little 
thirst for water. 



CONSTIPATION. 

Cause. — Constipation is caused by feeding too hard 
food, insufficient or impure water and too little ex- 
ercise. 

Symptoms. — It can be readily recognised by hard 
dry manure which is sometimes glazed. 

Treatment. — Make a complete change 'in the diet. 
If the attack be in the fall or winter, give from one 
to two quarts of melted lard, or a pint of raw linseed 
oil. If it be in the spring or summer, give once a day 
the following prescription: 



468 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Twelve ounces Epsom Salts, 

One ounce ginger, 

One ounce gentian, 

Wiater sufficient to make two quarts. 

Prevention. — The cattle should be salted twice a 
week in the wniter, and three times a week in the 
summer, also give plenty of fresh water. Cattle suf- 
fer a great deal m the winter for lack of water. As 
a rule, the weather is cold, and the careless farmer al- 
lows his cattle to suffer for t'he want of fresh water. 
It IS not sufficient that they have plenty of water, but 
the water should be of a temperature that they can 
drink with comfort. Just because the trough is full of 
water covered with ice an inch thick is not sufficient. 
Cattle do not enjoy ice water, when tihey are about 
to freeze from the chilling wind. See to it that your 
cattle have plenty of fresh water, of a temperature 
that thev can drink, and plenty of salt, and they will 
not be troubled much wit'h Constipation. 

DIARRHOEA OR SCOURS. 

Cause. — This disease is caused I)_\' improper feed- 
ing, and in calves impure milk, over heating, etc. 

Symptoms. — The actions are too thin, watery, and 
occur too often. If it is allowed to continue, there is 
great thirst on account of t'he feverish condition of the 
stomach, but no appetite: the milk dries up. the belly is 
tucked up, and back arched. After a little the animal 
loses flesh and the temperature falls below mormal. 

Treatment. — If it be in the calf, special care should ^ 
be given to the health of the mother. It is quite 
frequently the case that if you ciiange the diet of the 
other, you will experience no further trouble. If there 
are irritating substances in the stomach or bowels, 
give the following: 

Three ounces castor-oil. 

One teaspoonful of Ginger. 

Follow this wit'h two ounces lime water, and two 
ounces infusion of gentian. Give this two or three 
limes a dav in the milk or linseed gruel. It is a good 
idea to add a half ounce of chlorate of potash to a 
pailful of water. 

Especial Treatment for Calves. 

Two drams Salol, 



Four drams oxide bismuth. 

One ounce carbonate of lime. 

Mix thoroughly and divide into six eqiral doses, and 
give the first two doses at an interval of two hours, 
and the four -remaining doses every four hours. Give 
the medicine in a glass of calomel infusion. If the 
calf be very bad, add a glass of wine. 

Another good treatment for mild cases is to feed 
a teaspoontul of dried blood twice daily in the feed. 

DYSENTERY. 

Cause. — This disease is caused by eating poison- 
ous plants, and by neglecting diarrhoea. 

Symptoms. — This disease will be known by se- 
vere straining, watery, offensive and bloody discharg- 
es, hig'h fever with excessive thirst: loss of appetite; 
cow ceases to give milk; eyes discharges; back arched 
and tail elevated 

Treatment. — Give at one dose, one pint and a half 
raw linseed oi] and two ounces tincture of opium. 
Then give t'he following: 

One O'Unce turpentine. 

One ounce prepared chalk. 

One quart boiled flaxseed, 

^lix and give as one dose. Give tliis three times a 
dav. 




Fig, 16 — Showing Ti-uss used for Riiptiire. 

Another Treatment. — Give the following: 

Seven ounces Epsom Salts, 

Two drams powdered opium. 

Two drams powdered gentian. 

One pint of gruel. 

Mix thoroughly and give as one dose once a day. 

HERNIA OR RUPTURE. 

Cause. — This is a rupture of the investing mem- 



If You Are Going to Sell Milk, do Not Water It. 



469 



brane of the abdomen caused by some external injury 
or severe strain, letting- the intestines out into the ad- 
jacent spaces. The swelling of the hernia as some- 
times seen is as larL^e as a half-bushel, but it is soft 
and can be easily pushed back. Sonieti'.iies a great 
quantity of the intestines are cut, and this is called 
strangulated hernia, and must be rerkiced, or deatli 
will follow from inflammation and mortification. 

Treatment. — For calves a truss is used, as shown in 
the illustration. The skin may be pulled together 
and placed between two wooden clamps, but care 
should be exercised not to get it too tight. In the rup- 
ture of the belly, the same appliances (an be vised. 



DISEASES OF THE URI- 
NARY ORGANS 



CYSTITIS OR INFLAMIrlATION OF THE 
BLADDER. 

Cause. — Tliis is an inflammation of the lining of 
t'he bladder. It is caused by feeding on musty hay, 
over-ripe grasses, or grain ; also from the improper 
use of diuretic medicines, especially is fhe cantharides 
apt to produce it, on accotint of being spread over too 
large a surface which is absorbed in large quantities, 
Or being given in too large doses internally. 

Symptoms. — Great uneasiness, colicky pains, nose 
turned towards the flank, efforts to vomit, if a male, 
the testicles are drawn up towards the body ; urine 
is passed with pain, and is scanty ; the urine in health, 
is alkaline, w'hile during this disease it is acid. 

Treatm.ent. — Give the animal plenty of linseed tea, 
or gum arable water. Evacuate the bladder by the use 
of the catheter. 

GRAVEL OR LITHASIS. 

Cause. — This is the formation of sand-like deposits 
in the bladder by the union of the acids or alkalies 
with the urea in a c'hanged condition. These sand de- 
posits cause the bladder to contract, and this causes 
the urination to be very painful. The disease affects 
the males more than it does the females. 



Treatment. — 

One dram citrate of lithium given in, 
One l:alf-pint of water daily. 

Another Treatment — 

Twenty drops Ilyurocliloric acid, 

Three drams gentian. 

One pint oat meal gruel. 

Give this morning and night for a few days. In 
same cases the stones have to be removed, in which 
cases an operation must be performed. If an opera- 
tion is necessary a veterinarian should be called in. 



DISEASES OF THE NER- 
VOUS SYSTEM. 



INFLAr.iMATION OF THE BRAIN. 

Cause. — The immediate cause of this disease is too 
great flow of blood which presses on the arteries and 
causes increased action in all circulatory vessels. 

Symptoms. — The pulse in the temporal arteries will 
be strong, the cow will suffer greatly, and will Ijc 
raving; eyes inflamed; the animal will fall suddenly; 
will attempt to rise again. 

Treatment. — Keep the head of the animal cool by 
using ice or the coldest water that can be had. Give 
once a day fhe following dose : 

Twelve ounces Epsom salts. 

One ounce Ginger, 

One ounce gentian. 

Water sufficient to make two quarts. 

If this dose does not cleanse the system readily, in- 
jections of warm water and soap will prove beneficial. 

LOCKJAW OR TETANUS. 

Cause. — This disease is caused l)y the introduction 
through the wound of a microbe called bacillus tetani. 
This microbe thrives best in a wound where little or 
no air can get to it, hence in a small wound there is 
more danger of lockjaw than in a large wound. The 
microbe increases very rapidly, and produces a chemi- 
cal poison that is absorbed by the blood, and poisons 
the nervous systems, producing cramps in the mtiscles. 
Lockia.w occurs mostlv in wounds of the feet, for the 
microbe exists in the soil. 



4/0 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Symptoms. — The disease operates under cover, that 
is, in most cases you do not know that the animal is 
afflicted at all until the dangerous stage is upon us. 
Lockjaw does not always lock the jaws of the animal. 
The animal is usually dull, and disinclined to move; 
the muscles are stiff, and the head poked out in front, 
and the tail almost straight out be'hind; the animal 
persists in standing up; the hind legs are held apart; 
and frequently the back is depressed downward, and 
sometimes it is arched upwards. 

Treatment. — The first thing to be done is to give a 
drench of 

'i'en ounces Epsom Salts, 

Ten ounces common table salt, 

Two drams calomel. 

One ounce pulverized gentian, 

Two quarts of warm water. 

This should be given as a drench, if t'he jaws are 
not locked so as to prevent it;. After giving the above 
(Irenc'h, do not give any more dreu'ches. You should 
now search for the wound. Ren:ember that the wound 
may be, and probably is, very small, and it will be dif- 
ficult to find, as it may be hid by the hair. \Mien 
found wash it thoroughly, using hot water, soap, and 
a clean ra'^. Then apply to the wound some lotion 
made by using 

Thirty grains bichloride of mercury. 

One ounce pure carbolic acid. 

One quart of water. 

Pour some of it into ll;e wound, and swp.l) aV. part^ 
witli it. I'd not be afraid of getting too much on, and 
rubbing it in too deep. Make soaking wet with some 
lotion on absorbent cotton, and bind the wound with it, 
changing tie dressin:^- once a day. Keep the anim;;; 
in a dark stall, give her any food that she will eat. I ' 
the ji'.ws ,-'.:-c Ijc'xed }'0'i cirinot give a'lvthing inter- 
nally, but you can use the latter part of this treatment. 
But little hope is offered where t''e jaws are lo-^ked. 
A serum is now offered on the market, which is a 
great aid in preventing tetanus or c.ivin-^ it in t'..^ 
carli'^'- stages, bv iniectin'T; the material under the 
skin. 



PARASITIC DISEASES. 



LICE. 

Poor, neglected, lialf-star\eil animals are the ones 



most seriously affected with lice. One of fhe simplest 
and best remedies for lice, or any other parasitic dis- 
ease is a decoction of tobacco. Take two or three 
ounces to a quart of water. 

Another Treatment. — Take forty per cent, solution 
of pennyroyal, and apply every fourth day. 

Another Simple Treatment is the use of kerosene in 
small quantities. Too much kerosene will likely re- 
move the hair. Whenever the modern coal tar disin- 
fectants are available, such as Creolin, Chloro, Napth- 
oleum, Carsul, etc., they will serve the purpose of kill- 
ing parasites and producing healthy growth of skin 
and hair better than almost any other material. 

WOLVES OR GRUBS. 

For wolves in cattle, saturate the lumps on the 
cow's back three times a week with spirits of turpen- 
tine, cottonseed oil, or kerosene. Usually three appli- 
cations are sufficient, but sometimes more is required. 
The grtibs ir.ay also be squeezed out and killed to pre- 
vent further propagation. 

RINGWORM. 

This affection is due to a fungus or vegetable para- 
site that gets into the hair. It is very contagious, go- 
ing from man to the lower animal, and from lower an- 
imal to man. It will 1 e known by the circular patch 
of scaly crusts, which first appear to stick close to the 
hide, but which in time become detached. 

Treatment. — The first thing to be done is to sepa- 
rate the ai.'ejlcl animal frora the rest. Remove the 
crusts and destioy them so that some other animal or 
man will not take the disease. After cleansing the 
parts wi'.h soap and water, apply tl;e following: 

One 'half dram iodine, 

0::c 1 alf dram of iodide of potash, 

( 're oun^e vaseline. 

Another Treatment. — After cleansing the affected 
parts as above directed, paint the places with 
One part carbolic acid. 
Twenty parts acetic acid. 

ECZEMA. 
This is an affection causing great itching. In treat- 



A Few Dishonest Dairymen Ruin the Reputation of Many Honest Men. 



471 



ing this affection, change the food if possible. Bathe 
the affected parts with a half-ounce carbolic acid, and 
two quarts of water. The disease should be attended 
to as promptly as possible, for if neglected, it will be- 
come chronic, tlie skin thickens and cracks, from 
which cracks there is a constant discharge of semi- 
purulent fluid. 

MILK FEVER. 

This disease usually occurs within three days fol- 
lowing t'he time of calving, and never occurs after the 
first calving, and rarely after the second. It most fre- 
quently occurs after the third, and subsequent calving 
times. Cows that are in good condition, and good 
milkers are more subject to this disease than any oth- 
er. The symptoms are: weakness; muscular trem- 
ors; unsteady gait; inability to stand; loss of appetite; 
while the cow is down, the head is generally thrown 
around on t'he side ; consciousness is lost to a great 
degree; the cow not noticing her calf; saliva drops 
from the mouth ; bloating sometimes takes place, but 
this as a rule is the result of too liberal feeding just 
at the time of calving. 

Treatment. — Treatment should begin as soon as the 
first symptoms are observed. It is a very good idea 
to keep close watch over the cow for the first t'hree 
days after calving, so if the disease should begin, you 
can check it. 

In treating this disease, the udder should first be 
filled with either air, oxygen, or a solution of iodide 
of potash. The air treatment is the latest discovery. 
and when successful, no other work is necessary. 
The only apparatus required is a tube to insert in the 
teat, connected with a syringe bulb, bicycle a'r pump, 
or bellows. The best teat tubes are metal, but in 
emergencies a small rubber or glass tube, or a small 
chicken quill may be used. The instruments should 
be clean and the air pure. 

The older treat'.r.ent with solution of iodide of pot- 
ash was performed with a teat tube, a long rubber 
tubing, and a funnel through which to pour the liqui 1 
mto the udder. The solution is prepared bv dissolv- 
ing two dr-TT.s of iodide of potash in a quart of clean, 
boiled water, that h?s been cooled to blood heat. Di- 
vide the quart of solution into four equal parts and 
inject or pour one part into each of t'he quarters of the 
udder, hands and instruments clean. Som.e practi- 
tioners have used warm water and an ordinary house- 



hold bulb syringe with good effect. The new air 
treatment is doubtless the best. 

Additional medical treatment is sometimes neces- 
sary to get the bowels and stomach started to work 
well again after an attack of milk fever. A good pur- 
gative may help matters, such as salts or oil, and a 
tonic, such as copperas or nux vomica. ^ 



MISCELLANEOUS RE- 
CEIPTS AND DISEASES. 



INFLAMMATION OF UDDER OR MAMMITIS. 

Cause. — This disease is most common just after 
calving, and before the secretion of the milk has as- 




^ A'^jfer-iiJ-.l^ lg 



'^'!!fSZjijSt~U&)lt;^iiS&.£i^ 



iio- 15 Qikcii Bessie Land.seer. Farm of E. J. Hewlett, 
StepHensville, Tex. 

sumed a normal condition. However, it frequentlv 
has no connection with calving, and is contracted by ly- 
ing on cold, damp ground. Cows that are in poor con- 
dition, or arc neglected are most affected by it. 

Symptoms. — The bag swells, becomes hard, red and 
sore, and very tender; the milk is often curdled and 
sometimes bloody. 

Treatment. — The trouble should receive attention 
as early as possible. If allowed to continue, it may go 
into suppuration, that is, the formation of pus, which 
is discharged inside and, comes out with the milk. 
Sometimes the pus does not come out with the milk, 
but through an opening in the outside. In suc'h cases 
the milk from that affected quarter will usuallv be 



472 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



soiled. Give the animal one and a half pounds of Ep- 
som Salts, and one ounce pulverized ginger, dissolved 
in a half gallon of warm water, and give as one 
drench. After this medicine has acted, give the ani- 
mal half an ounce of nitrate of potassium twice a day 
in tlie water she drinks. This should be continued for 
three or four days. Fro^m the first, bathe the udder 
Avith hot water, for an hour, three times a day. After 
eacli bathnig, rub m well a niixture of one half ounce 
£!cetate of lead, one half ounce sulphate of zinc, and 
cue quart of salt water, s'hake well before using. Con- 
tinue this until all the inflammation is gone. 



and abuses her. Remember that the cow has feelings, 
and if her teats are sore, that it hurts her to be milked. 
After milking rub on 

Two ounces Witch Hazel, 

Two ounces sulphate of zinc. 

Two ounces of lard. 

Rub on the aftected parts a few times. This is a fav. 
orite treatment among dairymen. 

Another Treatment. — After milking use 
0-!e dram pulverized alum. 
Two ounces vaseline. 




Fis 



ly— imujoi-ted Red Polled Heiters. Owned by W. R. Clifton, 
Waco, Texas. 



Another Treatment. — ^Give the internal treatment as 
i;rcscribed in the treatmert above, but bathe the ud- 
der with the following lotion: 

Four ounces liquid camphor. 

One ounce turpentine. 

Two ounces of lard, 

One teaspoonful of coal-nil, or kerosene. 

SORE TEATS. 

A cow's teats frequently become sore, chapped, anrl 
cracked. In such cases, the milking is quite painful 
to the cow, and annoying to the milker. The milker 
frequently becomes enraged because the cow suffers. 



LUMPS IN TEATS. 

For some cause, lumps are formed in the bag, and 
the}' frequently get down in the teats, whic'h prevents 
the milk from coming down those teats. Sometimes 
the lumps can be forced back in the bag, in which 
case the lump will doubtless disappear before the 
next season. If not. yon will have to use a milk tube, 
w'hich can be procured from your druggist. 

HARD MILKER. 

If frequently happens that cows tliat are valuable 
are hard milkers. In such cases, it is of the. greatest 



If You Are Going Into the Dairy Business, Buy a C ood Separator. 



473 



importance to remedy this defect. Take a chicken 
feather, from the wings is best, and insert it in the 
teat, without touching the feather with a knife, foi 
that would then cause the feather to hurt the teat ; 
work it up gently, turning it around and around, un- 
til you have worked it up an inch or more. Then 
draw it out, and proceed with the milking. Do this 
for a week or more, and the cure will be permanent. 
Sometimes it requires the operation of a veterinarian 
to open up the teats. Metal teat dilators may also be 
secured from any sur2"ical house. 

GARGET. 

Cause. — This disease aiTects heavy milking cattle 
more than others. It is often the result of careless 
<ir rough treatment or neglect. 

The carelessness of persons who do the milking in 
leaving some of the milk in tlie udtler is one of the 
most prolific causes of garget. Care should be exer- 
cised to see that tl-.e udder is milked out clean at ev- 



Symptoms. — Tlie symptoms of the disease are simi- 
lar tu those of ir.flammation of the udder. Lumps 
form in one quarter, and from the teats of these sides 
frequently no milk can be drawn. The glands of the 
udder become inflamed, and when this inflammation 
goes far enough, tlie glands "break down'' which re- 
sults m pus forming. 

Treatment. — Th.is trouble is hard to cure. In fcLC^ 
A cow once affected is Halle to a second attack at any 
time. 

The cause of the trou!;le must he rJlayed or re- 
moved. If caused by cold, keep the cow in a warm, 
dry place and cover with blankets. If caused by im- 
proper milking, blows or germ infection, the udder 
should be thoroughly milked out by hand or milking 
tube. Then batiie ami foment the udilcr with water 
as hot as the hand will bear, for half an hour or more 
at a time. Continuous hot bathing and active rubbing 
■with the hands will give more relief than any ether 
treatment. The udder should be thoroughly kneaded 
at the same time, the lumps manipulated, and all the 
caesin and pus forced out as completely as possible. 
In order to keep heat around the udder, it is advisable 
to use a clot'h bandage padded with cotton over the 
entire udder, supported by cloth or straps running over 



the cow's back, and pour hot water on the padding 
continuously. 

Soothing ointments should then be rubbed all over 
the outside of the affected parts. In slig'ht case the 
use of lard or vaseline mi.xed with camphor will an- 
swer; but in the worst cases it is necessary to apply 
solid extract of Belladonna or strong mercurial oint- 
ment to relieve pain and soften the bag. The entire 
process of 1 ot baths and rubbing with ointment 
should be repe:ited frequently, as often as once every 
hour until some relief is secured. When interior ab- 
scesses form, or in case l f germ infection, the quarter 
should be milked out^and injected frequently, through 
a milking tube and syringe, with a 1 per cent, solution 
of peroxide of hydrogen, allowing this to remain half 
an hour, and then midving out. If an abscess forms 
near the outside ai;d th.e teat should be blocked up, 
the only resource is to open the abscess with a knife 
and allow the pus to escape, afterward treating the 
wound with antiseptics and glycerine tmtil healed. 

Dr. A. T. Peters, of the Nebraska Experiment Sta- 
tion, recommends filling the affected quarter with air 
just as for milk fever, and giving a thorough treatment 
of massa-e or kneading, working the air all through 
the quarter with the hand. It is claimed that t'he 
treatment opens up the spongy tissue, bursting and 
dissipating the collection of pus, and restoring the 
cjuarter to normal con;litio!i. Th,e rir should finallv be 
forced or milked out of the udder, bringing with it 
most of the pus and lumpy material. 

The treatment may be used once a day, or twice 
daily in severe cases, until a cure is effected. At the 
same time it is well to use some soothing ointment 
and l:ot water applications as described. 

The internal medicines which should accompany the 
udder manipulation are sufficient purgatives of salts 
or oils to keep the bowels loose, followed in ordinary 
cases with 'half an ounce of saltpeter daily, dissolved 
in water. In cases where abscesses form, it is neces- 
sary to give internal antiseptics in addition, liyposul- 
phite of soda, half ounce daily in a pint of water, or 
half an ounce of tincture or muriate of iron three 
times daily. If gangrene should occur, strong stimu- 
lants should be used, coHd:>inations of ammonia, ether 
and whiskey. 

A severe case of garget results in the loss of the 
milking function in one or more quarters of the udder, 
and shrinking of the parts. If half of the udder be 
lost, it would be better to sell such animal to the 



II 



474 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



butcher before calving time Occurs again, to prevent 
further trouble. In light cases the milk flow will be 
established naturally again, or return to its usual 
work at the succeeding calving time. 

BLOODY OR STRINGY MILK. 

When the udder has been injured by blows, or con- 
gested for any ceason, the milk may become tinged 
with blood. When the cow is in heat and under con- 
siderable excitement, blood may flow through the 
teats. Other causes are, changing suddenly from poor 
to rich, heavy feeds, and eating of carid resinous 



Stringy milk is genrally caused by the entrance in- 
to the udder of germs which collect from various 
sources on tha end of the teats, enter the opening and 
gradually work their way up inside the teat, spread- 
ing through the entire mass of milk. It can be con- 
trolled by keeping the cattle away from any contam- 
ination, such as mud-holes or manure filth, and in ob- 
stinate case? by giving a drench containing one-fourth 
ounce Hyposulphate of Soda. 

WARTS. 

Warts frequently appear on fhe cow, and tJhey are 



fr' 'r««K'^-v^n> 




Fig. 20 — A round up iu Florida. 



weeds or plants. Some cows are more subject to 
this than others, being what are called "thin skinned." 
the small blood vessels are liable to break inside the 
bladder and discharge blood in the milk canals. To 
cure the trouble, ascertain the cause and if necessary 
reduce the feed or change pastures. If injury or con- 
gestion has occurred, treat the same as for garget, by 
hot water bathing and greasing with lard or oint- 
ments or a weak solution of iodine. Always milk out 
and throw away all bloody milk. For internal treat- 
ment give a drench of one pound of salts and half 
an ounce of saltpeter. 



especially troublesome v^dien on the teats. Tie a silk 
thread around the warts. In a few days they will 
come off. Then apply terchloride of antimony to the 
affected parts, and you will have no trouble with them. 
If the warts are fat, or for any reason you cannot tie 
a string around them, take a knife and scarifv the;n. 
and then apply a little nitrate of silver or terchloride 
of antimonv every third day. After the warts have 
dropped off. heal the parts with two ounces tincture 
of catechu, two drams carbolic acid, eight ounces wa- 
ter. 

Another remedy.— Apply nitric acid on wart daily. 



Do Not Buy Dairy Utensils Because They are Cheap. 



475 



til it is removed. If you should get too much nitric 
d, use vaseline or some other kind of grease. 

CHOKING. 

This is the result of feeding roots, apples, etc. The 
perfect chewed particle lodges in the gullet, which 
quite small in cattle, and resists all efforts of the an- 
al to dislodge it. The symptoms are : the head is 
:ended and stretched out ; saliva flows from the 
lUth; the animal is restless; and shows pain; she 
!;ps chewing and making efforts to swallow. Open 

mouth of the animal and place something like 3 
iw clevis in it to keep open, and run your hand 

n her throat and remove the obstruction. If you 

unable to reach it, or for any reason the above 
s, give the animal 

ne ounce sulphuric, ether 

ne quarter pint linseed oil. 
f thil plan does not avail? a probe will have to be 
lerted. In such case, a veterinan'an should be em- 
yed, or one familiar with its use. 

TUMORS, 

[Tumors frequently appear on the cow. Sometimes 
y come on the udder, sometimes on the jaw and at 
ious places. Open the tumor, and bathe it well 
|ee times a day with hot water, and after each 
hing rub it well a little> with the following lotion : 
)ne half ounce acetate of lead, 

ne half ounce sulphate of zinc. 
)ne quart soft water. 

iha'ke well before using. The tumors should be 
tinguished from LAimpy Jaw which requires differ- 

internal treatment. 

FOOT EVIL. 

•"oot Evil is a swelling just above the fetlock of the 
v's foot. Where the foot divides, there is usually 
ore. If there is a sore where the foot divides, dis- 
^'e one tablespoon blue vitriol in a pint of soft wa- 
I and apply to the affected part twice a day for 
fee days. If the place where the foot divides is not 
|e, apply a bag of salt to the affected part, and mois- 
this with vinegar. 

COW TONIC. 

jt frequently happens that cows need tonics, just as 



\>' 



people do. The following tonics are recommended: 

Two ounces sweet spirits of nitre, 

Two ounces tincture of gentian, 

Two ounces tincture of ginger. 

One ounce tincture of chloride of iron. 

Mix thoroughly and give as one dose in a quart of 
oatmeal gruel. 

Another tonic. — 

Four ounces sulphate of iron. 

Four ounces nitrate of potassium, 

Two ounces nux vomica. 

Mi.x and divide into twenty-four doses, and give 
dose morning and night in a bran mash. This tonic 
is especially recommended to stimulate blood circula- 
tion. 

BITTER MILK. 

It is often found that cows, eating some kind of 
weed, give bitter milk. In such cases the only thing 
to be done is to keep them in the lot^ or change pas- 
tures so that they cannot eat the weed that causes the 
trouble. Feeding- small amount of charcoal and salt- 
peter will often remove the disagreeable taste. Again 
bitter milk comes from uncleanliness. Few people re- 
alize the importance of cleanliness in handling milk. 
It is frequently the case that the stable is not kept as 
clean as it should be. So often is this true that milk 
absorbs bacteria from the cow stable. If the milk is 
allowed to stand there for some time while the cow 
fimshes eating or the calf is separated from its moth- 
er, it will all the time become more unfit for use. 
Then be certain that the milk is in a clean, cool place 
after bringing it into the house. The milk utensils 
should be kept perfectly clean. If everything is kept 
clean, and the cow fed proper food, the milk will al- 
ways be pure and sweet. 

DEHORNING. 

Althoug'h dehorning has been adopted for many 
years, it has only recently come into such common 
use. Horns were evidently given to the cow as weap- 
ons of defense, but under the present feeding and 
stabling methods, they become a trouble and at times 
are dangerous to other cattle and people as well. De- 
horning is considered by many as a cruel operation, 
but it is no more so than permitting a "boss" cow in 
a herd to be constantly injuring weaker animals. Dai- 



476 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



ry cattle require less room when dehorned, and t'he 
operation seldom has any effect on milk flow. 

There are several methods of dehorning, the oldest 
being by the use of a saw. This is more painful than 
other methods, and should be used only on adult an- 
imals over fhree years of age, with hard tough horns. 
The use of clippers in sucn cases may crush the horn 
or crack the skull bones. The head of the animal 
should be confined in a stanchion or tied close to a 
strong post, the hair clipped at base of 'horn, and the 
horn sawed off close enough to the skull to take off 
with the horn about a ring or a quarter of an inch of 
.•-kin at its base. A fine toothed wood saw, or a regu- 
lar butcher's saw may be used. The wound s'hould be 
treated with pine tar or vaseline, and the openings 
plugged with cotton for a few days. 

For animals not over two years old, it is better to 
use the dehorning clippers sold for the purpose, as 
they do the work much quicker, leaving a smooth, 
clean cut whic'h readily heals. The horn at this age is 
soft enough to prevent any danger as mentioned in re- 
gard to adults. 

When the button begins to grow, scrape with a 
knife till raw, and apply a little caustic potash to the 
spot, rubbing well on the button. The next day if 
there is a little dent there, the horn is dead. JSut if 
no dent appears, make a second application of caustic. 
This is certainly a better plan than to wait till the 




nary halter on the head, and a surcingle around he 
chest, just be'hind th'e front, then take a stick and ti<i 
one end to the surcingle, and the other to t'he halter' 
This plan allows the cow to eat and drink with ease 
but she cannot reach her udder. 

Another Plan. — Make a necklace of fork or broor 
handles, as shown in the illustration, and string t'her 
together. Care should be observed that it is not Ion 
enough to choke or chafe the cow. 



Fig. 21 — (Method of tireakmg cow from sucking herself. 

cow is grown, and cutting it off with clippers. In 
handling caustic soda, care should be observed that it 
be not allowed to touch the hands, as it has a corrod- 
ing effect. Caustic potash can be bought at any drug- 
store in the form of a stick, about the size of a lead 
pencil. 

TO BREAK A COW FROM SUCKING HERSELF. 

To break a cow from sucking herself, place an ordi- 



r^-i s 




Fig. 22 — Method of breaking cow from sucking herself j 
TO PREVENT COWS FROM KICKING. 

Tie both the cow's hind legs together tightly, a 
you will have no trouble about her kicking while I 
ing milked. At first she may fall down, but she \\ 
soon get accustomed to the restraint, and yon \^ 
have no further trouble with her. A surcing 
strapped lightly around the abdomen just in front ■ 
the udder will break some cases. 

BULL. 




Fig. 23.— Head of the Herd. Owned iby W. R. Clifton 
Waco, Texas. 

The average farmer does not realize the importan 
of having the service of a good bull. It is far, ni- 
important than he imagines. Let us do away with t 
idea of most farmers that any old bull will do. '1 1 
is why we have so many poor milkers and scruf 
among the milk cows to-dav. If there is any class •■ 



Ensilage Makes a Very Fine Winter Feed for the Dciry Herd. 



477 



people in the world that should have first-class milk 
cows, it is the Southern farmer, but as a rule they 
have the poorest. In many places the farmers of a 
community co-operate and buy a first class-bull. This 
is an excellent idea, for they then will have something 
that will be a profit to t'hem. A good bull should be 
pure, and the offspring of good milkers. A bull is fit 
for service at sixteen months old, but the first year 
he should not be used for more than a dozen cows. The 
next year the number may be doubled. Bulls are of- 




'Fig. 24.— Pure (Bred Hereford Bull, Palmetto Stock Farm, 
Ocalla, Fla. 

tcii dangerous because of lack of proper exercise. 
I lulu work will not "hurt them, but it will be a help. 
A one horse tread power is a good machine for a bull 
to exercise with. His energy may be used to saw 
Iwood, pump water, shell corn, and do many other 
things. Allow the bull to have plenty of fresh air. 
jAbove all things, -do not trust a bull, for it is the 
jiarmle?s bull t'hat always kills, and be certain to de- 
lorn him. 

THE MILK COW. 

One good milk cow is better than two poor ones. 
it takes less time and attention to 'have a good milk 

ow than it does to bother with several scrubs. Not 
ibnly is this true, but a man thinks more of himself. 
iVhy some farmers persist in milking a 'half-dozen 
tows, just for the milk supply of their own family, 
(vhen one good cow would give sufficient milk, is a 
natter I cannot explain. The period of pregnancy in 
tattle is slightly variable, but as a rule 280 days is an 
iverage. Service in December or Januarjr will pro- 
jjiuce calves in September or October, and this is the 

est time. It is best for the calf, for he will not be 



troubled with the flies so much during the time when 
he is v\'eak. Uy the time spring comes he is ready to 
eat the spring grass from the pasture. It is better 
for the man who sells milk, for, as a rule, the milk 
supply is not so great, and he can secure a better 
price for his products than in tlie summer. And then 
milk and butter can be handled much better in the 
cold weather than during the hot months. Jerseys 
should be bred when from twelve to fifteen months 
old, and the larger breeds six months to a year later. 
During pregnancy, the cow should be wisely fed. 
Away with the idea that the cow does not need food 
other than what she gets in the pasture, for nov/ she 
has two lives to support. For a while before calving, 
the food should be slightly reduced, for the growth of 
the calf is complete, and the cow should not be too 
fat at calving time. If the cow is giving milk, let her 
be dried off a month or six weeks before she calves. 
Hay may be fed freely at any time. The birth of the 




25.— Cov.' Pi-oducing over 500 lbs. B-utter per year. 
OKvnea by Mr. Williamson, Commerce, Ga. 



calf involves no special pain or trouble to the mother 
cow. if all goes well. If not, a. veterinarian had better 
be called in. The mother cow will lick her off-spring, 
and the calf, as a rule, begins sucking of its own ac- 
cord. The first milk of a cow is of a peculiar character, 
and is intended by nature to act as a purgative, and to 
set the bowels of the calf to acting properlv. The 
milk of the cow should not be used for human food 
until after the calf is four days old. A mature cow 
will drop a calf once a year, but in the case of a heif- 
er, she should have more time in whic'h to recuperate.. 



478 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



An old English writer has described the cow so well 

in verse, 

"She's Ions i" 'icr face, she's fine in her horn, 
She'll quickly get fat without cake or corn; 
She's clean in her jaws, and full in her chine. 
She's heavy in flank, and wide in her loin. 

She's broad in her ribs, and long in her rump, 
A straight and flat back, without e'er a liump; 
She's wide in her hi"-;, and calm In her eyes, 
She's fine in her shoulders, and thin in her tlidghs. 

She's light in her neck, and small in her tail. 
She's wide in her breast, and good at the pail, 
She's fine in her bone, and silky of skin — 
She's a grazier's without, and a butcher's within." 
In buving a cow, you must depend on your own 
judgment. Study cows, and learn to be able to tell a 
cow when you see one. They should have tTie capaci- 
ty to consume and digest larsfe amounts of feed, and 
be able to turn it all into milk. 

THE BABY OR CALF. 

Many farmer believe that the calf should suck dur- 
ing the milking, or the cow will not let down her 
milk. But not so, unless the cow has been spoiled. 
The proper tiling to do is to take the calf away when 
quite young, and do not allow it to suckle its mother 
at all or longer than three days. But if you are bent 
upon allowing it to suck until weaned by the natural 
order of things, teach it to do its sucking, after the 
cow has been milked. It may be occasionally neces- 
sary to let the calf suck at first, but not asi much as 
generally supposed. 

It is not a difficult task to teach the calf to drink. 
It takes some patience, and at first, only a small quan- 
tity of milk. As lias been suggested, the calf is an ig- 
norant creature with only instinct to guide him. In 
the first place, he is a dumb brute, and naturally 
has not as much sense as some men. altliough he has 
more sense than tlie man w^io thinks that a calf a 
day old ought to know all things. Take a quart of 
milk, say when tlie calf is three days old, and put it 
in a eight or ten quart pail. Take the calf into a 
room where you can back it up in a corner, straddle it 
and take the lower jaw with one hand, and the milk 
pail with the other hand. Dip your fingers in the milk, 
and then let the calf suck your fingers. In this way. 



he will get a taste of the milk. Naturally his ' 
points upward, but by degrees lower it into the ' 
It may be that at first he will not suck, but dc' 
give it up. Let the calf wait until he gets good; 
hungry, and you will have little trouble with it. 1 
at it, do not give up. 

There are many patented calf feeders on the 

ket, and tliey may be good, but it is hard to bea 

plan here outlined. In the first place, these pat 

feeders have an imitation of a teat which the calf : 

and it is no unusual thing for the calf to pull thi: 

off. But the calf has never learned to drink wi 

it. while you are sending liundreds of miles 

another, the calf may be starving. And then agf 

is next to impossible to keep rubber parts clean 

many calves die on account of the filth accunii 

in the feeders. If you cannot spare new milk 

three or four days, of course you will have t 

skimmed milk, but the change should not be mad 

denly as it will not work well. It is also a goo( 

to change from sweet to sour milk, if the calf is 

raised in fhe summer, for it is a difficult thing ti_ 

the milk sweet, unless a separator is used. Th 

should be warmed to blood heat before feeding 

See to it that the calves have a good shelte 

barn in cold or wet weather- It is cheaper to 

barns than it is to feed. If they are neglected 

lowed to stand in the rain or cold, it will takj 

tliat much more feed to keep them in condition. 

then look at it from a humanitarian standpoin 

vou cannot refuse to give them shelter in J 

weather. Thev should have some milk until' 

three months old. t.\ 

■I 

THE FARMER'S COW. 

\ 
The Southern farmer as a rule, where he n 
Iv enough cows for his home use, has. not th 
that the dairyman has to devote to the study o 
and feedstuffs, and their chemistry. The qi 
with him is how to get the most out of the co^ 
the least expense- The man who gets tlie m( 
of liis cow with the least expenditure, is the m; 
raises the most feed at home. If feed is low ir| 
you may be able to even buy feed, but you > 
gain anything from a financial point, where y 
all vour feed. It is far more satisfactory to r: 
the feed that your cow will consume. Of co^ 
a man has any feed at all, he s'hould have a sm: 
ture. A pasture is almost necessary. Many hi 



Keep Your Blood Pure- 



M'i 



and others plots of land that are now idle could be 
turned into money by converting them into pastures. 
Look about your place and see if there is not some 
land that could very easily be turned into a pasture, 
and your cow ahiiost entirely fed there. With a good 
pasture in the summer, you will only have to feed 
your cow a little ground feed. Some of the waste from 
the kitchen may be fed to t'he cow and some to chick- 
ens and hogs. Hpw many farmers allow this waste 
to be thrown away, when it could be converted into 
food. They enjoy eating vegetables and will eat 
them either cooked or raw- The skim milk can be 
poured over her food, and r.S' d to advantage, if there 
are no hogs to be fed. And then there is a great deal 
of waste from the garden. The cornstalks from which 
the roasting ears are taken should not be allow to 
stand and dry -no. but should be fed to the cow. And 
then there are the potato vines, they should be fed to 




Fig. 2G— Dairy House Nacoochee Valley Farm. Owned by 
Dr. L. G. Hardmau of Commerce, Ga. 

the cow. In fact, if vnu will only try. you can feed 
your cow upon many things that would othei-wise be 
■ft'asted. But if you cannot pasture t'he cow, a great 
deal of food can be raised, such as millet, sorglium, 
and such other foods, on small space and cut for feed- 
ing. 

If yoii have to "buy feed, the following ration is 
about the average for the American cow. Xow we do 



not claim that it is the proper amount, but it is an av- 
erage. It may be that your cow will need more, or it 
may be she will not need so much : 

(Northern Advice) 

15 pounds good, sound hay. 

10 pounds wheat bran, 

5 pounds corn meal. 

This ration should be divided so as to cover the en- 
tire day. Cheaper foods can be prepared than this 
food, but this is considered the best. A ration much 
used in t'he South is 

.5 pounds Cottonseed Meal. 

15-20 pounds Cottonseed hulls, 

5 pounds hay or fodder. 

See that your cow is milked. — Milking a cow is not 
simply going to her and drawing the milk properly 
from her. He wlio milks successfully should study 
the work. The cow should be milked as quickly as 
possible, as she will give more milk w'hen it is drawn 
from her rapidl3\ than when it takes a long time for 
her to be milked. And then a good milker will get ev- 
ery drop of milk. The last milk is the richest. A 
cow mav be dried up by not ta!:in^- all the milk. She 
produces the milk as it is taken from her. If some be 
left wit'h her, then the next time she will not give 
nuite as much. 

Al)ove all. the milker sliould practice cleanliness. 
It is not an uncommon thing for the milker to moisten 
his hands with milk and then proceed to fill the pail. 
'rbis practice does not make the milking- any easie", 
p.nd it is simply inexcusable to use fhe milk bucket for 
a wash basin. Before beginning to milk, the udder 
and teats should be washed thorou'rhly clean, and 
then dried with a cloth. It is best ta milk with the 
hands drv. As soon as the milk is drawn from t'he 
cow, it slionld be carried into the house and strained, 
and rot a'lowed to stand in the barn for a halfJio--'-. 
absorb-'nof imnuri'-ic';. The m.ilk should be strained 
immediatclv into sballovv' pans, or deep cooling cans, 
?.nd r''"'--e'' to cool. Do not imake the mistake that 
ma'^-'- f-^r'-'-'c'-s' wives make in allowing the milk to 
sit aro'ind until after supper before it is strained. 

One ite"T in m-i'cinfr the best hu*:ter is to clii"-'i 
often. Do not allow the milk to stand after the cream 
has ripened. It is a poor plan to wait until vou get 
more cream, ^^"hen it is ripe, then is the time to 
churn. 

And just a word about the place where the milk is 
kept. Did you ever study t'he places that the average 



48o 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



family keep their milk and butter? Let us just take 
a peep into an ice chest. The ice chest, as a rule, does 
not contain over six cubic feet of space. Strawber- 
ries have a very pung-ent odor, but they appear first 5 
and then there is some cheese, and then a bowl of 
vegetable soup that was left over, and that must be 
kept on ice, or it will sour. And there is beef, and the 
butter and the milk, and a great many other things. 
The milk and butter all the time are absorbing these 
odors- The milk should be kept by itself. It may be 
more expensive, but it will be more satisfactory. 

The cow appreciates kindness. — ^Many things can 
be done witli a cow I)v treating her kindly, that cannot 
be done in any other way. She should have plenty of 
salt. Do not forget to salt her at least three times a 
week. It is a very good plan to keep salt where she 
can get it all the time. 

It is not necessarv to feed while milking. The cow 
is a creature of habit, and ,will do as she is trained. 

DAIRYING. 

■With butter selling at from 25 to -10 cents per pound, 
and milk from 18 to 25 cents per gallon the year 
nround there is good money in dairving, — a rrer,: 
deal more than raising cotton at 10 cents per pound. 
The South is pre-eminently the place for dairy work. 
It is easier to raise feed here than any place in the 
United States. It should only be a matter of a few 
■v'ears when the old hills of the South that are now 
producing three hundreds pounds of cotton pvr acre 
will be producing feed stuff, or used as pastures for 
dairy cattle. The dairy business is an occupation. It 
rcf]uires time and patience to learn it, Imt there is no 
calling that will give better results for the amount in- 
vested than the dairy business. To the man wdio has 
been making only cotton for the jiast ten or fifteen 
vears, it will take but a little reasoning for him to see 
how much better it would have been for him to have 
devoted some of his time to other work. Cotton is 
an easy crop to raise. As a rule, it takes only a few 
months to raise it, and very little exposure to cold, 
rainy weather. But not so in the dairy business. 
Cows must be milked, fed, groomed, and the milk at- 
tended to twice a day, seven days in the week, and 
fiftv-two weeks in t'he year. Atlanta. Georgia, uses 
,^00,000 pounds of butter per year, and the most of it 
it shipped' from the North and West. This butter 
costs the grocers from twenty-five to t'hirty-five 



cents a pound. Other Southern cities are the same 
way. They need butter, and the people of the South 
can supply them, and do it easily, if they will, while 
helping to enrich their lands. 

To embark in the dairy business requires some capi- 
tal, a great deal of common sense and determination. 
If the business is managed right, it can be made to 
pay from the very beginning. If you have had no ex- 
perience, do not go into it too heavily, or on too large 
a scale. You do not know just w'hat is best, and must 
learn from experience. There are many things that 
cannot be taug'ht in books. The school of experience 
will teach you many things- Th.e average farmer will 
find it a profitable IjusinesLi to carry on a dairy busi- 




rig. 26 — Cow of Mr. Williamson, Commerce, Ga. Producing 
over 500 lbs. of butter each year. 

ness as a side line. Every good farmer lias a few 
good cows. Now it will not be costly for him to pur 
chase a good pure bull, and perhaps one or two pur' 
cows. In connection with his farm business, in t! 
course of a few years, t'iiere is no reason why he can 
not have a first-class dairv herd. Of cotirse. in brecil 
ing up a dairy herd, all the poor cows should fin' 
their Avay to the butcher's pen. A poor cow is a bm 
investment for milking purposes. W'eed them on 
and get the very best. But if the man will look fact 
in the face he will be convinced that dairying pa}'' 
so that the next question that 'Comes up is, what an 
how must 'he go about the business. 



Produce First-Class Goods, and Demand First Class Prices. 



481 



THE BARN. 

There can be no definite plans or rules laid down 
for the construction of the barn or farm buildings. If 
ihe side of a hill with a south or east exposure can be 
secured it will be better to build on it, as it will save 
time in doing the chores. And then the barn must be 
built according to circumstances. 

The floor of the barn should be of cement. Dig 
out the place to a depth of six or eight inches, and 
make the bottom where the floor is to be laid level 
Then fill in with gravel and broken stones, and t'hoi- 
oughly wet and trample down. Give a slant in the 
stable from the manger to the gutter of one or two 
inches. It is very important that you get the gra\-el 
and stones thoroughly packed, as this will prevent 
t'he floor from cracking. If it is not packed thorough- 
ly the floor will be sure to crack. Then you sihould 
mark the place for the gutter, which should be from 



Mix thoroughly together one part cement, and nine 
parts gravel, and sprinkle it, until it is damper than 
freshly dug earth. A box s'hould be made, whose out- 
side measurements are the same as the gutter, so that 
it can be used in making the gutter. The concrete, as 
mixed above, should be put on to a thickness of two 
and a half inches in depth. It can be smoothed over 
with a straight edge. Then on top of this should be 
placed another layer of cement and sifted sand, usmg 
one part cement and three parts sand. Care should be 
observed that t'he sand be free from dirt. After you 
have made the floor smooth, it is a good idea to go 
over the floor with a rake, letting the teet'h go in the 
cement just a little. Go over it both lengthwise and 
crosswise. This will prevent t'he floor from being 
slick, and keep the cattle from slipping. 

The sire of the stalls depends upon the length of the 
animal, and should be from 3 to 3 1-2 ft. wide, and 





^ - iT 


*-„ 






-«- , —.----. 


....^^^ 


*:\{'- ^^ * 




■ 1 


mm- .. ..-^t: ' 


B 


""'■■-^"r^^S 


. .^J^ 





Fig. 28 — Showing bull paddock, cow lot and barn of W. R. Clifton, Waco. Texas. 



six feet three inches to six feet eight inches from 
the manger* .depending, of course, upon the size of the 
cows- The gutter should be dug three inches wider 
and deeper than wanted when finished. It should 
be nearly level from end to end, and should 
he about eight inches deep, and sixteen inches 
wide when finished. If you intend to use 
foundation posts, measure from the manger the 
proper distance, that is, the distance you want the 
foundation posts from the manger, and drive one 
inch pipes into the ground for eighteen inches, leav- 
ing six inches above the surface to set the posts on, 
holes being bored in the lower end of t'he posts to re- 
ceive the pipe. This is better than putting t'he posts 
into cement. 

32 



from six to seven feet long. There are a great many 
forms of ties, stanchion and patent stalls, each having 
some advantages- The simplest is a rope, strap or 
chain to tie the cow to the front or side of the stall. 
If stanchions are used they should be of the swinging 
or chain hanging variety to give freedom to the cow. 
Some stalls are arranged to fit the animal exactly wit'h- 
otit tying, confining her bv means of a rope or chain 
across the back of the stall. 

The most economical and satisfactory method of 
watering is to have one or two large drinking troughs 
in protected places, where there is footing without mud, 
and allow the cattle to have access to this at least 
twice a da}'. Separate watering devices in each stall 



482 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



■"have not proved satisfactory in practical use on ac- 
count of being unsanitary. 

The partitions between the stalls can be made of 
wire or boards, but should be movable, so that the 
tarn can be more easily cleansed. The cow should 
have a good bed made of saw-dust, leaves or some- 
thing of the kind. This will cause extra trouble, to be 
sure, but it will pay for itself in the saving of the ma- 
nure. The bedding should be renewed at least once 
a day. This is much better than having the cow lying 
upon the cold cement. A 4 or 6 board may be fas- 
tened on edge of gutter to hold bedding in place. In 
planning your barn, perhaps the cheapest plan is to 
build a barn thirty-two feet wide. This will allow a 
ten-foot hall-way down the center, and two rows of 
■stalls, one on each side- The cows can be placed wntli 
their heads towards the hallway, and this will facilitate 
feeding them. However, some prefer turning the cows 
the other way, as it is more convenient in carting off the 
manure. The barn should be long enough to give 
every cow a stall, and have two or three extra box stalls 
ten by ten feet to be used for hospitals, calves, etc. 




Fig. 29 — Cow barn which can be converted into hog barn. 
Erroll Farm, Plymouth, Fla. 

Of course, behind the gutter there should be a walk 
for getting into and from the cows A good plan has 
been used by some dairymen in having tTie outside 
wall of the barn made of cloth fastened at the top. 
By this plan, at night in the summer, and the summer in 
the South lasts raost of the year, this canvas wall 
can be raised, and the cows will keep as cool as out- 
side. Then in the winter, and cool nights it can bo 
lowered, and the cows kept warm. If the winters are 



I 



severe it may necessitate using a blanket on each cow, 
but the comfort they will get in the summer will coin- , 
pensate for the extra trouble in keeping them warm in i 
the winter. Then the canvas sides afford better op- . 
portunities for ventilating and letting the Hg'ht in than ' 
a board wall. 

Another good plan for the South is to have a small ' 
well-built stable room for milking and feeding pur- 
poses, to contain half or a third of the total number 
of cows, permitting them to eat the grain ration here 
while being milked The remainder of the time they 
are kept under a large, open, covered shed, where they 
can secure water freely, hay or fodder from racks, and 
lie down at will. The floor should be kept well-bedded 
with leaves, pine straw or saw dust, and the manure 
be allowed to accumulate with the bedding and hauled 
out once a week to the field. This plan give the cat- 
tle freedom and comfort, produces more manure, and 
saves space of a tightly built barn. 

FEED FOR DAIRY CATTLE. 

The question of feed in the dairy business is one of 
the largest items. It is a question that every dairy- 
man must study. You cannot hope to succeed in the 
dairy business without the proper feeding. The ra- 
tion or feed of a working animal should be quite dif- 
ferent from that of a fattening animal, and the ration 
of a young, growing animal sihould be different from 
that of an old, mature animal. In feeding a coiw, the 
object is not to fatten, but to make her produce milk. 
Certain kinds of foods produce bone and muscle, and 
repair all the waste. These are called proteids. Pro- 
teids also produce the casein or cheesy part of the 
milk. Then there are foods that produce the heat 
and supply the fats to the cow. These are called car- 
bohydrates, and are also used to produce the butter 
fat of the milk. 

Experiments have determined that there should be 
twenty-five pounds of dry vegetable matter to every 
thousand pounds of live weight of cows. Of this twen- 
ty-five pounds required for a 1000 pound cow, there 
ougiht to "be two and a half pounds of digestible pro- 
tein or flesh producing foods, twelve and a half 
pounds of carbohydrates, and four-tenths of a pound of 
fat. This ration, of course, is an average and not com- 
puted for every cow. As the cow gives milk, and the 
amount of protein and fat should be materially in- 
creased, while the increase in the amount of carbohy- 
drates should be only sliglitly increased. Perhaps we 



Appearance Adds A Great Deal to a Value of an Article. 



483 



:,in do no better than to give the complete tables as 
./en in the Bulletin issued by the Georgia Experi- 
::nt Station on the question of feeding cattle. 

"Nutritive Ratio. — This expression means the pro- 
rtion between the amount of digestible proteins in a 
i';ding stuff, or ration, and the amount of digestible 
■rbohdyrates and fats it contains. It is found by 
multiplying the amount of fats by ;^.25 (2 1-4), adding 
ne product to the amount of carbohydrates and divid- 
■ g this sum by the aniount of proteins. This is done 
» cause the fat is considered to be two and one-fourth 
:nesthe foodvalue of the carbohydrates. The stand- 
d for an average milch cow, as given in Table No. 1. 
jat a nutritive ratio of 1 :5.4, which means that the car- 
jihydrates and two and one-fourth times the fat 
,'.dded together) are 5.4 times greater than the pro- 
jin. Thus: Take field corn, the first feeding stuff in 




fig. 30 — Silo on TJ. S. Diversification farm at Talladega. 
'1 Ala.. weatherboarded as a house. 



'^able No. 2. It contains 4.3 pounds of fat in 100 
ounds, which multiplied by 2.25 (2 1-4), equals 9.7. 
idd this 9.7 to G6.7 — fhe amount of carbohydrates in 
leld corn — and we 76.4 pounds. Divide tihis 7G.4 by 
ht 7.9— the amount of proteins in field corn and we 
lave 9.6, which is the nutritive ratio cxf corn or corn 



"Feeding Standards. — Table No. 1 gives what are 
called the "Feeding Standards" for different kinds and 
conditions of animals, based on 1,000 pounds live 
weight. It is known as the Wolff-Lehmann standard, 
and is adapted from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding." 
The original Wolff standard ratio for the average 
milch caw in fhe table as indicated. 

"This calls for a daily ration for a 1,0<}'0 pound cow 
of 25 pounds of organic matter, including 2.50 pounds 
of digestible protein, 12.50 pounds of digestible carbo- 
hydrates, and 0.40 pound of digestible fats. This 
standard is the basis for the suggested feeding formu- 
las for milch cows, w'hic'h will be found on this page. 

"Substantially the same principles and conditions 
that should control in the make-up of a daily ration 
for a milk cow apply also to rations for fattening cat- 
the hogs, sheep, etc. 

Table No. I. Feeding Standards. 

Per day and per l.CCO pounds live weight. (Wwlff-Lehmanii.)' 





Total 
Dry 


Digestible Nutrients. 


Nutri- 










tive 


KI.ND OF AXIMALS 


Matter 


Protein 


Carbo- 
lydrates 


Fats 


ratio 




Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


1 ; — 


1 O-ren— 












At rest in stall . . 


18 


0.7 


8.0 


0.1 


11.8 


At ligUt work . . 


22 


1.4 


10.0 


0.3 


7.7 


At heavy work . . 


28 


2.8 


13.0 


0.8 


5.3 


2 Fattening Cattle— 












First Period . . ■ 


SO 


2.5 


15.0 


0.5 


6.5 


Second period . . . 


SO 


3.0 


14.5 


0.7 


5.4 


Third period . . . 


26 


2.7 


15.0 


U.7 


6.2 


3 Milch Cr.irs— 












When yielding daily- 












4 quarts of milk . 


24 


1.6 


111.0 


0.3 


6.7 


8 qr.rrts of milk . 


27 


2.0 


11.0 


0.4 


6.0 


12 quarts of milk . 


29 


2.5 


13.0 


0.5 


5.7 


U quarts of milk . 


32 


3.3 


13.0 


0.8 


4.5 


Average Cow (Wolff) 


25 


2.50 


12.5 


0.4 


5.4 


4 Horses— 












At moderate work . 


23 


1.8 


11.2 


0.6 


6.9 


At heavy work . . 


25 


2.8 


13.4 


0.8 


5.4 


5 Fattening Swine— 












First period . . . 


36 


4.5 


25.0 


0.7 


5.9 


Second period . . . 


32 


4.0 


24.0 


0.5 


6.3 


Third per'.od . . . 


25 


2.7 


18.0 


0.4 


7.0 


6 Fattening Sheep— 












First period . . . 


26 


3.0 


15.2 


0.5 


5.4 


Second period . . 


25 


3.0 


14.4 


0.6 


4.5 


7 Growing Cattle 












(Dairy Breeds') 












Age in Av. live wt. 












months a hd., lbs. 












2-3 IM 


23 


4.0 


13.0 


2.0 


4.5 


3-6 30( 


24 


3.0 


12.8 


1.0 


5.1 


6-12 50f 


27 


2.0 


12.5 


0.5 


6.8 


12-18 70( 


26 


1.8 


12.5 


0.4 


7.5 


18-24 9« 


26 


1.5 


12.0 


0.3 


8.5 



^84 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



KIND OF ANIMALS 



Total 

l>iy 

Matter 

rounds. 



Digestible Nutrients. 



I'rotein 
I'ounds. 



Carbo- i Fats 
hydrates 
Pounds. I Pounds 



Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 
1 : — 



Grotring Ciiitic — 
(Beef Breeds) 



2- 3 

3- 6 
6-12 

12-18 
lS-24 



9 Groirliig Sii'ine — 

( Breeding Stocli) 

2-3 50 

3-5 100, 

5-6 120' 

6- S 200^ 

8-12 250l 

10 Groiving, Fatlnihiy 
Siciiie — 

2-3 50 

3-5 -.1110 

5- C 15U 

6-8 200 

9-12 .Si;il 

11 Brood Soirs .... 



23 
24 
25 
24 
24 



44 
35 
32 

2S 
25 



3.5 
2.5 
2.0 
1.8 



7.6 
7.6 



2.8 
2.1 



44 


7.6 


35 


5.0 


33 


4.3 


30 


3.6 


26 


3.0 



IJ.O 


1 

1 
2.0 


12. S 


1.5 


13.2 


0.7 


12.5 


0.5 


12.0 


0.4 


28. 


1.0 


23.1 


o.s 


21.1 


0.4 


16.7 


0.3 


15.3 


0.2 


28. II 


1.0 


23.1 


(1.8 


22.3 


0.6 


20.5 


0.4 


IS. 3 


0.3 


15.5 


0.4 



4.2 

4.7 
6.0 

0.8 
7.2 



4.0 
5.0 
6.0 
7.0 
7.5 



4.0 
5.0 
5.5 
6.0 
6.4 
6.6 



It is not insisted that the ration for milch cows 
should exactly correspond either in total amount of 
"dry matter" or in the proportion of protein, carbohy- 
drates and fats. The ciuantities and proportions given 
in Table No. 1 are the averages of a large number of 
feeding experiments- In the nature .of the case, differ- 
ent animals, dillerent conditions of t'he same animal, 
different outward surrounding^^ — such as temperature, 
stable comfort, etc. — will call for different proportions 
of elements, and different quantities. It is for t'he in- 
telligent dairyman to study these conditions, to note 
the personal peculiarities of each cow, the cjuality of 
the component foods, and the results in milk produc- 
tion, and to govern himself accordingly in making up 
the feed formulas. A careful and painstaking feeder 
will make changes in feed according to the observed 
peculiarities or conditions of the several cows. The 
"feeding standards" are for general guidance and not 
for implicit compliance in matters of detail. 

It should be remembered that no ordinary change 
in lhe composition, or in the proportions of the nutri- 
tive elements of the ration will cause any change in 
the qualitv of the milk, i.e., the percentage of butter 
fat. It is now generallv admitted that we cannot "feed 
fat into the milk." Each individual cow has 'her own 
opinion as to the amount of water she will put into 
her milk, or, in other words, how rich her milk should 
be. and no art or device of feeding will materially or 
permanently change the result. Feeding even the most 



til 



succulent and watery foods does not — as was long, 
lieved — materially affect t'he richness of the milkj 

Quality, or richness of the milk, depends (1) on' 
breed, and C2) on the individual cow, and can nO(' 
changed by changing the feed. Quantity of milk i 
be the aim of the expectant dairyman when he i- 
stricted to a given cow, or a herd of cows. 1 
quality and quantity should be t'he aim of the in1 
gent breeder. 

Of course there are other qualities of milk be? 
richness in butter fats. Flavor, l-ceeping qualities, 
both of t'he milk and of the butter, and the firmne 
the latter are materially affected by the charactt 
the food consumed. 

ANALYSIS OF FEED STUFFS. 

For convenience, the following table (No. 2) 
been compiled, giving t'he pro.ximate analyses of 
stock foods in common use, including especially t 
most popular and available in the South. The t 
also includes the average amount of fertilizing con? 
ents in one ton of each kind of feeding stuff a' 
column showing the commercial value of the s. 
based on the following prices of the three valuabi 
ements: Nitrogen, fourteen cents per pound; ax 
ble phosphoric acid, five cents per pound; and pol 
five cents per pound. On an average, about ei 
per cent, of the fertilizing elements contained in a f 
ing stuff will be found in the manure. ' 

Table No. II. 

.\verage Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Con it 
uents in American Feeding Stuffs- ' 



NAME OF FEED 





Dig:estible 




Perti 


izin.L 


-a 
a 


Nutrients in 


Constituent 


3- 

o 
a 


100 lbs. 


in 2000 ibs 












S 










-o 




"-• 






*j 




w 




a 






^ 




< 




u 




rs 


u 




V 
































es 








&i 






S 


•D 


o 


E-. 


o 


c 

CO 


P 


>» 




u 


Xi 






a 
















Q 




U 


t3 


y. 


- 





GRAINS AND SEEDS 

Corn, Field 

Corn, Sweet 

Corn, Cnh 

Corn and Cob Meal .... 

Gluten Meal 

Wheat. Whole 

Wheat Bran 

Wheat Shorts 

Wheat Middlings 



RO.llI 7.9!66.7| 4.3 
91.2|| 8.8|63.7| 7.0 
89.31 I 0.4|52 
84.9|| 4.4160 
91.81125.8143 
89.5||10.2|n9 
88. 1 



,.6| 
1. 01 2, 



1|112.2| 



8S.2|!12.2I50 
87.91 1 12.8153 



3|11 
2|1 
21 2 
,0| 3 
01 s 



4|14.( 

0|... 

,01 1 

2[11. 

51 6, 

2|15 

,4|57 

4|27, 

6119. 



,2112.1 
4 9.- 
1.1 
15.1 
32.; 
11.1 
12.1 



Test Your Milk and See How Much Butter Fat Each Cow Produces. 



485 



NAME OF FEED 



Digestible 

Nutrients in 

100 lbs. 





Fertilizing 


Constituents 


in 2000 lbs. 




-o 




K 








= t 




< 




!= 1. 








r s 


















a 








a; 




a> 






a: 






r; 





a 












'A 


-^ 




C^ C 



rheat Screenings . . . 

ye 

arley 

Ualt Sprouts 

;rewers' Grains, wet . . 

fats 

fatmeal 

tice 

tire Bran 

ice, Polish 

lorghum Seed 

Sroom Corn Seed . . . 
tatfir Corn Seed .... 

"lax Seed 

Linseed Meal, Xew Process 

totton Seed 

L'otton Seed Kernels (Meats) 
Cotton Seed Meal .... 
jlotton Seed Hulls . . . 

>uii flower Seed 

lunflower Seed Cake . . . 

'eanuts, Hulled 

'eanut Cake 

loja Beau (Japan I'ea) . 
^ow Pea, seed . 

lorse Bean 

Velvet Bean (clean .seed) 
;hina Berries 



lover 



GREEN FORAGE 

'asture Grass 

'odder Corn, green . . 

'eosiute 

Lentucky Blue Grass . . 

'imothy Grass .... 

irchard Grass .... 

[ungarian Grass . . . 

ert Top Grass .... 

'rab Grass 

lermuda Grass .... 

obnson Grass 

.epedeza Striata (Jap. C 
toesmodium Molle (Beg'r Wd) 
joat Fodder . . 
iRye Fodder 

I I Barley, Green . . . 
Jwiieat Fodder . . . 
j!Sugar Cane Fodder . 
I'Scjrghum. Whole . . 

MRed Clover 

'jAlsike Clover . . . 
|| Crimson Clover . . . 
'iBiirr Clover . . . . 
I Vetch (Vicia Sativa) 
j[| Vetch (Vicia Villosa) 
II Lucerne (Alfalfa) . . 

I ' Cowpea 

' ' Soja Bean 

' Sweet Potato Vines . 



88.4 
89.1 
89.8 
•24.3 
89.0 
92.1 
87.6 
90.3 
90.0 
87. 2 
85.9 
84. S 
90.8 
89.9 
89.7 
90.0 
91.8 
88.9 
92.0 
91.8 
93.7 
89.3 
89.2 
85.2 
85. T 

83.5 



20.0 
20.7 
25.0 
34.9 
33. 4 
27.0 
28.9 
34.7 
33.0 
33.0 
34.0 
30.0 
30. Oj 
37.8 
23.4] 
21.01 

3{;.o 



20 ()l 

29.21 
25.2 
19.1 



9.9 
8.7 

18.6 
3.9 
9.2 

11.5 
4.8 
5.3 
9.0 
7.0 
7.4 



12.5 
29.1 
37.2 
0.3 
12.1 
31.2 
22.5 
42.9 
20.6 
18.8 
.4 
21.4 



1.0 
2.4 
3.0 
1.2 
1.5 
2.0 
2.1 
1.9 
2.6 
2.4 
2.7 
3.4 
2.7 
2.1 
1.9 
2.80 

0.6 

2.9 
2.7 
2.4 



25.0|1 2.6 
25.01 j 4.4 



SILAGE. 



! ! Corn. 



28.21 
16. 4| 
24. 9| 
20.0 



10.2 
11.6 
13.5 
19.8 
19.1 
11.4 
16.0 
21.2 
14.0 
14.8 
16 5 
14.4 
13.2 
18.9 
14.1 
10.2 
18.0 

12 2 
14.8 
13.1 

9.1 
17.5 

9.2 

12.7 

8.7 
22.0 



II 1 

20.911 0.9|11.3 





48.8 


23.4 


16.8 


8.84 


1.1 


35.2 


16.4 


10.8 


6.29 


1.6 


30.2 


15.8 


9.6 


5 50 


1.7 


71.0 


28.6 


32.6 


13.00 


1.4 


17.8 


6.2 


1.0 


2.85 


4.2 


41.2 


16.4 


12.4 


7.21 


5.9 


47.0 








0.3 


21.6 


3.6 


1.8 


3.29 


7.3 


14.2 


5.8 


4.8 


2.52 


6.5 


39.4 


53.4 


14.2 


8.90 


3.1 


29.6 


16.2 


8.4 


5.37 


2.9 


32.6 








29.0 


72.2 


27.8 


20.6 


12.53 


2.S 


115.6 


36.6 


27.8 


19.40 


17.3 


62.6 


25.4 


23.4 


11.20 


24.3 


99.6 


34.6 


22.8 


15.67 


12.2 


135.8 


57.6 


17.4 


22.76 


1.7 


13.8 


5.0 


20.4 


3.20 


20.0 


45.6 


24.4 


11.2 


8.16 


12.8 


111.0 


43.0 


23.4 


18.19 


00.0 


90.0 


24.8 


25.4 


15.11 


6.9 


151.2 


26.2 


30.0 


23.97 


14.4 


106.0 


37.4 


39.8 


18.70 


1.1 


66.6 








1.2 


81.4 


24.0 


25.8 


13.89 


7.1 












23.8 


8.6 


46.6 


6.09 


0.5 


18.2 


4.6 


15.0 


3.52 


0.4 


8.2 


3.0 


6.6 


1.63 


0.2 










0.8 


10.5 


3.5 


13.8 


2.33 


0.6 


9.6 


5.2 


15.2 


2.36 


0.5 


8.6 


3.2 


15.2 


2.12 


0.4 


7.8 


3.2 


U.O 


1.80 


0.6 


8.7 


2.7 


7.7 


1.73 


0.0 


9.9 


5.3 


11.6 


2.29 


0.3 


16.0 


3.5 


12.8 


3.05 


0.5 


12.9 


3.8 


14.3 


2.72 


0.6 


14.4 


2.1 


9.7 


2.60 


0.4 


8.7 


5.5 


14.0 


2.19 


1.0 


9.8 


2.6 


7.6 


1.78 


0.4 


6.6 


3.0 


14.6 


1.80 


0.4 


6.6 


4.0 


10.2 


1.63 


0.9 


10.8 


3.0 


14.0 


2.36 


0.4 


4.6 


1.8 


4.6 


0.96 


0.7 


10.6 


2.6 


9.2 


2.07 


0.6 


8.8 


2.2 


4.0 


1.54 


0.5 


8.6 


2.6 


9.8 


1.82 




13.0 


2.2 


9.6 


2.46 


0.7 


13.6 


6.4 


12.2 


2.83 


1.0 


14.4 


2.6 


11.2 


2.70 


0.2 


3.4 


2.0 


6.2 


O.SS 


1.0 


5.4 


3.0 


10.6 


1 1.43 




8.4 


1.4 


14.6|| 1.97 
II 


0.7 


5.6 


2.2 


7.4| 


1 

1 1.26 



NAME OF FEED 





Digestible 


TS 


Nutrients in 


3 



100 lbs. 

























^ 

















c] 














TT 








>) 




c3 


a 


E 


K 


(^ 


(U 




J2 


u 

<D 


>^ 




t-i 


A 










Q 


^ 


u 


H 



Fertilizing 
Constituents 
in 2000 lbs. 



a > 



Red Clover 
Sorghum . 
Lucerne. . 
Cowpea. . 
Soja Bean 



HAYS, DRY FORAGE AND 
STKAVi'. 

Mixed Grass Hay 

Kentucky Blue Grass Hay. 
Timothy Grass Hay .... 
Orchard Grass Hay . ... 
Hungarian Grass Hay . . 

Redtop Grass Hay 

Creat '"romus Secalinus) 

Crabgrass Hay 

Bermuda Grass Hay 

Johnson Grass 

I.epodeza Striata (Jap. Clover) 
Desmodium Molle (Beg'r Wd) 
Shredded Corn StoTer .... 

Corn Stalks— Butts 

Corn Stalks— Tops 

Corn Blades (Corn rodder). 
Corn Shucks (Husks) .... 

Red Clover Hay 

White Clover Hay 

Lucerne (Alfalfa) Hay . .. 

Peanut Hay 

Cowpea Hay 

Burr Clover (Medick) Hay . 

Alsike Clover Hay 

Crimson Clover Hay 

Vetch Hay (Vicia Sativa). . 

Cotton-seed Hulls 

Wheat Straw 

Oat Straw 

Rye Straw 

Barley Straw 

Wheat Chaff 

Oat Chaff 

ROOTS, TUBERS. UNDER- 
GROUND SEEDS, 

Sweet Potata 

Irish Potato 

.\rtiehnke (Jerusalem) 

Sugar Beet 

Mangel Beet 

Common Garden Beet. 

Flat Turnip 

Rutabaga 

Carrot 

Chufa 

Peanut (Hulled) .... 



MISCELLANEOUS, 

Cabbage 

Spurry 

Sugar Beet Tops. . . 
Rutabaga Tops. . . . 
Pumpkin 



2S.0 
23.9 



^7.1 

78.8 

SO. 8 

90.1 

78.8 

91.1 

Sli.O 

86.0 

86.0 

85 

86.0 

86.0 

80.0 

80.0 

80.0 

80.0 

80.0 

84.7 

90.3 

91.6 

92.4 

89.3 

83.3 

90.3 

90.4 

Sn.3 

88.9 

90.4 

90.8 

92.9 

85.8 

85.7 

85.7 



5.9 
4.8 
2.8 
4.9 
4.8 
4.8 
3.9 
4.3 
6.9 
6.0 
7.8 
9.7 
2.3 
0.5 
1.1 
4.0 
1.3 
6.8 
11.5 
11.0 
6.7 
jlO.S 
8.8 
8.4 
10.5 
14.6 
0.3 
0.4 
1.2 
0.6 
0.7 
0.3 
1.5 



13.5 
14.9 

8.5 

S 



0|| 1, 
6||1. 
4]l 1. 
4 i 0. 



1 19. 8 



15.3|| 1.8 

20.0|| 1.5 

12.0|| 1.7 

11.2|| 2.1 

9.111 1.0 



2.0 
0.2 
l.U 
0.9 



40.9 


1.2 


37.3 


2.0 


43.4 


1.4 


42.3 


1.4 


37.3 


2.0 


46.9 


1.0 


45.0 


1.7 


30.4 


1.5 


39.0 


0.8 


41.4 


1.2 


41.4 


1.8 


37.0 


1.2 


43.2 


o.u 


54.0 


0.8 


42.8 


0.7 


40.8 


0.6 


49.9 


0.3 


35.8 


1.7 


42.2 


1.5 


39.6 


1.2 


42.1 


3.4 


38.6 


1.1 


36.5 




42.5 


1.5 


34.9 


1.2 


30.6 


2.3 


33.1 


1.7 


36.3 


0.4 


38.6 


0.8 


40.6 


0.4 


41.2 


0.6 


23.3 


0.5 


33.0 


0.7 



5 

3 0.1 
0.2 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
2| 0.2 
1| 0.2 
8 0.2 



8.6135.6 



8.2| 0.4 

9.81 0.3 

4.61 0.2 

6.S| 0.5 

5.81 0.3 



10.2 


2.4 


9.0 


2.00 


4.4 


1.6 


4.4 


0.92 


H.2 


2.5 


11.0 


2.66 


3.2 


2.0 


6.0 


0.85 


5.3 


2.8 


10.4 


1.40 


2S.2 


5.2 


31.0 


5.76 


i3.8 


8.0 


31.4 


5.30 


23.2 


10.6 


18.0 


4.90 


26.2 


8.2 


37.6 


5.96 


23.(1 


7.2 


20.4 


4.60 


26.8 


13.8 


30.0 


5.94 


24.0 


8.7 


32.2 


5.40 


32.4 


9.6 


35.7| 


'.■.79 


41.4 


6.0 


27. 8| 


7.48 


26.0 


16.5 


42.0 


6.56 


27.4 


7.6 


36.0 


6.02 


41.4 


7.6 


44.0 


8.38 


35.0 


10.4 


36.21 


10.03 


'3.8 


10.2'33.6| 


8.32 


33.2 


5.8 






3:).o 


10.4 


2r.4 


7.45 


43.3 


10.7 


32.0 


8.20 


46.8 


13.4 


.54.6 


9.45 


41.0 


8.0 


26.2 


7.45 


45.4 


21.4 


56.6 


10.25 


13.8 


5.0 


20.4 


3.20 


n.8 


2.4 


10.2 


2.28 


12.4 


4.0 


24.8 


3 i8 


9.2 


5.6 


15.8 


2.36 


11.2 


6.0 


41. 8| 


3.96 


15.8 


14.0 


8.4 


3.33 


6.4 


2.4 


9.2 


1.48 


5.2 


2.8 


9.4 


1.34 


4.4 


2.0 


9.6 


1.20 


3.8 


1.8 


7.6 


1.00 


4.S 


1.8 


8.8 


1.20 


3.6 


2.0 


7.8 


0.99 


3.8 


2.4 


9.8 


1.14 


3.0 


1.8 


10.2 


1.02 


20.8 


2.8 


16.2 


3.86 


7.6 


2.2 


8.6 


1.60 


7.6 


5.0 


11. 8| 


1 1.90 


9.2 


3.0 


7.2 


1.77 


5.0 


1.8 


5.6 


1.21 



486 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 







Digestible 




Pertilizin 


g 






Nutrients in 


Constituents 




o 


100 lbs. 


in 2n0f) lbs. 
















































' C zL 




•"■ 




0) 






:, 
























NAME OF FEED 








:: 












~< 




-— 


' C 




-■ 


































c 


O 










a 


c 


z 


fee 

o 

u 


c 


>■ 


■- o 
^ — 




1-. 


^ 


- 


K 


Ys 


^ 




K O 



Rape 

Acorns 

Sugar Cane Bagasse. . 
Sorghum Bagasse. . . 

Cow's Mill; 

Cow's Milk. Colostrum 
Sk-m Milk, gra'vit.T . 
Skim Milk. Centrifugal 

Putter Milk 

Wlie.v 

Chees .... .... 

Butter Fat 



34.4 

8.94 
4.9 
2.V 
4.7 
5.2 
4.0 
4.7 



0.2 
1.7 

3.7 
S.6 
0.8 
0.3 
1.1 
0.3 

100.0 


9.2 

10.6 
56.4 
11.2 
11.2 
12. S 
3.0 
90.8 
00.0 


3.0 

S.S 
13.2 
4.0 
4.0 
3.4 
2.8 
23.0 
0070 


7.2 

3.6 
2.2 
3.8 
3.8 
3.2 
3.6 
5.0 
0.0 


1.77 

1.85 
8.67 
1.96 
1.96 
2.12 
0.75 
4.08 
00.00 



Feeding Formulas. 

From Tables 1 and 3 we may noiw calculate a ration 
for a dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds, with a view 
to inducing a full flow of milk. Suppose we have 
available the following feeding stuffs, the comiposition 
of each of which is given in Table No. 2 : Cowpea 
hay, corn silage and wheat bran : 

Table No. 2 shows that cow'pea hay contains, in eve- 
ry IDO pounds, as follows : Dry matter, 89.3 pounds ; 
proteins, 10.8 pounds ; carbo-hydrates, 38.6 pounds ; 
and fat 1-1 pounds. We want to know haw much 
of t'hese elements there are in one pound of cowpea 
hay ; so we divide the 89.3 pounds of dry matter by 
100, or 89.3 by 100 equals 893 pounds, or simiply set 
the decimal point two places to the left. Then, as 
there are .893 pounds of dry matter in one pound of 
cowpea hay, there must be .893x15 in fifteen pounds 
of the hay, or 13.39 pounds. This amount is placed 
in the column of "Dry Matter." 

Then, as Table No. 2 shows t'hat 100 pounds of 
cowpea hay contain 10.8 pounds of protein, proceed 
as before: 10.8 by 100 equals .108, and .108 multi- 
plied by fifteen gives 1.02 pounds of proteins in the 
fifteen pounds of cowpea hay, and we place the 1.62 
in the column of proteins. Then proceed in like man- 
ner with the carbohydrates and fats and place the 
amounts of each that is contained in fifteen pounds 
of hay in its appropriate column. 

Then proceed, in like manner, to calculate the 
amounts of dry matter, proteins, carbohydrates and 
fats that are contained in forty pounds of corn silage 
and three pounds of wheat bran and place each 



amount in its column. Add up the columns and ■ 
find that on the first trial we get : Dry matter, 24.!: 
protein. 235; carbohydrates, 11.48; fats, 0.52, 
which the ratio is 1:5.3 (1 to 3.3). The result 
nearly right. It is a little short in the amounts 
dry matter, and in each of the ingredients except ff " 
But t'he ratio is 1 :5.4- — exactly correct. It is pri 
evident that if we add two pounds of wheat br 
making live pounds in all of bran, that the form 
will be correct. 

It may make it appear more clearly to show i 
different steps of the calculation, as follows: 

' Cowpea Hay. 

In liiO Libs. In 1 Ijb. In 15 1 

Dry Matter 89.3 



Protein 

CaAohydrates 
Fats 



Dry Matter . 
Proteins . . . 
Carbohydrates 
Fats 



100 = .893 X 15 = i:; ) 

. .10.8 -^ 100 = .lOS X IS = IjJ 

. 38.6 ^ lOO = .386 X 15 = '51) 

. 1.1 -^ 100 = .011 X 15 = 0|> 

Corn Silage. 

In lO'O Libs. In 1 'Lib. 



20.9 



0.9 -f- 100 



11.3 

0.7 



100 = .200 X 40 



.009 X 40 = 



- 100 = .113 X -10 = 
^ 100 = .007 X 40 = 



In 401 
8' 

4 




Dry Matter . 

Proteins 12.2 

Carbohydrates . . 39.2 



Wheat Bran. 

In lOO Ubs. In 1 'Lib. 

. 88.1 



100 = .881 X 

100 = .122 X 

lOO = .392 X 

Fats 2.7 ~ 100 = .027 X 

Now arrange the above in tabular form together ' • 
comipairison with the Wolff-Lehman ave ge standa , 
we have : 



InSi . 
3 = 

3=0 j? 
3 = 1 ]' 

3 = oi? 





FEEDING STUFFS 




I..,1-.STIBI.E 










O 

c 


A 


Kequired b.v an aver- 
age cow 

15 pounds cowpea hay 
40 pounds corn silage . 
3 ])()uuds wheat bran 

First trial ration 

■i pounds wheat bran . 
Second trial ration 


Lbs. 
25.00 


Lbs. 
2.50 


Lbs. 
12.50 


Lbs. 
0.40 


1 
1 : 


B 


13.39 
S.36 
2.64 


1.62 
0.36 
0.37 


5.79 
4.. 50 
1.17 


0.16 

0.28 
0.08 


1: 

1 :li 
1 : :: 


c 


24.39 
1.76 


2.35 
0.24 


11. <8 
0.79 


52 
0.05 


1 : ■ 
1 : 


26.15 


2.59 


12.27 1 0.57 


l: 



In the same manner feeding formulas may be co 



Cows Appreciate Good, Pure Water. 



487 



structed of a mixture of two, three, four or more of 
the different feeding stufEs that may be available. 

"For convenience of such as may not be ready at 
"figuring," a number of calculated feeding formulas 
are given in Table No. 3. It will be observed that 
these formulas vary wifhin moderate limits in their 
proportions of the constituent nutritive ingredients. 
Some of them are "narrow," which means that they 
contain a larger proportion of proteins than the stand- 
ard ; others are "wide," which means that the pro- 
portions of proteins is less, or that of the carbohy- 
drates is greaer than the standard. A ratio of less 
than 1:5.4 is said to be "narrow," if greater, it is 
"wide." 

TABLE No. III. 





Udiiy JxaLiuus iut j-.wwv 


; ± 1. 




V Clgli 






For Milch Cows. 






I.I; 


s. 




No s. 








Xo. 1. 


20 


Crab grass hay. 






2n 


nay. mixed grasses. 





Sorghum seed. 


crroimd. 






Vilest rti-an. 


3 


C. S. meal. 






■2 


r. S. Meal. 




Ratio. . . . 


. . 1 : 


.5.2 


- 


Corn Meal. 

Ratio 1 :50 




No. 9. 








No. 2. 


1.5 


Cowpea bay 






20 
3 
4 


Hay. mixed grasses. 
('. S. SVeal. 
Corn Meal. 


in 
2_ 


Shredded corn 
C. S. Meal. 
Corn Meal. 

Ratio . . 


5talks. 
. . .1 


:5.5 


27 






No. 10. 








No. 3. 


l.") 


Cowpea bay. 






20 
6 


Corn fodder (blades). 
C. S. Meal. 


5 


Corn Silage. 
Wheat bran. 






20 


Green, fodder corn. 

Ratio 1 : 4.0 




Ratio . . . 
No. 11. 


. .1 : 


6.3 




No. i. 


20 


Cowpea hay. 






25 


Shredded oorn shucks. 


8 


Corn Meal. 






5 


C. S. meal. 




Ratio . . 


. .1 : 


."J.! 


3 


Wheat Bran. 

Ratio 1 : 5.2 




No. 12. 








No. 5. 


15 
10 


Cowpea hay. 
C. S. hulls. 






24 


C. S. hulls. 


5 


Cowpea meal. 






6 


C. S. meal 

Ratio . . . 1 : ».7 




Ratio . . . 
No. 13. 


. ;i : 


5.0 




No. C. 


28 


Bermuda hay. 






20 


C. S. hulls. 


8 


Shelled oats. 






4 


C 8. Meal. 


1 


C. S. meal. 






5 


Wheat bran. 

Ratio 1 : 5.3 




Ratio . . . 
No. 14. 


. .1 : 


5.3 




No. 7. 


20 


Cowpea hay. 






20 


Cowpea hay. 


1.5 


Sweet potatoes. 






10 


Shredded corn stalks. 


4 


Corn meal 








Ratio . . . 1 : 5.7 




Ratio . . . 


. .1 : 


5.6 



12 Corn "shucks" (busks) 
10 Cowpea hay. 

4 Corn meal. 

3 C. S. meal. 

Ratio 1 : 

No. IC. 
35 Lucerne (Alfalfa) green. 
10 Oat straw. 
6 Cowpea meal. 

Ratio 1 : 

No. 17. 
IS Lucerne (green). 
Corn meal. 
3 Shelled oats. 

Ratio 1 : 



No. 18. 



14 Vetch hay. 

10 C. S. hulls. 

G Corn meal. 

Ratio . 



No. 19. 



15 Cowpea bay. 
S Cotton seed. 
e Corn meal. 

Ratio . 



For Fattening Steers. 



Ratio. 



Ratio 



5.3 





Nu. 21 








Xo. 24. 




20 


C. S. hulls. 






IS 


C. S. bulls. 




5 


C. S. meal. 






7 


So.ia bean meal. 




5 


Corn meal. 






(i 


Corn meal. 






Ratio . . . 


. . 1 


.5.8 




Ratio 1 

Xo. 25. 


6.5 




No. 22 






40 


Sweet potatoes. 




25 
5 


C. S. hulls. 
C. S. meal. 






10 
5 
2 


Corn fodder (lilades). 
C. S. meal. 
Corn meal. 






Ratio . . . 


. . 1 


0.0 




Ratio 1 


6.0 




No. 23. 






40 


No. 26. 
Artichokes. 




20 


Shredded corn 


stalks. 




10 


Shredded corn stalks. 




5 


C. S. meal. 






4 


C. S. meal. • 




6 


Corn meal. 









Corn and cob meal. 





SILOS AND ENSILAGE. 

The question of silos and ensilage is a new one to 
most of the people of the .South. But if we take the 
testimony of those who have had experience with 
them, they are certainly a help to the farmer, or 
dairyman. Silage is canned grass, or corn, or forage 
of any kind. The silos are to the forage what the 
cans are to fruit. Ensilage was first prepared in the 
United States by Manly Miles, of Michigan, in 1875. 
The advantages claimed for silage are as follows : 
Succulent palatable food for the cattle may be kept 
all the year, maintaining a good milk supply the year 
round. In order for cows to keep up their milk sup- 
ply, especially in t'he South, they must have good 
succulent food all the time. This is the only method 
by which the food can be kept in a succulent state 
in winter. 3nd. A larger per cent, of the food bar- 



488 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



vested can be kept by the silo than either by hay or 
fodder. There is practically no waste in the silo. 
3rd. A great deal more food can be placed in a given 
amount of space by using a silo. The item of space 
on a farm, especially large stock farms and dairy 
farms, is no small item, for it is certainly important 
to have plenty of food for the stock to carry them 
over the winter. 

Most heavy forage crops may be used for ensilage. 
The crops of t'he South thnt are best adapted to make 
silage out of are corn, millet, sorghum and cowpeas. 
In planting corn for ensilage it should not be broadcast, 
as a great many people ihink. In planting the corn, 
you want a variety that will produce a small ear. 




Kg. 31 — Silo on dairy farm, Selma, Ala. Built with staves. 

The rows should be from three to three and a half 
feet apart. The corn should be planted from eight to 
ten inc'hes apart in the drill, depending of course upon 
the fertility of the land. The corn should be cut and 
placed in the silo when the kernels begin to glaze, or 
when denting is well established. It should be cut up 
before placed in the silo, into pieces about half inch 
long. Care should be observed tliat the corn be pack- 
ed down thoroughly, especially around the edge of 
the silo. The silo may be filled as rapidly as the corn 
can be placed in it, or by repeated fillings. When the 
silo is filled, it should be thoroughly packed every 
two or three davs, for eight or ten days, and then 



covered with a six-inch layer of straw well dampened 
with water. This will cause the first eight or ten 
inches to rot, and form a kind or air-tight covering. 

The most modern machinery for filling silos in- 
cludes a blower that elevates the cut material through . 
a sheet iron tube over the top of the silo by air 
power. 

Com should be the main dependence in the South- 
for silage. It may be mixed half and half with sor- 
ghum, or with cowpeas. Peas and sorglium do^ not 
make good silage alone, becoming too sour and slimy 
in the Southern climate. A good way to get peas in 
the silo is to let the vines run up the corn stalk in the 
field, and run them through the cutter together- 

.\ few years ago there was considerable complaint 
from consumers of milk against the s'lo, stating that 
the use of the silo afl'ected the milk. This matter was 
thoroughly tested, and it was found that the trouble 
was in the method of handling the ensilage. For 
instance, when' the cows did not eat up all the ensi- 
lage, it was left in t'he manger, or used as bedding, 
and it very quickly soured. If any silage is left by 
anv of the cows, it should not be left in the barn, nor 
should it be used for bedding, as it quickly sours, 
and the milk takes up the odor. Again, when you be- 
gin using ensilage at least two inches should be taken 
off every day in the winter, and three itiches in the 
summer, for if this is not done it spoils. For milk 
cows, it is better than any other food we know of. 
r.ut in feeding to dairy cows, it should nnt be fed un- 
til after the cows are milked, as it may taint the milk. 
From thirty to thirty-five pounds a day along with 
the hay and grain is considered a very good amount 
to feed dairy cows. Silage, so the Kansas Experiment 
Station says, should not be fed to bulls, as they lose 
their virilitv, and become slow and uncertain breed- 
ers. Horses, chickens, and sheep do well on certain 
amounts of ensilage. 

The silo is a building, or can, for the preservation 
of the forage crops. They may be built of wood, 
stone, brick, cement, etc., but as the first cost of wood 
is less, more wood silos are built than any other kind. 
If possible, a silo should be twenty-five feet deep, in 
order that the silage may be packed down by the 
weight, and exclude all the air. A silo can be built 
v\hich is only twenty feet high, but it is better to have 
one thirty than twenty feet high. The walls of the 
silo should be vertical, and as smooth as possible. It 
is far better to build a round silo, or nearlv so, than a 



The Dairy Herd Needs Exercise During Bad Weather, But Net Too Much. 



489 



square one, as most of t'he spoiling, where any takes same kind of covering as you would use on a house 
place, occurs at the corners. The size of the silo de- 
pends, of course, upon the amount of feed that is to 
be preserved. A cubic foot of silage well-packed will 
weigli on an average^etween 35 and 40 pounds, which 
is the amount that should be fed to a cow weighing 1000 
pounds. If you feed the cow silage for six months, 
each cow would consume about 3 1-3 tons of silage. 
An acre of good corn will produce anywhere from 
eig'ht to fifteen tons of silage. The foliowing table 
will give you the capacity of silos: 



will be sufficient, or plain board will, do. 
SOILING. 

Soiling has long been familiar to farmers of some 
sections, but in the South, with so much cheap land, 
not many are familiar with it. Soiling is a system ofi 
raising various forage crops, which are cut and fedj 
green, instead of pasturing fhem. By doing this, you' 
can secure from two to three times as much from thej 
same land each year, and the land is maintained in a' 



— 


pth 
Silo 

feet 








Inside diameter 


of silo 


In feet. 


and 


capacity in 


tons. 






De 

of 

in 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


■'3 


24 


25 


2'6 


Tns 

59 

Ij'i 

67 

72 

76 

SI 

85 

9'0 

95 

10« 

1U5 

110 

115 


Tns 

67 

72 

77 

82 

87 

92 

97 

103 

108 

114 

119 

125 

130 


Tns 

76 

81 

86 

92 

98 

104 

110 

116 

122 

128 

135 

141 

148 


Tns 

85 

91 

97 

103 

110 

116 

123 

130 

137 

144 

151 

158 

106 


Tns 

94 
101 
108 
115 
122 
129 
137 
145 
152 
160 
168 
176 
185 


Tns 

lUo 

112 

120 

127 

135 

143 

152 

160 

169 

178 

187 

195 

205 


Tns 

115 

125 

132 

141 

149 

158 

167 

177 

186 

196 

20 G 

216 

226 


Tns 
127 
135 
145 
154 
164 
174 
184 
194 
205 
215 
226 
236 
247 


Tns 

138 

148 

158 

169 

179 

190 

201 

212 

223 

235 

247 

258 

270 


Tns 
150 
161 
172 
184 
195 
206 
219 
231 
243 
256 
269 
282 
295 


Tns 

163 

175 

187 

199 

211 

224 

237 

251 

264 

278 

292 

305 

320 


Tns - ' 

177 1 


21 


189 


')•> 


202 




216 


94 


229 


9CI 


242 


27. 

IS 




257 




271 




285 




300 


'JO 




315 '. 


31 
32 




330 




346 



Of course some of the silage will be lost by spoiling, 
etc., and a little more than the above amount should 
he allowed for a cow. 

The cost of building a round silo is small w'hen com- 
pared to its advantages. As a rule, anyone that can 
build a barn can build a silo. The hands on the farm 
can be used in this work during rainy days. In build- 
ing a silo, it is perhaps better to have a rock, or bnck 
foundation, as this preserves the wood from decay. 
Then use 2x4 studding, placing them 12 inches apart 
in a circle. Then ceil this with two layers of ceiling, 
with tar paper in between. Linseed oil or tar should 
be applied to the inside, as it helps to make the silo 
nearer air-tight. Sometimes they are budt on the fash- 
ion of a tank or tub, using staves, and being bound 
•with hoops- Where the door is to be made, the stud- 
ding should be set double, and the staves sawed out as 
wide and high as the door is to be. The door is made 
to fit over this air-tight. Some advocate not using a 
cover on the silo, but it is better to use a cover. The 



higher state of cultivation, and the manure is better 
preserved. When land was plentiful, the people of 
t'he South did not need to practice soiling so much as 
they do now. This is especially true around our cit- 
ies, for land there is too valuable to be used for pas- 
tures, when from two to three times as much can be 
produced by other uses. In doing this, it is necessary 
to have a suitable rotation of crops. With the excep- 
tion of corn and sorghum soiling crops do not do well 
for longer periods than ten days. It is therefore best to 
plan<- a small-sized plot, just large enough to run for 
a week, and plant each week such a plot. This keeps 
vour stock in fresh forage all the time, and enables 
them to get it while it is at its best. In the fall you 
mav sow barley or rye, and will be ready to feed early 
in the spring. Winter oats or vetch make a fine com- 
bination for use in the spring. Sorghum and corn 
can be grown nearly all summer, also millet. Alfalfa 
makes an excellent soiling crop, with four or five 
cuttings per year, beginning in IMarch and growing 
constantly till frost. 



49° 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



GRAINS. 

The dairy herd must have some grairs if the best 
results are to be had. For the South, corn is better 
than most any other grain to be fed to milk cows, un- 
less it be cotton seed meal. But corn meal is better 
fed with some other food, such as bran, shorts, cotton- 
teed meal, etc. Cottonseed meal produces a firmer 
butter, and raises the melting point of butter, and is 
therefore recommended. But care should be observed 
in feeding it, not to get too muc'h. In some States it 
has one effect, and in some another. It should always 
be thoTOUghlv mixed with cut hay or fodder or cotton- 
seed hulls to give bulk to the mixture. 

DAIRY UTENSILS. 

Cream Separator. 

Every man with five or more cows selling cream or 
butter, should have a Separator, he stands in his own 
ligiht if he refuses to buy one. Any of the standard 
makes of separators are good. Of course the dairy 
with a large number of cows will require a power 
separator, but for only a few cows, the hand separator 
will answer every purpose. To make the very best 
grade of butter, the time must be as short as possible 
after the milk is drawn from the cow, until it is made 
into butter. Every minute the milk is exposed to the 
warm air increases the danger of spoiling. By using 
the hand separator, the cream is taken from the milk 
as 'Soon as it is drawn from the cow, and the cream 
can then be easily reduced in temperature. Again 
you can 'nake from 10 to 50 per cent more butter by 
using a separator than by shallow setting. The gen- 
eral rule holds good that the best is cheapest, so buy 
a first-class machine. By a first-class machine we 
do not mean a large machine, but a machine that will 
do the work satisfactorily. When you set up the nia- 
chine, be sure to read and re-read the instructions 
carefully. Remember that this machine has to make 
about five thousands revolutions per minute, and 
therefore must be put up right. It must be placed 
upon a solid foundation, and must he set perfectly 
level. If it is not level this will cause it to run hard, 
and wear out on the upper side. It is a good plan to 
go slow in setting up a machine. It is very important 
that it be washed clean every time it is used, not- 
withstanding what some agents may tell you- Do 
not believe them when they tell you that the machine 



will not have to be washed each time it is used, for 
it is not so. Immediately after getting through with 
the machine, run some water through it, so that it 
will not dry before you can wash it. 

BABCOCK TESTER. 

In this day of competition, a cow that does not pay 
a profit cannot be kept in a herd. The same princi- 
ple works in other lines as in this. A merchant does 
not want a clerk who does not earn a profit, nor does 
he want to handle a line of goods that does not pay. 
It is very important that we should know just what 
each cow produces. The milk of each cow should be' 
weiglied at every milking and a record made of it. Not 
only must the dairyinan know the amount of milk 
she produces, but he should know the value of 
this milk so far as butter fat is concerned. One of 
the best testers is Babcock's Tester. Before making 
the test the milk should be thoroughly stirred so that 
an average sample can be secured. These samples 
are then mixed with sulphuric acid, and whirled in a 
centifrugal machine. T!ie heavv parts r^ the milk 
fly to the bottoni, and the butter fat, which is lighter 
than the other part of the milk, comes to t'he to.p. and 
the percentage of butter fat may be read on the grad- 
uated scale on the bottle. The principle back of it is 
that the sulphuric acid dissolves the other solids of 
the milk, leaving the fat globules free, and thev, being 
lighter than the other solids, collect nearest the ax:» 
of the machine. 

Few dairymen fully realize the importance of this 
matter of testing. For instance, recently two cows of 
similar breeding, with exactly the same milking, feed, 
etc., one yielded 20 pounds of butter per month, and 
the other 63 lbs. per month. Supposing that the butter 
sold for 25 cents per pound, the profit of'one above 
the other is $10.75 a month, which is quite an item in 
itself. Another illustration, two cows were fed and 
managed as near alike as possible for a year. One 
produced 252 pounds of butter fat more than the oth- 
er, yet the two were under the same treatment, and 
received the same amount of food. You can readily 
see the importance of testing your cows, and seeing 
which one pays and which does not. .\nd when you 
find a cow that does not pay, that does not produce 
at least 5000 pounds of milk per year, containing S'OO 
pounds of butter, get rid of her. She may make good 
beef, but she is not fit for the dairy herd. • 



During the Winter See That The Cows Have Plenty of Fresh Water. 



491 



AERATORS AND COOLERS. 

As soon as milk is drawn from the cow, it should 
be immediately strained, and cooled down as low as 
-10 degrees F., if possible. Of course where you can- 
not get it down that low, 60 degrees will help. 
There are several ways to do this. There are several 
milk aerators and coolers that have been devised to 
do the work. The object of cooling the milk is to re- 
lieve it of all animal odor and animal heat. This pre- 
vents bacteria from multiplying, and enables the milk- 
to remain sweet much longer than it would do other- 
wise. Secure from son-ie dairy supply house a good 
]V.\\k aerator or cooler, and you will find it a profitable 
investment. 




Fig. 23 — Showing Creansery, LnGrange. Ga, 

CHURNS. 

Many dairymen have paid hard-earned money for 
churns that were utterly worthless to them. At the 
('airy Fairs it is no uncommon thing for the churn 
man to be there with his patented churn, and if you 
will just let him, he can show you its advantages 
without anv trouble. But he never shows you its dis- 
advantages. 

There are two things necessary in a dairy churn- 
It must be practical, and it must be so simple that it 
can be thoroughly cleansed. The one-minute churn 
it not practical. Before purchasing a churn of any 
kind, ask yourself have you the power to run the 
churn as the agent has. Do not be deceived in letting 
him make you believe that any old power will do. 
And then again, is the churn offered for sale, simple 
enough in construction that it can be kept clean? The 
matter of not being able to keep them clean, is the 



objection to most patented churns. It is a matter of 
great importance to the dairyman, for if the churn 
cannot be kept clean, good, pure butter cannot be 
made. The more parts a churn has, the harder it is 
to keep clean. There is the great objection to butter 
workers and churns combined, and it is a serious 
objection. See to it that the churn is simple, and that 
it can be thoroughly cleansed without too much ef- 
fort. A Isarrel churn is the best and most practical. 

Cream should be churned at a temperature of from 
60 to 64 degrees. If the cream be in the proper con- 
dition, and churned at the correct Temperature, it 
will not take long to bring the butter- The best but- 
ter is produced by churning from 30 to 4-5 minutes. 
It might be said that giving the cows salt regularlv 
causes the butter to come quicker than otherwise 
would be. If considerable cottonseed meal is fed, it 
is sometimes necessary to churn as high as 70 de- 
grees. 

DAIRY THERMOMETER. 

No man who wants to be up-to-date in the dairy 
business is going to be without a dairy thermometer, 
especially when they can be bought for 25 cents 
apiece. He simply cannot afford to do so. I'here is 
no trse in guessing in a matter so important as hav- 
ing the correct temperature in milk, when you can be 
accurate by having a thermometer- 
There are many other dairy utensils that must be 
kept at the up-to-date dairy. Mention of each one 
cannot be made. Of course the strainers should be 
thoroughly up-to-date, and easily cleansed, and above 
all things, they should be strainers, that is, should 
get every form of trash out of the milk. And then 
there are milk bottles, and milk cans, and many other 
things. Remember that the greatest questions to be 
asked before any utensil is bought for the dairy is. 
can it be cleaned? and is it simple? 

THE DAIRY BREEDS. 

Much depends upon the cow in the dairy. If a 
cow produces enough milk and butter fat, she will be 
pretty likely to pay. As to the breeds, a discussion 
of this question cannot be gone into, for the simple 
reason that there is no definite way to determine 
which is the best breed. Some very prominent dairy- 
men like one breed, while other dairymen equally as 
prominent like another breed. There are four eood 

o 



492 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



breeds, the purchase of one of whicli will be a good 
selection. But do not try to cross breeds, for you will 
make a failure. Purchase the breed that you like, 
and keep it pure. The Jerseys and Guernseys are re- 
markable for their richness of milk, and the ease with 
which it is converted into butter. If you are to run 
a butter dairy, perhaps one of these breeds will be 
best suited. The Holstein is a very large animal, 
and is remarkable for her large milk yield, but she is 
a low butter fat producer. When she becomes un- 
profitable for the dair}' herd, she fattens well, and 
makes a good return for beef. The Ayrshire is also 
noted for her large yield of milk, but like the Hol- 
stein, she does not make butter. She does not suit 
for beef production either. It is safe to say for a but- 
ter dairy, use either Jerseys or Guernscvs, and for 
milk producers, that is, wdiere the milk is to be sold 
direct, use either Ilolstc'ns or Ayrshires. As to the 
appearance of the individual cow, the reader is re- 
ferred to three stanzas given under the head of "THE 
CO'W," in another part of this work. In selecting a 
cow do not place too much importance on the size of 
the cow. It is true that breeders and owners of the 
Holsteins claim a great deal for size, but remember 
that to be a beef producer is one thing, and milk and 
butter producers another. Most people, especially 
those who are not posted on the subject of cows, nat- 
urally think the larger a cow, t'he better dairy cow she 
is. This rule will not hold good. And you cannot re- 
ly on the amount of milk, for you must take into con- 
sideration the amount of butter fat t-.at is in the milk. 
When it comes to milk yield alone, it will be granted 
that the larger cow, as a rule, gives more quantity 
than the smaller cow, but they eat more, and the milk 
is not so rich in butter fat. Prof. T- L. Haecker, who 
is perhaps the best authority in the United States on 
profitable cows, in explaining whv the small cows 
produce butter more economicallv than the large cow, 
has this to say: "The question is naturally asked, w'hy 
does the small cow produce more economicallv than 
the large one? In the first place cows that give milk 
containing 3 per cent, butter fat, yield 2.6 pounds of 
' milk solids not fat, to one pound of butter fat, while 
cows that give 5.,'i per cent, butter fat. yield only l.f! 
pounds solids not fat, to one of fat. So, for every 
pound of butter yielded by the cow that gives the 
lower grade of mi.lk, she 'has to make an additional 
pound of solids not fat, and hence it takes more nutri- 
ment to produce the one pound butter fat in the thin 
milk. The large cow also requires three pounds more 



nutriment daily for maintaining her body.'' There 
are exceptions to this rule, for no definite rule can be 
laid down- However, these are the facts taken as a 
whole. 

TAKING CARE OF THE MILK ON THE FARM. 

Milk when it is drawn from the cow, is practically 
free from germs. The germs that cause most trouble 
witih milk get in immediately after tbe milk is drawn 
from the cow. so the important thing is to keep them 
out. When the calf takes milk from the cow, he closes 
his mout'h around the teats so that no germs can get 
in. When man takes the imilk from a cow, he takes 
a very wide bucket, with oipportunity for getting many 
germs in it. You cannot keep sweet milk longer than 
six hours, if it is exposed to the bad atmosphere very 
much. It is better to spend five or ten minutes on the 
cow Ijefore beginning to milk. Some people are very 
careful to see to it that the udd'er is clean, when the 
rest of tlie cow is iilthy. Take pains with your milk, 
especially in drawing it from the cow If you use 
pans or crocks to conl it. strain it into these as early as 
possilile. but do not allow these pans or crocks to re; 
main in the k'tchen. bi't remove them to some place 
where they can cool off as quickly as possible. When 
milk is set in shallow pans or crocks, it should be 
skimmed, just as soon as the milk begins to clabber at 
the bottom. This is a very important matter for as soon 
as the milk begins to clabber, the cream not only stops 
rising, but it begins immediatelv to get stale. In the 
winter, if the milk is liable to freeze, a blanket thrown 
over the millc as soon as it is strained, and it will be 
very apt to keep from freezing. 

Tall shotgun cans are better than s'hallow pans for 
cooling and permitting cream to rise. 

HOW TO START A DAIRY. 

Perhaps a few suggestions, for they are only sug- 
gestions, upon the important subject of starting a dai- 
ry will not be out of place. In the first place, you 
must learn the trade. Dairy papers, schools, and 
books will be much help to you, and you should take 
advantage of all of these, but these are only supple- 
mentary to the great sc'hools of experience. If you 
have never had experience in the actual Avork itself, 
you had better stav out of the business until you ,get 
that experience. Hire yo'urself to some first-class dai- 
ryman, learn the business, and learn it correctly- 
Learn everything alxjut the work. Do not merely 



Look After the By-Products. 



493 



watch others do the work, or you will prove a failure 
as a dairyman. And then t'here is another advantage 
in hiring to some dairyman, and that is, you have an op- 
portunity of learning whether you l:ke the business or 
not. If you do not like such business, of course you 
will miake a failure of it. It is better to work for some 
one else for a while, to find out as to whether you 
have the "everlasting-stick-to-it-iveness" to succeed 
than it is to invest money, and have to sell out for 
fift}' cents on the dollar. 

Do not be in a hurry to locate. — You may make a 
good dair\nnan, but be in a location in which you can- 
not dispose of your prodiucts. Stud)^ the local situa- 
tion thoroughly before you think of locating anywhere. 
Get where the people consume butter and milk, and 
where there is a good demand for it. If you can get 
betwee.i two cities that consume a great deal of butter, 
then yDu have the advantage, if you will take both 
markets. It makes no difference if there is a competi- 
tion, for it is far better to go into a market where 
there are -a large number of competitors, than it is to 
go to a place w'here there is neither a market nor 
coimipetition- And then you must take into considera- 
tion the matter of transportation. It is expensive to 
keep a horse and wagon, and j^ou will have to watch 
this matter. If your local market is not good, ship 
your butter to the cities. The express companies give 
a special rate upon milk proiducts. and this will be 
■cheaper than getting a horse and wagon. The best 
trade for good butter is a high-vlass family trade- 
Hotels and restaurants, as a rule, do not give the 
highest price for milk products, for they depend upon 
getting it in job lots. The grocers do not pay the 
best price, for they must make a commission. Go riglit 
into the fight of selling to the consumers, and take a 
product that will sell. 

THINGS NOT TO DO IN THE DAIRY BUSI- 
NESS. 

Strange to say that books and dairy papers as a 
rule do not pay any aittention to the "dont's" that 
make up the dairy business. The dont's are as impor- 
tant as the "do's," and must be attended to, if a first- 
class dairy is to be kept- Let us look at a few of the 
"dont's." ' 

In the first place, don't let j^our "know-all" neigh- 
bors, who knoAv praictically nothing about the business, 
convince }'0u that it does not pay. Remember that 



the dairy business -does pay, when you run it as a bus- 
iness. Like all businesses, it will not pay if allowed 
to run by itself. The facts in the case are, that it does 
pay. Just because some man makes a failure at the 
business, is not a conclusive proof that it does not pay. 
It will pay if it is backed by a man with plenty of com- 
mon sense and determination. That there will be 
difficulties, there is no doubt. That you will have 
trouble there will be no doubt. But these are some- 
times necessary to the best success. 

Don't believe that you know it all. Be willing to 
learn. Remember that there is someone else that 
know a few thing more aboait some things than you 
do. Be willing to learn from anyone, no matter how 
low in life 'lie may be. The wise man learns from the 
experience of others, and the men who know it all, do 
not learn at all. Don't be a know-all. 

Don't run after fads- There are some men who take 
up their business to get up new fads. Be open to con- 
viction, but be convicted before you change your 
plans or ways of doing things. If you have a cow 
that pays, and 3'O'U know she does so, do not get rid 
of her just because she does not come up to some oth- 
er man's ideal. The thing you'want is results, and be 
sure that you will get better results before you make 
a change. 

Don't let some one persuade you that it does not 
pay to feed. Remember that 3fOu must feed to get re- 
sults. Cows cannot give milk unless thev are fed. Get 
your feed as reasonable as possible, and if the cows do 
not pay for it. dispose of the cows, for it is better to 
dispose of them than it is to keep them on half feed. 
If a cow will not pay for her feed, when given all she 
will eat, she will not pay for it when given one-fourth 
as much as she wants. You are in the business for 
money and that is what you want. 

Don't let the laughs of anyone keep you from hav- 
ing everything as clean as it is possible for it to be. 
Remeanber that dirt causes dairymen to lose custom- 
ers, and that people like to buy from dairies where ev- 
erything is kept scrupulously clean. 

Don't let the horns grow on cattle. Sentiment sa\s 
for you to aJlow the horns to grow out, but common 
sense says take t'hem off. This can be done easily, 
especially if you do so before the calf is t'hirty-six 
hours old. The calf will suffer practically no pain, and 
it will cause you a great deal of trouble if you allow 
t'hem to grow out. Don't neglect to keep books on 
the cows. You must know which one is paying, and 
which is not, to carry on a successful dairy business. 



494 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



A mercliant who did not keep books would go under, 
and so will the diairyman. Know how muc'h each cow 
pays. If you will do this, you will l^e surprised at 
the results. 

Don't use any kind of preservatives in your milk 
and butter- It is far better to be honest, than it is to 
carry on this kind of practice. Be a man as a dairy- 
man. Preservatives are the resort of the ignorant or 
the lazy. 

Don't fail to raise all the hay you can, and other 
feeds. Remember th?t one of fhe greatest expenses to 
a dairy is the feed bill. All tliat you can successfully 
make on your dairy is that much profit. Start out to 
raise vour feed. 




a b 

(Fig. 32 — Showing door of silo. A is tlie door, b shows how 
it fits; should open on the inside. 

Don't fail to save the manure. You need it on t'he 
fields where you propose to raise your feed. 

Don't stay at the bottom of tlie ladder in dairying. 
Remember that there is a top and a bottom in the dairy 
'business and that it is left entirely wiith you, as to 
whether you are on the top or the bottom. Be at the 
top. 

Don't fail to study your business. You need to 
think and plan in the dairy business as in any other. 
Be a thinker and a planner. Know you business. 

Don't be discouraged. Keep at it. 

Don't mix beef and milk blood. If you want to 
make beef, do so, but don't try to mi.x these two 
bloods. You cannot do it successfully. If you have 
to use scrubs on your d'airy farm, do so, but don't mix 
beef blood and dairy blood together. The beef cow 
takes the feed and turns it into fat, wihereas the thing 
}-oii want is butter and milk. 

Don't abuse your cows, or allow them to be abused. 
Kindness will work wonders. Remember that when 



you use a cow for commercial purposes you are using 
a mother that is giving miik for the sake of her young, 
and that this action is not voluntary, and any slight 
cause may prevent her from giving the very best re- 
turns. Remember the more regularly she is handled, 
the more comfortable she is kept, and the more kind- 
ness shown her, the greater will be her flow of milk- 
There are some very peculiar things about cows. It 
'has been a long disputed question as to whether a 
cow could of her own accord hold up her milk. This 
is a theoretical' question, for we all know she does so, 
whether voluntarily or involuntarily. If you take a 
cow's young calf away from her, or frighten 'her, or 
whip her, the milk ceases instantly to flow. If she 
be cliilled or otherwise made uncomfortable, the same 
results follow. If anv of these things happeri to a 
marked degree, the stoppage of the milk is equally as 
marked. If a man be not blind to his own interest, 
he will not allow such. .\ cow th.us treated will show 
it in her milk yield. Do not allow the boys to frighten 
the cows, for they are not race horses. The cow 
should look upon the farmer as her friend- Be kind 
to vour cows. Learn to love them. Don't allow them 
to be abused. 

LITTLE THINGS ON THE DAIRY FARM. 

A man who cannot observe and take note of little 
things is alreatly a failure so far as the dairy business 
is concerned. The little things are the ones that 
bring success or failure in the ilairv business as well 
as in other business. The young man who is above 
all these little t'hings cannot succeed. But let us no- 
tice some of the little things on the dairy farm. 

There is cleanliness- It is not such an item to al- 
low a little dirt or filth to accumulate, but it means 
t'he loss of customers. The supposed dairyman who 
is too high above such things a sto give 'his personal 
attention to the matter of keeping everything clean, 
cannot hold customers. 

The little cracks in the cow barn let in large 
amounts of cold wind, and this wind makes the stable 
uncomfortable. These cracks are but little things, 
but they call for feed, for t'he temperature of the cow 
must be kept up. And they frequently cause the cow 
to drop oft in her milk and butter products. Little 
mice and rats spoil many dollars worth of feed. Get 
a lot of cats, and the little mice will seek headquar- 
ters somewhere else. To keep these cats at the cow 
barn, give them a little drink of milk once a day. In 



See to It Tl.at Your Dairy House Is Perfectly Clean. 



495 



passing tlirough the stable you smell a bad odor. It is 
a litUe odor, l)ut it must be attended to. See that 
tliere are no holes in the floor, and that the floor is 
even, for an uneven flooi* is a very uncoiunfortable 
thing for a cow to lie upon- It. is not such a great 
thing to look at the udder of^each cow once a day, but 
it may save you money, in that you discover a small 
injury, which if allowed to run on, may throw the cow^ 
out for six months. But it is a small thing. It is a 
small t'hing to watch the new milker to see if he is kind 
to the cows, and if he knows how to milk. Some 
milkers have a powerful grip in their 'hands, and 
squeeze the teats entirely too hard. This is a small 
matter, but it is worth lookincr after. 




Britisher No. 145096. 

After the milk vessels have been washed, rub your 
finger along the inside and outside of the vessels. If 
they are not clean, your fingers will slip along, but if 
they are clean, they will stick. Do not alloAV the but- 
ter-m.ilk to stand in the churn after it has been churn- 
ed. Keep the churn clean. Do not allow musty 
smells to accumulate. Be careful about these little 
things, and the large ones will take care of them- 
selves- 

BY-PRODUCTS. 

Milk, butter, and cheese are the main products of the 
dairy. The products of minor importance are calves, 
whey, buttermilk, skim-milk, manure, pigs, poultry. 
In this work a long discussion of these products can- 
no* be entered into. But many farmers allow these 
products to be wasted. Why men will allow such, 
when they can be turned into ready cash, is a hard 
matter to explain. Skim-milk is an excellent food for 
humans, and its sale should be encouraged by law. 
One question that has been before the wide-awake 
dairyman, Tias been how to supply milk to the trade. 
Skirrtmed milk, when allowed to be churned, does not 
prodiuce buttermilk, and cannot be sold for butter- 
milk. This is on account of bacteria that work in the 



milk on account of the cream. It has been found out 
that if you take a gallon of buttermilk and churn it 
with several gallons of skimmed milk, that you will 
g'et as good buttermilk as when produced from t'.ie 
cream itself. This is on account of the bacteria that 
is introduced into the skimmed milk through the real 
buttermilk itself. 

And every dairyman wlio is alive to his own interest 
'has a drove of hogs around, to help to use up the 
skimmed milk. Indeed, it is a loss not to have them. 
And the up-to-date dairyman can raise poultry very 
profitably, if he will do so, and can do it with practi- 
cally no expense. 

DAIRY NOTES. 

Feed at the same time every day. Then the cows 
will not be worrying abO'Ut their feed. 

If you do not have the stables well ventilated, do 
not let another day pass until they are ventilated. 

Keep the bedding well under the cov/s knees. 'K 
cow can have very little comfort with her knees 
bruised on a hard floor. 

Only the rich can afford to keep poor cows, and 
they don't- 

It is hard to tell which is the more useful, the man 
behind wiitli the milk pail, or the man in front with 
the feed pail. 

It does- not always pay to try to fatten the old cow. 
You had better sell her for wliat she will bring. 

It is alright to have books, and be able to figure 
back, and tell who your cow's great, great grandmoth- 
er was. But the great question with you is, who is 
your cow and vv'hat is she doing? Is she making you 
money, and how much? 



F .J*. 




1 


•^ 


I- :« 


m^A 


^ " 


1^^ 


Wi 


mS^. 


ll " 


^^^H 




^'w '.J 


J-J& 


■HB^^^^^HI 



British Blossom No. 204533. 



Always be kind to your cows. Remember what 
Ward C. White said, '"Always speak to a cow as you 
would to a lady." 

Grow your own cows. To do so is cheaper and bet- 
ter, for you can then control the quality of your herd. 

As the calf is trained, the cow will incline. 




I/- 



/ V 






■< V 













— ■ :-. /'-« 



SILVER PENCILED WYANDOTTES. 



Book XV. 
Poultry Department. 



Edited and revised by 

H. F. REILS, 

Editor Southern Fancier, .Secretary Atlanta Poultry Association, Atlanta, Ga. 

. . AND . . 

J. A. P. WOLF, 

Member National White Wyandotte Club; Member North Carolina Poultry Association; Member Pied- 
mont Poultry Association; Director Poultry Department, Forsyth County Fair, Winston, N. C, 
and Central Carolina Fair, Greensboro, N. C, Rurall Hall. N. C. 



33 



498 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Poultry Department. 



INTRODUCTORY. 

Before taking up the subject of "Poultry Culture," 

it is deemed advisable to give a brief resume of the 
industry in this country, to familiarize our readers 
with the vastness of its importance, so that the busi- 
ness will become fully understood, and the prospec- 



t'he ages of two or three months it is difificult to say, * 
ibut we are all aware that it is considerable. After I 
making these deductions, we gather that the balance ' 
remaining represents quite accurately these fowls j 
that have been kept for breeding and laying. These 
birds produced for market in one year poultry worth 
$136,891,877.00 and eggs \vorth $i44,2''6,37o.oo, a 




tive poultry breeder, contemplating taking up this 
line of work will be fully alive to his responsibilities, 
and the magnitude of this industry as shown by the 
last census report. 

From the nineteenth annual report of the Bureau 
of Animal Industry, we gather the following facts: 
The valuation of fowls on the farms throughout the 
country in 1900 was estimated at $85,794,996.00. 
How much of this amount represents fowls under 



total value of $281,178,2^7.00, showing that the in- 
vestment yielded an income of over 400 per cent. 
What other legitimate business can do this? 

If we consider the amount invested and compare 
results we find that poultry and poultry products 
easily stand first, and compared with the wool crops 
it exceeds it in money value by over one hundred 
and eighty-nine million dollars. 

This, of course, is quite contrary to the generally 



Do It Yourself Is a Very Good Motto- 



499 



accepted view that the poultry industry is of little 
importance when compared with the standard crops 
and products of the country. When another census 
s'hall have been taken, we predict that this industry 
will eclipse most of the industries now ranking with 
it, for with improved breeds now finding their way 
from every farm from Maine to California it is the 
aggregate of the millions of small flocks which gives 
this business its economic importance. 

The beginner who starts with poultry should have 
in mind that upon his foundation stock will depend 
his success or failure, and too much stress cannot be 
laid upon the importance of starting right. This re- 
fers as much to the selection of incuibators, brooders, 
houses, etc., and the management and handling of the 
stock as to anything else. It does not require a learn- 
ed man, in the general acceptation of the term, to run 



every other business, it takes push and .hustle to 
make anything out of it. We do not mean to say, 
when we say that the poultry business is a paying 
business, that you can make money at it without 
work and attention, for it is not true. A great many 
men have lost money at the poultry business, but 
this was because of non-attention, or lack of judg- 
ment on their part. Many farmers would find it 
profitable to raise poultry as a side line. There is a 
lot of food that goes to waste if there are no 
chickens to use it. This grain and other matter that 
goes to waste can be turned into profit by raising 
poultry. The great trouble with most farmers is in 
not giving their chickens enough attention and 
thought. Eggs sell at a good price all the year, and 
a part of the season they sell at very high prices. 
Chickens are the same. But if you decide to enter 
the poultry business, do not go into it on too large 




Fig. 2. — Laying House witti separate scratcliing pen attach- 
ment. A good house tor tlie South. 



a poultry plant, for we have seen men who made their 
reputations in the learned professions fail aljsolutely 
as poultry farmers. It does require an industrious 
one. however, and one who will look after every lit- 
tle detail. 

There is no more paying business taken from a 
financial point of view than the poultry business. 
This is especially true in the South, and many farm- 
ers would find it far more profitable to raise poultry 
than to raise cotton. The poultry business is like 



a scale. Experience can be had with a few fowls, 
and this experience will be worth no little to you. 
Start off on a small scale, and let the increase in your 
business graduate itself as you become capable of 
taking care of it. A business that does not pay ex- 
penses and a little besides is not a paying business. 
If you cannot make ten hens pay e.xpenses it will be 
quite difficult for you to make a hundred hens do so. 
If you can make money out of a dozen hens, increase 
the number to two dozen and see what the results 
will be. There are several questions of vital interest 



500 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



to the poultry raiser that we desire to give attention 
to. 

LOCATION. 

The location of the poultry farm is of some impor- 
tance. It is better to get near a town when possible, 
or a city, for then your products can be put on the 
market in a fresh condition. You will want to be 
. close to a railroad or steamboat landing. It will re- 
quire grain for poultry, and it is a good deal of trou- 
ble to haul it over many miles of rough road. If you 
can produce a part or all of this food so mucli the 
better. It is not so important that you be near a city 
if transportation is good, as the additional expense in 
the value of lands near to a city will more than off- 
set any advantages you may secure through it. Some 
people have the idea that any worn-out land is suit- 
able for a poultry farm, but this is not true. In the 
first place it is the by-products that show the profit. 
The manure of poultry is quite important. With 
land that is untillable, this by-product cannot be used 
to an advantage. Select rolling, well drained land, 
sandy preferred, and you will be a long way towards 
success. 

HOUSES. 

The question of the house for chickens is quite im- 
portant. But this questions is not so important here 
in the South as it is in the North. In fact, the house 
depends altogether upon the purpose in view and to 
w'hat extent you are going into the poultry business. 
If 3'ou have only a few chickens on the farm, you will 
want a small house for them, especially to protect 
them from the winter rains. If you are going into 
the business on a more extensive scale you will want 
more extensive quarters for your chickens. Outside 
of the house should be a shed under which you can 
feed them, especially in bad weather. It is never ad- 
visable to feed t'hem in the house. A puddled clay 
floor one-half foot higher than the ground outside, 
makes a very satisfactory and cheap floor for the hen 
house. The roosts should all be of the same height 
so that there will be no crowding by the fowls for 
the highest -places. They should not be over two and 
a half feet from the ground. Have boxes one-half 
foot square on low shelves for nests and dust fre- 
quently with wood ashes to prevent insects. Al- 
ways have clean straw in them. Pine straw is very 



good where obtainable. Do not neglect to burn nests- 
so soon as setting hens come off. Although more 
difficult to build, those who can will find those nests 
w'hich project on the outside of the poultry house, 
with openings for hen on inside and hinged, and slop- 
ing lid cover on outside for the eggs to be gathered 
from and setting hens attended to, decidedly more 
satisfactory. These nests should be two feet above 
the fioor and with running board in front of nests 
for hens to walk on. Always have enough nests to 
prevent crowding, or annoying setting hens. White- 




Fig. 3. — Colony House, Ciickadotte P'arm. Rural Hall, N. C. 

wash house and nests every month during summer, 
and do not allow fertilizer to accumulate if you do 
not desire insects and disease. 

Many practical poultry raisers use loose nest boxes, 
(soap boxes,) as they are so easily removed from 
the house for cleaning and to be burned out inside, 
thus ridding them of lice and their eggs. 

A house ten by fourteen feet should accommodate 
30 chickens. In some sections, the houses have win- 
dows, but this is not necessary here in the middle 
South. Perhaps best results can be had by dividing 
the house into two parts, one for roosting, the other 
for feeding and scratching shed in the day time. If 
it can be so located as to front the South, have the 
lower two-thirds of the front covered only with wire 
netting. This gives sunlight and air. Balance of the 
'house boarded tight, with roof sloped toward the 
north. The roosting side might be closed all around, 
but for most of the southern sections we say not. 

The selection of a dry location, sheltered as much 
as possible from prevailing winds is one of the essen- 



It Takes Work to Succeed With Poultry. 



501 



tials of an ideal house. If the soil is not naturally 
dry, good drainage should be the first consideration. 
Wet and damp soils are unsuited to successful poul- 
try culture, and becomes a breeding place for disease 
germs, and is withal a most fruitful source of roup, 
one of the most destructive of poultry diseases. A 
high elevation is often warmer and more suitable for 
poultry than low ground, where the air is likely to be 
damp and cold. If the houses face the east or south 
they will have more sunlight and in consequence give 
greater comfort and cheerfulness in winter than they 
would through any other exposure. 



for the fowls in these 16 houses, provided that the 
rounds were made six times a day, three times to 
feed ; once to water, once to clean and once to gath- 
er eggs, besides in inclement weather the poultry- 
man would be exposed when forced to go from 
house to house. All these matters deserve serious 
consid'eration. 

Then too, separate houses entail greater expense, 
both in cost of erection and material necessary to 
t'heir construction. One end of each house is saved 
by bringing the ends together, and this applies as 
well to yard fences. Every time a division fence is 




Fig. 4. — iStyle of house used at the West Virginia Experiment 

Station. 



The form and location of poultry houses have much 
to do with their convenience, and steps may be saved 
by studying the form and location of the building. 
Time is money and a poultry plant should be built 
with a view to saving steps. If the colony house 
plan of keeping poultry, in which each flock has its 
own little house and yard, a great deal of time is 
spent in going from house to house. If a plat of 
ground 300 feet square and containing slightly more 
than two acres is divided into 16 square runs, and a 
house located in the center of each, then a man would 
be obliged to walk nearly 550 miles in a year to care 



taken out, each flock has twice as much liberty as 
before. Fences increase labor. The labor of culti- 
vating small yards is much greater than it would be 
if all were in one field. Large flocks can pasture in 
the same field. Hens know enough to return to their 
own roost. The biggest bump on a hen's head is her 
"bump of location." 

The yards as a rule should be long and narrow, 
and double yards are desirable, allowing one to ro- 
tate crops, which practically converts the filth, which 
would otherwise become a source of danger, in- 
to a valuable food crop. Long and narrow yards fa- 



502 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



cilitate cultivation. Making them 35 feet wide and 
150 feet long would' readily accommodate fifty hens, 
although the more room the better. Planting a row 
of fruit trees through the center of these yards will 
produce shade and give a fine yield of luscious fruit. 
Now, in building houses we must remember the 
nearer square a house is, other things being equal, 
the less lumber it will require. It is twenty feet 
further around a house ten feet wide and forty-five 
feet long, than it is around a house fifteen feet wide 
and 30 feet long, although both houses have the same 
floor space. 



expense of building a shed roof 'house as compared 
with the gable or combination roof house. Shingle 
roofs should generally be one-third pitch. Most of 
the roofing fabrics last longer on rather flat roofs as 
chickens have less tendency to creep down the roof 
and thus tear loose from the nails. Usually a slope 
of one foot in eight or ten feet will be sufficient. In 
sections w'here much snow falls, flat roofs must be 
substantially built to withstand the heavy burdens of 
snow which they may have to carry. 

Each form of roof has its advantages and disad- 
vantages. The single span roof is the easiest to build. 




Fig. 5. — \ good poultry house for the South. O^peu fiffnt at 

top admitting sufficient ventilation at all seasons, and 

can be closed during bad weather. 



The shape of the roof affects the value of a poultry 
house. It takes the same amount of material to 
build a gaible roof, a one pitch roof, or a combination 
roof, if the pitch of the roof and the ground plan are 
similar. If we assume that the window is six feet 
hig'h in a building fifteen feet wide it would be nec- 
essary to have both sides of the house the same 
height, which makes more interior air space than is 
necessary and requires the rear wall one and a half 
feet higher than would be needed with a one-pitch or 
combination !Oof. A one slope roof will cost the ex- 
tra lumber to build three feet higher in front than is 
required by the combination house. 

The steeper the pitch the greater the comparative 



It gives the highest vertical front exposed to the stin's 
rays which are reflected back, drying the ground and 
making a warm shelter. It throws all the rain water 
to the rear, lessening the length of the eave troughs 
one-half, and keeping the front of the house dry 
where no eave troughs are used. A tarred paper roof 
will last many years longer if not exposed to the ver- 
tical rays of fhe sun. The gable roof provides for a 
larger garret space, which can be utilized in storing 
away odds and ends. 

Sunlight is a necessity, carries good cheer and tends 
to arrest and prevent disease. Too much glass 
makes a house too cold at night and too warm dur- 
ing the day, besides increases the cost of construe- 



Some Farmers Believe that Chickens Will Live Wilhcut Feed. 



503 



tion. Allow one square foot glass surface to sixteen 
square feet of floor surface, if windows are properly 
placed. The windows should be high and placed up 
and down rather than horizontally and low. In the 
former the sunlight passes over the entire floor dur- 
ing the day from west to east drying and purifying 
practically the whole interior. The time when sun- 
shine is most needed is when the sun is lowe.^t, that 
is, from September 21st to March 21st. Window 
sash with small glass seriously obstruct the light. 
Very large lights break too easy, and are too expen- 
sive. 8 X 10 is a good size glass to be used in a 
twelve light sash, making it about 3 ft. 9 in. high by 
2 ft. 5 in. wide. Use two of these in a house that is 
about fifteen feet square. Single sash are usually 



cd to touch the sides of the house. If they do the 
wall must be kept tight and vermin proof. Roosts 
should be placed in the warmest places out of drafts 
on same level, allowing from six to twelve inches lor 
each fowl, according to the breed. The form of perch 
most desirable is a 2x4 set edgewise and the narrow 
edge rounded. Under the perches should be a plat- 
form for the droppings, far enougli below to permit 
cleaning without removing the perches. 

As 1-cns prefer darkened nests they should be so 
arranged to exclude the light, which will tend to 
please them, and to mitigate the egg-eating habit. 
Under the dropping boards will make a good place 
for them, raised from the ground and so placed that 
the eggs can Ijc rathered without much trouble. 




Fig. 6. — A modern 'breeding house. Owned by the Chen'y 
Grove Poultry Yards, Kuoxville, Tcun. 



less expensive than double sash of the same size and 
the cost for window frames is less. Single sash raay 
swing from the side or top, or be made to shove to 
one side and are against the wall where least likely 
to be broken. With double sash this is more dif- 
ficult. Whitewashing the inside of the house makes 
it as much lighter as an extra window. 

Interior Arrangement. — While considering con- 
struction of houses, we should at the same time con- 
sider the interior arrangements, such as roosting 
places, nest boxes, dropping boards, etc. Movable 
fixtures facilitate in cleaning the house. For the 
most part they should be portable to facilitate in 
fighting mites. Generally they should not be allow- 



Short cut straw makes a good nesting material, for 
if moss, long straw, etc., are used the fowls in scratch- 
ing alaout preliminary to her laying operation is apt 
to throw out any eggs already in the nest, and tan- 
gle her feet in it and cause trouble. 

As the open-front house is advised in our Southern 
States, a good provision against extra cold or dis- 
agreeable weather is to have a curtain of any close 
material which can be let down at will. If the cur- 
tain is oiled with hot linseed oil it becomes practical- 
ly water proof, as well as wind proof, forming a good 
barrier against wind and cold, and aiding in making 
the open front house one much to be desired in the 
Sout'h. 



504 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



COOPS. 

The question of coops is one of ir.iportance. And 
yet this question is not so imiportant here as in the 
North, for here the greater part of the year coops are 
not needed at all. But the successful poultry raiser 
will use coops in caring for little chicks. There are 




Fig. 7. — Poultry house -without scratching shed and with 
glass front. 

many methods or plans for building coops. There 
are two or three things which a person must bear in 
mind in making a chicken coop, one of which is that 
it must be constructed so as to be dry and at the 
same time admit of plenty of sunlight, and a plenty 
of fresh air. If you can get a coop up that meets 
these requirements, that is just what is wanted. We 
■present here direction for two kinds of coops. 
There are others just as good. Take a grocery 
box and nail three or four half hoops over 
the top. Over them stretch cotton cloth and 
secure the ends and edges. The air will now 
gently pass through the coop all night, though 
the slatted front be closed Hinge the front in order 
to provide shade for the hens and chicks. The sec- 
ond plan is as follows: take frame like the gable 
roof. Slats for sides are to be made of boards five 
inches wide and one-'half inch thick. Nail on a slant 
like half turned shutters in a window blind. To do 
this start at the bottom and nail up shinglitig fash- 
ion. To make coop absolutely rain proof, nail one 
board upon about one inch of the other. When you 
make a coop in this way tlie door is the only means 
of iiigress and egress. 

Far more important than the coop is the number 
of chicks in the coop. ]\Tore hrrm is caused by crowd- 



ing than any one thing. Have more coops and fewer 
chicks is the advice that can always be profitably 
followed. The older they get the more room they 
need, so look forward to that in planning your coop. 

WATER FOR CHICKENS. 

Perhaps there is more trouble in raising chickens 
on account of impure water than from any other 
■cause. And nowhere is there more trouble than on 
the farm, where chicken raising is not made a spe- 
cialty. Many farmers have an iron trough or cook- 
ing vessel, and they fill that when it is empty, usual- 
ly about twice a week. The water is so hot that the 
chickens cannot drink it over one-half the day dur- 
ing the summer, and in the winter it frequently stays 
frozen over all the day. It never occurs to these peo- 
ple that chickens like fresh cool water. And still 
these same people complain of "hard luck" when their 
chickens all die. There is no excuse for the poultry 
not having plenty of fresh water. If you will take an 
ordinary jar or jug made of earthenware and fill it 
full of water bottom-side upwards in a plate or sau- 




Pig. S. — Colony House. 

cer, it will make a splendid drinking fountain. The 
water will run down in the fountain as it is used out. 
This fount should be kept in shade in the summer, 
and should be filled with fresh water every day. In 
winter a good supplv of warm water once a day will 
be greedily swallowed by the hens and go a long 
wav towards inducing them to lay. 

INCUBATORS AND BROODERS. 
Nearly every successful poultryman now uses in- 



See to it That Yhat Your Poultry Have Plenty of Water. 



505 



cubators. As to how long artificial breeding has been 
practiced, we are unable to tell. In Egypt ovens 
wefe used. It is not claimed that incubators will 
hajch every fertile egg, and neither will the 'hen. It 
is tlaimed, however, that the incubator will hatch as 
mariy eggs in warm weather as the hen, and more in 
coU weather. The brooder takes care of the little 
chicjks better t'han the hen. for the brogoder "does 
not I drag them through the dew and dirt 
and I neither does the brooder cover t'he little 
chicles witli lice. One reason w'hy the incubator and 
broobler have not been used more, is that the opera- 
tor lias not understood how to operate them. They 
have had the opinion that the incubator could be 
operated without attention, and as a result have fail- 




Pig. 9. — A new all metal incuibator. a style that is coming 
into use in the Soutli. 



ed. For a long time the farmers were afraid of them, 
and thought that they were for the fancy poultry- 
men, but they are fast dropping this idea and taking 
up with the machine that will make them dollars 
where they made pennies before. There are many 
advantages to be gained by the use of the incubator, 
so if you desire to be up-to-date you had better use 
one. As to which make is best we cannot say. There 
are a great many good makes on the market as well 
as any number of worthless ones. \\'ith the incubator 
you can have chicks at any time that you can get 
the eggs. You do not have to wait until the notion 
strikes the hen to set. In otiier words, you are in- 
dependent of the notions of hens. By the use of the 
incubator you can have spring chickens the year 



round. It is claimed by some that breeding chickens 
should not be hatched by the incubator, as their sys-,i 
tern is not so strong as when hatched t)y "Mother- 
Hien." This theory is without foundation, and the 
contrary has been proven time and again. If you are 
raising for the market broilers, fryers, etc., it would 
■be well to use the incubator altogether. However, 
you do not know all about incubators, and 
it will pay you to get one of the medium sized ma- 
chines, rather than one of the largest ones. There 
are several advantages to be gained in purchasing a 
sinall incubator, for in experimental work if you 
lose a hatch, your loss is less than if you had run a 
large machine. It is true that the advertiser claims 
that they are so simple that a child can operate them, 
hut when it comes to a test a child cannot operate 
"them. It is more than some grown people can do. 
And even if you wanted to operate on a large scale, 
you could get two or t'hree medium sized machines 
in preference to one large one. There are several 
advantags in having three or four machines over 
having just one large machine. One advantage is 
that you can use a different machine for different 
kinds of eggs. For instance, suppose you want a 
capacity of three hundred eggs. You could purchase 
three incubators of 100 eggs each. You can use hen, 
duck and turkey eggs, using a separate mac'hine for 
each. Having three machines, you can fill one and 
start it, while you are getting eggs for the next one, 
and so on. It takes different amounts of moisture 
for different eggs, and you must learn this. If you 
make a mistake you will come nearer discovering it 
when using a few small machines than when using 
just one large one. After you have received your in- 
cubator, you should study it. Nine out of ten who 
use standard and up-to-date makes of machines are 
successful with them and would not part with them 
and go back to the hens for anything. A good ma- 
chine with care and common sense methods will 
bring success. Remember that it takes time to learn 
and that you must do a little experimenting with 
your machine. Mr. J. A. Hunt, a very successful 
user of the incubator, says : 

"WHien you receive your machine and get it set up 
and in running order, take a whole day if necessary 
to study it in its various parts. The regulating ap- 
paratus should receive particular attention ; do not 
be satisfied in knowing that it does the work, but 
find out how it does it. Familiarize yourself with 
every part, as it may be useful knowledge to you in 



5o6 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



future operations, for should your regulator through 
any accident or without accident fail to work, you 
will be able to discover the difficulty and remedy it 
without delay." 

September marks the beginning of activity in poul- 
try matters in the South, so we propose to give here- 
with a few hints tliat will be found useful by those 
who will take up the work for the first time, as well 
as those iwho for various reasons have been unsuccess- 
ful in previous attempts. 

Cheapness in an incubator should offer no induce- 
ment for a beginner, nor for that matter, to any one 
else. The experienced breeders, the men who have 



so in the hands of careless ones. Some ire 
better suited to certain localities than others, al- 
though the modern up-to-date machine is guaranteed 
to excel in any climate, under any conditions. Tl ere 
are machines operated in the South that do away en- 
tirely with the moisture question, because the sys- 
tem of ventilation is so nearly perfect that the hatch- 
es will average as well as under hens, under same 
conditions. Others again require supplied mois:ure, 
or at least do better with it, and so it goes through- 
out the list. Every manufacturer claims to have the 
best machine, and so the beginner stands in a Tiaze 
of conflicting claims of superiority, unable to decide 




Fig. 10. — A Modern Incubator House. 



long since passed the experimental stage, steer clear 
of such and buy the best, liy the best we do not 
mean a machine in a mahogan}' case, for while there 
are such on the market, they represent nothing new 
in modern incubator construction, except in useless 
ornamentation, which appeals only to the "extrava- 
gant rich." The same machine in a pine case will 
give you equally good results, so when we say buy 
the best, we do not want to confuse the reader into 
believing that the .best is represented by the costliest 
machine. What we desire to emphasize is the fact 
that a machine considerably below the market price 
of a standard make of an incubator is doubtless also 
below them in the hatching possibilities. 

Nearly all the standard makes give good results in 
the hands of careful, observing operators; none do 



for himself. If a manufacturer has the confidence in 
his machine that he claims he has, he will send you ' 
the same on trial. You can deposit the money with ', 
your postmaster, express agent or merchant, with the 
distinct understanding that if the machine fails to 
meet your expectations, you can return it, and your 
receipt from the railroad showing its return shall be 
authority on which you can secure your money from 
whoever you deposited it with. 

Don't sign any paper obligating yourselves to go 
beyond this. Some concerns make sales by forc- 
ing their goods on unwilling people, and once they , 
get your money, you have considerable trouble in 
getting it back. 

Taking it for granted now, that your machine has , 



Corn Does Not Produce Eggs. 



507 



arrived and been set up, you will have to run it a 
dlay at least, may be longer, to get the heat under 
control. In starting it up, we would run the ventil- 
ator wide open for a few hours. When you have ad- 
justed your regulator according to the instructions 
coming with your machine, and it maintains an even 
temperature of 102 or 103 degrees, you are ready to 
place your eggs in it. We will suppose that you 
have provided eggs that are from strong, healthy 
stock, and that will show good fertility, that they are 
'as near one color and uniform size as possible, for 
the eggs of Brahmas, Cochins and other heavy breeds 
never do well when incubated with eggs from Leg- 
horns, etc. The best results from eggs as nearly as 
possible of the same kind. The Asiatics are always 
later in hatching, and being thick shelled, require 
more ventilation to dry tliem down, or, secure the 
proper air-space, hence, if two lots of eggs of Brah- 
mas and Leghorns are incubated at the same time, if 
von provide the correct ventilation for the former it 
will be to the detriment of the latter, so that point is 
easily explained, and even the novice will grasp the 
idea. 

After the eggs are placed in the machine, the tem- 
perature will drop considerably, and it will take sev- 
eral hours before it will be back to where you start- 
ed it. If your regulation has been correct, however, 
you will see it come back to 103 degrees and stay 
there. We will assume that you are operating your 
machine in a living-room, (seventy-five per cent, of 
them are), and you should see to it that there is no 
direct draft on the lamp, as it will cause it to smoke, 
and also cause the machine to become unevenly heat- 
ed. After second day, you should begin to turn the 
eggs at a regular hour morning and night, also cool- 
:' ing once a day, preferably in the morning, and fill- 
ing lamp too. If the filling of the lamp is done at 
night, you are not in a position to watch the temper- 
ature, and if you have given too much lamp light, 
j the regulator may not be able to take care of the 
' surplus heat, and you endanger your hatch. For this 
[reason we prefer cooling and filling lamps every 
i morning. When there are very marked changes in 
[the weather, a little care should be exercised to see 
! that a little more lamp fl,ame is given if weather 
turns considerably colder, and a little less, if the re- 
verse. You will soon get the hang of t'he thing and 
then you will wonder how you ever got so nervous and' 
"icared, and why you looked at the thermometer every 
5-4 minutes. Looking- at the thermometer will not 



hurt, if you will quit working with the regulator, for if 
you start the thing right, the regulator will within rea- 
son take care of any little inside changes. Don't get 
frightened if it runs up a little, just turn down lamp 
flame a little, but let the regulator alone. If there is any 
adjusting to be done it should «be before the eggs go 
in, and after that you can do the greater part of bal- 
ance by controlling lamp flame. 

On the seventh day you will be ready to test the 
eggs. If you have a good tester before a strong 
light, you will be able to tell fertile eggs by examin- 
ing closely. It is better for you to start with thin- 
shelled, light eggs, as they show better the germ in 
the egg, which will look like a spider with little blood 
veins for legs. You v/ill see it move, contract and 
expand, and after that it will be easy for you to pick 
out the strong fertile eggs, but in case of thick-shell- 
ed eggs and others, you will find it more difficult. 
Whenever in doubt, take a saucer and break the egg 
and you will soon learn. You may lose a few chicks 
by this process, but it is the best of all teachers. 

It is generally conceded that the first week of in- 
cubation is the most critical, and we advise a careful 
following of the instructions going with the machine. 
No writer can advise you along this line, as there are 
certain directions which must be observed, peculiar 
to each incubator. If your eggs are good and strong, 
and your hatch a good one, you may continue the 
same way for the ne.xt hatch, but if the reverse, you 
should immediately write your incubator manufactur- 
ers, giving details, and they will doubtless set you 
straight. They cannot afford to have a displeased 
customer, and should be more than willing to help 
you out. 

About moisture, if a no-moisture machine, follow 
instructions and take off hatch without supplying 
any, but if you find the weather exceedingly dry, it 
might be well to place a tub under the machine or 
about the room in which incubator stands. Don't 
sprinkle the eggs. On the seventeenth day all e,ggs 
with a hatchable c'hance will appear perfectly dark, 
except the air space. Those which are not are worth- 
less. If the air space is too small, your ventilators 
must be opened wider; if too large, they must be clos- 
up some. Your operating instructions will give you 
correct size that air spaces should be at certain 
stages. 

When the eighteenth day comes around, some of 
the eggs will probably commence pipping. Don't 
open machine after this until the ihatch is over, not 



SoS 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



even to help out a strugigling chick. If you do, you 
endanger the balance of the hatch, and a chicken that 
can't help itself out will never amount to anything. 
Keep them in the machine for twenty-four hours, 
throwing ventilators wide open after hatch is over. 
Don't forget to clean out incubator thoroughly after 
each hatch, nor get excited if the heat runs up to 105 
degrees when hatching. This is all right. All eggs 
that are not hatched by the twenty-first day are 
usually worthless. 

Ventilation in Incubators. — II is the popular idea 
that ventilation evaporates the moisture from eggs 
during incubation, and so it does, to a limited ex- 
tent, but t'he main cause is the pressure in the egg 
due to the growth of the chick and the shrinkage of 
the shell. Eggs, during incubation, get rid of the ex- 
cess moisture more on account of the pressure with- 
in than on account of the ventilation. At least the 
ventilation can only carry off the poisonous gases. 

As proof that pressure forces the moisture out of 
fertile eggs during incubation, we point to the infer- 
tile eggs in the same machine. Infertile eggs only 
perceptibly shrink in size and weight. If ventilation 
controlled the evaporation, then there should not be 
so much difference between fertile and infertile eggs 
under the same conditions. 

I have been operating incubators for a long while, 
I feel sure that I can voice the opinion of nearly ev- 
ery operator of incubators, that getting the air cell 
too large is more imaginary t'han real. We all read 
about it, but few have seen it. The lack of sufficient 
ventilation fails to carry off the gases arising from 
the eggs, and the natural conditions and actions of 
the egg are interfered with; the chick fails to devel- 
op naturally, hence wet, weak chicks, with an unripe 
appearance. 

It is very evident to any one who thinks (beyond 
what they read of) that moisture and ventilation are 
so mixed up t'hat the influence of one is taken for the 
other. Excessive applied moisture has exactly the 
same effect as the lack of ventilation; it makes the 
air too heavy, it's the same with poor ventilation. 
This heavy mucky conditions of the air blocks the 
expelled or evaporated moisture from the egg. An- 
other proof of the pressure within the eggs during 
incubation is t'he enlargement of the air cell as the 
incubation progresses. 

I dispute that the air cell is for the purpose of fur- 
nishing air to the chick except just before it pips the 



shell. The division between the air cell and balance 
of egg is air and moisture tight ; if it were not tight, 
it would fill with moisture; the chick could not pos- 
sibly use the air, even its movements and different 
positions would dispute the theory. Just before the ' 
chick pips the shell it usually breaks through to the 
air cell, but not always. I contend that the first real | 
breathing of the chick is after it pips the shell, and 
from the time it pips the shell until it makes further 
effort it is accustoming itself to real air. 

The air cell has a purpose, it helps form a pressuri 
in the other end of the egg; it has still another pur- 
pose, it holds the contents of the egg intact; it makes , 
a back stop and makes it possible for the chick to 1 
brace for action. If it were not for the air cell the 
contents of the egg would float. 

Ventilation is just as important as the temperature 
in incubation. Ventilation does the same work in in- 
cubators as in other things. Doctors draw a line on 
draughts of air, but make no attempt to exclude or 
curtail it, and why should we in ventilating incuba- 1 
tors? 

As stated, such a thing as air cells becoming too 
large is more imaginary than real. We read of the 




Fig. 11. — New style of brooder wltb outside runs for ohick- ■ 
ens. In much use throughout the South. 

cautions, but the real thing is rarely in evidence. 
Fertile eggs, during incubation, get rid of the exces- 
moisture through pressure more than through ventil- 
ation. In incubators, like in houses we live in, the] 
question of ventilation is settled when we correctly 
draw a line between plenty of air and draughts of air 
This is such a simple and well-known problem that 
it hardly needs mentioning. The theories about car- 
bon, oxygen and other component parts of air serve 
to muddle more than to explain, and insomuch as 
these things are rarely mentioned in connection with 
air for ourselves, we cannot see the great need of 
using up space on the question in connection with 
incubators, except perhaps in some cases wherein the 
lamip might burn the air 'before it enters the eg; 
chamber. 



Oats Makes a Very Fine Single Grain Food. 



509 



BROODER. 

The one great difficulty with the ifse of the incuba- 
tor was the taking care of the cliicks after they were 
hatched. But this is now done by tlie brooder. The 
question of the brooder is one of importance. And 
very little is known of brooders either. The great 
trouble is that most poultrymen place the importance 
on the incubator, while they consider the brooder of 
secondary importance. Some one has said that it is 
easier to haiich healthy chicks in an incubator than 
to keep them healthy afterwards in a brooder. It is 
often the case that the beginner studies with dili- 
gence the use and work of the hatcher, while he never 
really considers the brooder at all. As a result his 
chicks are hatched out all right but they die after a 
few days' confinement in the brooder. There are 
many good brooders on the market, and most of them 
are good. While the brooder is not intricate or as 
hard to understand as t'he incubator, yet it is very es- 
sential that its construction should be on right lines. 
There are many things to be considered. How to 
avoid crowding, • over-heating, getting too cool and 
chilling the chicks, either of which (too much heat 
or too little) will cause losses at the expiration of 
three or four days' time. It seems advisable to pur- 
chase a first-class brooder until you become thor- 
oughly familiar with the methods, then if you wish 
to attempt to make your own well and good. The 
price of first-class makes would not warrant anyone 
in building his own machine, however. 

By brooding is meant the care and nurture of little 
chicks. The subject of brooding may be discussed 
under two natural divisions, brooding by hens and 
brooding by artificial means. 

BROODING BY MEANS OF HENS. 

This is the natural way of raising chicks and wTien 
only a small flock is kept it is undoubtedly the best 
method to follow. The hen should be kept free from 
lice by the use of insect powder or other means, and 
it is usually a good plan to confine her for a few 
days until the chicks become strong enough to follow 
her readily. The coop for this purpose should be dry 
and clean, and the slats across one end should be far 
enough apart to allow the chicks to run in and out at 
will. In a few days the hen also may be allowed to 
run at large. If she remains unmolested by vermin 
at night she usually will return each evening to her 
own coop, which can then be closed to be opened 



as-ain the next morninq; after the dew has dried off 



the grass. 



BROODING BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS. 

As it is not an easy matter, especially for a begin- 
ner, to raise chicks successfully by artificial means, 
it is worth while to consider how an ideal hen cares 
for her chicks until they are weaned. In the first 
place, the hen remains on the nest until after the last 
chick has hatched, dried off, and gained strength to 
follow her. By this time the chicks which hatched 
first may be a day or so old. If the weather is warm 
enoug'h the hen then wanders a short distance from 
the nest calling the chicks to her by chuckling, and 
attempts to find something for them to eat. Scratch- 
ing in the earth, she now and then finds a tiny bug 
or worm and calling her brood to her with eager 
clucks she indicates with 'her beak the tempting mor- 
sel. If the ,hen is allowed to raise her brood in her 
own way, the chicks are on the move from morning 
until night, wandering a few feet away while search- 
ing for tidbits on their own account, and now run- 
ning with all their might when their mother an- 
nounces the discovery of a choice morsel, which if 
too large is broken into suitable pieces for them. If 
at any time the chickens become too cold and send 
forth their plaintive peep, then the hen answers with 
her motherly cluck, and the little ones run under her 
protecting feathers, become thoroughly warm in a few 
minutes, and then are ready to run away again on 
another foraging expedition. In other words, a chick- 
en raised under normal and hence natural conditions 
is busy from morning until night searching for food 
which is eaten in small quantities at a time, and only 
when night comes is the craw full, and chick's hun- 
ger fully appeased. Not only is the food eaten slow- 
ly, but it consists of a large variety of materials, bugs 
and worms, the tender tips of sprouting, grain, the 
grain itself more or less softened by its exposure to 
the moisture of the soil and now and then a little 
piece of gravel and a sip of water. Grit, green fcx>d, 
grain, animal matter and pure water with plenty of 
exercise during the day and a sufficient degree of 
warmth during the night are the main requisites for 
successful brooding. 

Taking off the Hatch. — If the incubator has been 
handled properly, the temperature of tlie egg cham- 
her will be about 95 degrees when the chicks are ready 



510 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



to be removed. If the weather is cold, and it is nec- 
essar}^ to transfer them some distance to the brooder 
house or to the brooders, a warm cloth-Uned box 
should be used and the little fellows tucked up snug- 
ly, as they are very tender. A few minutes' exposure 
at this time may chill them sufficiently to cause in- 
flammation of the lungs, which may destroy half or 
more of them in ten days. In fact, during the first 
two weeks of a chick's life it is of very first impor- 
tance to keep the temperature just right. If the tem- 
perature of the brooder is too high or too low the re- 
sults will be unsatisfactory even thoug'h all the other 
conditions are ideal. 




Kg. 13. — The S. D. McMillan Brooder. This brooder is ex- 
tensively used throughout the Soutli. 

The Proper Hover Temperature. — When the chicks 
are placed under the hover the temperature should be 
between 95 and 100 de.grees. The temperature should 
not be allowed to fall below 95 degrees during 
the first week, and n 't below 90 degrees during the 
second week. From tnis time on the hover tempera- 
ture can be lowered more rapidly, depending some- 
w'hat on the outside temperature. At no time should 
the chicks be uncomfortable, either on account of cold 
or too much heat. If they are too cold they huddle 
together, those inside the bunch become too warm, 
and pass to the outside, there becoming too cold 
again. Under these conditions the chicks catch cold, 
and soon die. On the other hand, if the hover tem- 
perature is too high, the chicks will be forced outside, 
where it is too cold for them. If the temperature is 
high enougli thev will not bunch to.gether when ly- 
ing down, but will scatter promiscuously over the 
hover floor, and a day or too later many will be found 
with their heads projecting from under the hover 
fringe. For the first few days they must be kept very 



close to the hover, for if they get a short distance 
away, they will bunch together to get warm, instead 
of running under the hover. Under these circum- 
stances, the attendant must assume to a certain ex- 
tent the duties and responsibilities of the mother hen. 

FEEDING. 

A chick just hatched out has quite a large supply 
uf food stored up for it in the unabsorbed contents 
of the yolk sac, and as a consequence feeding may be 
delaved for a while. Practice differs somewhat re- 
garding the age of the chick when it should receive 
its first meal, but most breeders delay feeding until 
the chick is at least -IS hours old. By this time, the 
reserve material is about used up. and the digestive 
system has been materially strengthened. 

What to Feed. — What is fed during the first few 
days is of less importance than how it is fed, and how 
much is fed. A chick when in a brooder or brooder 
house takes far less exercise than when following a 
hen, and if fed too liberally becomes sluggish and 
sleepy and digestive troubles soon carry it off. A 
brooder chick should be induced to take as much ex- 
ercise as possible, and this can be accomplis'hed but 
l)v feeding dry food scattered in short litter. Crack- 
ed wheat, corn cracked in pieces as large as one-half 
of a wheat grain, granulated oat meal and a small 
amount of millet seed will answer the purpose, ad- 
mirably for the first few days. It is surprising to 
see how quick they learn to scratch for their grain. 
Hay and straw cut into inch lengths make a good lit- 
ter for this purpose. Care should be exercised, how- 
ever, that the material cut up for this purpose does 
not contain sharp beards which are apt to get in the 
chickens' eyes, and thtis cause trouble. Ripe clover 
heads are especially to be avoided. 

Fine chick grit should be scattered on the floor of 
the broods, so that they will take some grit with their 
first meal. Pure water should be supplied from tlie 
start, and the drinking dishes should be cleaned fre- 
quently, as they become foul in a short time. 

After the chicks are a few days old a small amount 
of ground fresh meat and bone or beef scraps should 
be fed and some tender green food supplied to them. 
Lettuce is excellent for this purpose, but frequently 
cannot be secured, when recourse must be had to 
cabbage or the beets, the latter whic'h may be slick- 
ed and tacked up, so that the chicks can just reach it. 



Chickens on the Farm Need a House for the Winter Rains. 



5" 



I have had very good success raising chicks ac- 
cording to the method outlined above. While differ- 
ent breeders use different methods to mine, no one 
will fail if they follow fhe plan above outlined. The 
beginner must always remember, however, that in or- 
der to raise chickens successfully by artificial means. 




,J Fig. 12. — iMicMillan's Brooders witli runs for exercising tlie 
little chicks. 

i several things must be done just right: the chicks 

•I must be fed properly; the temperature at which they 

(jare kept must be suitable: they must be in a healthy 

^condition when hatched ; and finallv the parent stock 

jmust have been vigorous and thrifty. Just as the 

strength of a chain depends upon its weakest length, 

so does the success in raising chickens depend upon 

that factor which is relatively the weakest. 

If a considerable number of chickens are to be 
raised, a brooder house equipped with a hot water 
rheater is a practical necessity. In my experience out- 
door brooders cannot be used to t'he best advantage 
early in the season, when the weather is variable. 
ilLater, when the nights become warmer, and less ar- 
jjtificial heat is required, they may be used out of doors 
||successfully. The individual brooder whether in-door 
^or out-door, is expensive to operate, both in respect 
tn material and labor. The oil which must be used 
'in the brooder lamps cost relativelv much more than 
the coal which is used m the heater m the brooder 
bouse, and a large amount of labor is required to 
clean, fill and light the brooder lamps and care for 
tlie individual brooders properly. In the case of in- 
door brooders, there is in addition, a considerable 
ri^k from fire, which may not only destroy the brood- 
ers and their contents, but also the building in which 



they are located. On the other hand, the relatively 
large first cost for a special brooder house pre- 
vents its adoption by a majority of people who keep 
fowls. Therefore, it is of importance to discuss the 
best way of hanrlling individual brooders. 

Location of Brooders. — Outdoor brooders should be 
located so as to shelter as much as possible from the 
prevailing winds, for in such a place a more equita- 
ble temperature can be maintined, and when the 
chicks begin to run on the ground they will be more 
comfortable in a sheltered location. An eastern or 
southern exposure is best, and on the east and north 
there should be a windbreak of some sort, either the 
farm buildings, a hedge or a tight board fence. The 
brooders should be located near the farm buildings 
so that the chicks can be cared for conveniently. Be- 
fore placing the chicks in the brooder, the floor may 
be covered with sand or chaff. These are used to 
add to the comfort of the chicks and to facilitate the 
daily cleaning of the brooders. The brooders should 
be warm and thoroughly dry, especially if the chick- 
ens are placed in them directly from the incubator. 
For the first few days it will be necessary to confine 
the chicks to the brooder until they become accus- 
tomed to their surroundings and learn where to go 




Pig. 14. — ^An out-door brooder, -R-ith solid top cover, much 
preferred to glass top broo'3ers, foi-merly used. 

when cold. Particular care should be taken at night 
to see that they are not huddled together in the outer 
compartment. If they have done so, they must be 
placed under the hover. Before allowing the chicks 
to run out of the brooder onto the ground, it is usual- 
ly best to build a yard containing 25 to 50 square feet 
for them to run in for the first week or so. The yard 
prevents them from getting lost when small, and is 
also a great help when thunderstorms come up and it 
is necessary to get the chicks quickly under the shel- 



;i2 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



ter. As soon as the cliickcns begin to roost on top of disorder. There is no remedy so far as we are aware. 
the brooders, they may be removed to colony houses, Preventative mca.-ures alone are of value, 
and the sexes separated. 

BOWEL TROUBLE. 



DISEASES OF THE 
BROODER CHICKS. 

J. A. P. WOLF. 

■Although the diseases of poultry will be discussed 
under a separate head, it seems wise here to consider 
the diseases of brooder c'hicks, for the reason that 
these diseases are usuall}^ due to mistakes made eit'her 
in handling the parent stock, in hatching or in brood- 
ing. When the brooder chicks begin to die and the 
cause of the death can be discovered, then the opera- 
tor can usually remedy the trouble without mucli dif- 
ficulty, while on the other hand, if the source of trou- 
ble cannot be located, the beginner usually gives up 
the poultry business in disgust. 

NON-ABSORPTION OF THE CONTENTS OF 
THE YOLK SAC. 

Symptoms. — For the first three or four days the 
chickens may apparently be vigorous and hearty. 
Soon, however, many of them become drowsy during 
the day, and stand nodding. Bowel trouble sets in. 
Deatlis occur most rapidly when the chicks are from 
six to ten days old. If the abdominal cavity of a 
chick be opened at this time, the yolk sac will be 
found to contain a large amoiint of semi-fluid sub- 
stance which, not having been absorbed and digest- 
ed, has suffered a putrifactive c'hange, thus causing 
the death of the chick. Sometimes a chick may not 
die from this cause until it is two or three weeks old. 
In these cases the contents of the yolk sac is of a yel- 
lowish cheesy nature. 

Causes. — It is quite probable that the non-absorp- 
tion of the contents of the yolk sac may be brought 
about in more than one way. If the eggs have been 
laid by hens which are so fat and sluggish that the 
germs are weak ; if the eggs 'have been subject to a 
variable temperature during incubation; if there. has 
not been a sufficient amount of oxygen during the 
hatch ; or if the chickens are fed too soon or too 
much, then thev will be more liable to die from this 



Symptoms. — The droppings of the chicks instead ■ 
of being of a proper consistency, are soft and sticky, j 
and frequently collect in masses about the vent. The 
chicks become drowsy and have a tendency to seek 
the heat under the hover. 

Causes. — The non-absorption of the contents of 'J- 
yolk sac frequently causes this trouble. It may be 
caused, however, by improper food or by a slight 
cold which settles in the bowels instead of in the 
lungs. There is no remedy if it be caused from non- 
absorption of the yolk sac. If caused by improper 
food, or a cold, the remedy is evident. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 

If the temperature in the brooder or broodtr house 
is too variable one-half or more of the chicks may die 
of this trouble. 

Symptoms. — The chicks become drowsy and seem 
to require a hi.gh ho\'er temperature. In severe cases, 
the chickens nia}' e\en gasp for breath, appearing as 
though affected with gapes. If the lungs be examin- 
ed in the first stage of the disease, one or more may 
be congested and of a darker color than usual. Later 
little tubercles of a lightish color may be found scat- 
tered through the tissue. Whether these tubercles 
contain the germs of fowl tuberculo'^is is unknown. It 
would appear, however, as though they resulted sim- 
ply from the breaking down 'of tlie lung tissue dur 
to the intense inflammation present. 

DISEASE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

If the food which the young chicks receive does not 
contain the elements essential to growth in right pro- 
portion, digestive disturbances may be set up which 
may cause the death of the chicks. At the Rliodc 
Island Experiinent Station 826 brooder chicks which 
died from sundry causes were examined. Of the 
chicks examined 75 per cent, had abnormal livers, 30 
per cent, had various forms of intestinal disorders. 

"In order to ascertain the cause of the mortality a 
feeding experiment was instituted. Two hundred and 



Don't Get Discouraged, But Keep Trying. 



513 



nineteen chicks of Several breeds hatc'hed under sim- 
ilar conditions were placed in four pens of approxi- 
mately 50 each, all conditions being identical, so far 
as apparent, except in the single factor of food. All 
pens for 30 days after hatching were fed at the same 
time as much as they would eat. The composition of 
the ration varied in each case. The following facts 
confirmed by these experiments show : 







^HP^^^ 


~:^^,A 


^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Bh 


H 


1^ 


"^mnp^ 


"v^ "^**''^^^BWB 




^^^^^^t7 1 '**^£ 







Fig. 16. — ^Brood Oooips Ready for a Siunn, Als.. .sli.jws a part 

of the poultry houses. C'hickadotte Farm, 

Rural Hall, N. C. 

1st. Careful external and internal examination 
(such as anyone can readily make) of the dead chick- 
ens will generallv disclose the cause of the death. 
The necessary remedies are usually not difficult to 
find. 

2nd. iDeath from overcrowding, suffocation and 
trampling can be readily corrected. It is more fre- 
quent than is generally suspected. 

4th. Trouble of the liver and gall bladder are 
usually easily recognized from the green stain. For 
correcting this feed more animal food. The use of 
the proper proportion of animal food will pay a hand- 
some profit through decreased mortality and increas- 
ed weiglit of chicks. In feeding bear in mind that 
chicks in a state of nature spend practically all their 
working hours in search of food, and that they do 
not fill their craws in ten minutes every two hours. 
Feeding should be, as far as the time of the attend- 
ant renders possible, a continuous process, but by no 
means a continuous gorge. 

5th. Diarrhoea, etc., frequently results from feed- 

34 



ing a too large proportion of animal food, and is also 
brought on often by cold, exposure, etc. 

6th. If the 3-olk is present in a considerable quan- 
tity in chicks a week old, or if more than i or 2 per 
cent, of deformed chicks appears, look to the better 
regulation of the incubators, or to the health of the 
breeding pens. 

LEG WEAKNESS. 

This usually is an ailment of chickens which have 
been forced into too rapid growth by the use of rich 
mashes, by being kept at too 'high a temperature and 
through lack of exercise. 

Symptoms. — The chick walks in an unsteady man- 
ner and frequently squats down. The hocks are gen- 
erally swollen and hot to the touch. 

Treatment. — Feed dry grain scattered in littter so 
that the chickens will be obliged to exercise. Re- 
duce the temperature and provide plenty of green 
food or steamed clover, which will tend to allay the 
feveris'h condition. 

GAPES. 

This is a parasitic disease caused by the presence 
in the wind pipe of the affected chick small worms 
which are attached by their heads to the mucous 
membrane. This parasite, known scientifically by the 
name of Synganus trachealis, when removed from the 
trachea has a branched appearance. The longer part 
which is about one-half inch long is the female, while 
the shorter part is the male. The female does not lay 
eggs during her lifetime, but after reaching maturity 
she is expelled from the windpipe, and the eggs es- 
cape after her deat'h through a rent in the body wall. 
Other chicks take these eggs into their systems, eith- 
er with their food or water, and thus the disease is 
propagated. 

Symptoms. — The chick when badly infested, gasps 
for breath, coughs as -though suffocating, and fre- 
quently stands witTi wings drooping and eyes closed. 

Treatment. — In practice only preventative measures 
are of value. The worms can be removed by means 
of a gape worm extractor, if one has the necessarv 
skill and patience, but on a large scale, this is impos- 



514 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



sible, and all possible effort should be directed toward 
preventing further infection. All diseased chicks 
should be placed by themselves and the runs and 
houses thoroughly cleaned up and disinfected. If in- 
dividual brooders are used, the simple expedi- 
ent of placing them in a new location each 
year, often causes almost the total disappear- 
ance of the trouble. If permanent runs become 
infected, they may be disinfected by the frequent use 
of caustic lime which is spread thickly over the sur- 
face and worked into the soil. Or the run may be 



hen and chicks from the nest until 25 hours after the 
last chick has hatched. For hen and chicken shed 
we use a south side wired up, with sand floor. Place 
the hens and chicks in a clean new nest in a nest box 
made of a cracker box, with a round hole sawed in 
one side next to one end. This makes an ideal sit- 
ting nest and nest for hen and chicks. We place near 
the end a pan of dry flaked oatmeal, grit and fresh, 
clean water and leave the hen and chicks to come out 
at will. The hen will call the chicks out and in this 
way any chicks t'hat are not strong will remain in the 



rrr 



r. 




«»»"■ 






Fig. IG. — Raising .Jersey Red Cliiclvens at towmter, La. 



sprinkled thoroughly with a 2 per cent, solution of 
sulp'huric acid in water. The lime and acid, howev- 
er, should never be used in combination. 

CARE OF LITTLE CHICKS. 
By J. A. P. Wolf. 

We do not remove chicks from incubator or take 



nest, and the hen after feeding the chicks that came 
out, will return to the nest vvith the chicks and all is 
well. We have watched them do it many times. 
This nest arrangement may be placed immediately in 
the colony house, placing one in each end and plac- 
ing two 'hens with chicks in each colony house, es- 
pecially as the weather grows warmer. This does 
away with the little brood coops and is a great sav- 



There Is No Easy Road to Success With Poultry. 



515 



ing of time and labor and money, besides giving the 
chicks more room on a stormy day, when they should 
be confined to the colony house. 

Our second feed is dry bread crumbs, and the third 
Ciphers or any other good chick feed, feeding only 
tliree or four times per day for two or three weeks, 
never giving the same food twice in succession. 
When the chicks are one week old, we give once a 
day, usually at noon very finely chopped onions, cab- 
bage, salad or fine grass. \\'hen from four to six 
weeks old, :f the weather will permit, the hen and 
chicks should have access to rye, grass and clover at 
will. The houses are thoroughly cleaned from two 
to four times per week, and sand sprinkled on the 
floor. In the use of brooders we place them in or be- 
side the colon}' houses, making little runs around the 
brooders until the chicks learn to go into the brood- 
ers. The brooder chicks are fed and treated the sam^. 
as those with the hens. AMien the chicks are old 
enough, we remove the brooders and the chicks nat- 
urally go into the colony house, and you have them 
where you want them. 

W'hen chicks are from 8 to 10 weeks old we feed 
wheat in the morning, or a small feed of chick feed, 
and at noon beef scraps, and at nig'ht cracked corn. 
Sometimes I keep beef scraps in a self-feeding bin 
before them at all times. 

When the hens wean the chicks, you only have to 
place them back in the breeding pens and the chicks 
come home to roost, and you do not have to go night 
after night v.-ith a basket and remove them from the 
brood coops to the colony house. They know where 
they should roost, and will remain there until fall, 
when they can be removed to their winter quarters, 
the cockerels and pullets liaving been separated at the 
proper time. 

NOTES ON LITTLE CHICKS. 

One should see to it that the chicks are not chill- 
ed, while being transferred from the incubator to the 
brooder, and that the hover temperature at the be- 
ginning is as high as the temperature of the incuba- 
tor from which the chicks are taken. 

In flie brooder or brooder house, the chicks must 
be taught where to go to get warm. It usually takes 
about a week for them to learn this lesson. 

The hover temperature should not fall below 90 de- 
grees during the first week, nor below 85 degrees r'ur- 
ing the second week. 



Brooder chicks must not be overfed. If fed too 
much they droop and die. 

Alake the chicks exercise by scattering dry cracked 
grain in deep but short litter. They will go to the 
bottom for grain if kept a little hungry. 

Grit, green food, animal matter and grain, togeth- 
er with plenty of exercise, pure air and fresh water 
are necessary for the highest degree of success in 
raising chickens. 

Keep the brooders clean, dry and free from lice. 

A brooder to be satisfactory must be simple, dura- 
ble and easily cleaned. The lamp must be accessible 
and have ample power to keep the brooder at the 
right temperature. 

Do net overcrowd. If a brooder is made for 50 
chicks, do not place 100 in it. Fifty chicks are as 
many as should be together. 

If some of the chicks die, cut them open and find 
nut what the trouble is; then rectify it. If the lungs 
are inflamed or have whitish nodules scattered 
through them, then the chicks have caught cold. 

If the gall bladder is enlarged, there has been a de- 
ficiency of animal food in the ration, and more should 
be supplied. If the contents of the yolk sac remain 
unabsorbed. then either the incubation was impioper- 
ly performed or the chicks were fed too soon or too 
much or the parent stock was in an unhealthy condi- 
tion. 

Do not permit incubator hatched chickens to come _ 
in contact with stock hatched under hens. This is a 
prolific source for the spread of lice, and should be 
avoided. 

Open water vessels are not dfesirable for drinking 
fountains. Many birds are lost by falling into such a 
death trap, besides such vessels accumulate filth and 
dirt and are unsanitary. 

Watch the brooder lamps. Make your last round 
before retiring and see that everything is snug and 
safe. You will be amply rewarded both in content- 
ment of mind and better stock for any little extra at- 
tention you give your birds. 

BROODING THE CHICKS. 

This subject has been worn almost threadbare, so 
we think, who have handled it continually season af- 
ter season, but whenever we come in contact with a 
new beginner, full of enthusiasm and hope, and who 
must depend upon us for advise which will assist him 
on to success, we feel that we can not dwell too long 



5i6 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



or too forcibly upon t'his subject, because in successful 
brooding it is the key to the whole situation. There 
are many good incubators, in fact, nearly all the old 
standard makes do good work in the hands of care- 
ful, observing operators, but of brooders, we have so 
few that we feel it a duty to warn not only beginners, 
but old operators as well, that here is the danger line, 
and t'his the block upon which so many stumble. 

Most of the brooders are built at the North, and 
with a view to withstanding :!xtremes of cokl weath- 
er, while 'n our section we seldom have to encounter 
zero weatl'er, and ii we do, only for a day or two at 
most. Working on the lines of instructions usually 
sent with incubators and brooders, beginners take 
everything for granted. They rv.n the heat up as in- 
structed, paying very little attention to ventilation, 




Fig. 17. — Isi Prize Hen, Atlanta, Ga. Also winner of silver 
cuip. Bred and exhibited by J. K. Ottley, Atlanta, Ga. 

the very essential in our clime. So far as getting up 
sufficient heat is concerned, we can take a dry goods 
box and carry a brood throu.gh, if we have solved the 
question of ventilation. It is a well-known and ac- 
cepted fact ihat less ventilation is needed in cold than 
in warm weather, but sufficient must be provided at 
all times to carry off the poisonous gases which are 
generated, and 'to enable the chick to breathe the 
sweet, pure, life-invi.gorating atmo.sphere which nature 
intended for it. If we observe the chickens under the 
hen, we will notice that while their bodies are snugly 
protrude and they breathe t'he pure air, while their 
hidden among the downy feathers, their little heads 



bodies are warmed from the animal heat the hens 
throw off. We prefer a brooder that enables the 
chicks to hover, and we have seen them when a com- 
fortable degree of heat was given to hover their little 
bodies under the flannel strips of cloth, their little 
heads protruding and an air of contentment about 
them, which assured us of their welfare. In many 
brooders, sufficient provision is not made for hover- 
ing the number of chicks at which it is rated, without 
crowding some beneath it, where they cannot get the 
necessary pure air. Chicks naturally are inclined to 
huddle, and in brooders not provided with hovers, we 
usually find them piled up in a corner, unless the 
chamber is overheated, which is just about as inju- 
rious. If we had to err on the side of too much or 
too little heat, we would choose the latter, although 
there is no excuse for either. Too many people rely 
on their thermometers as to correct temperature. A 
chick can stand considerable cold, if it has access to 
a warm place wherein to get comfortable, and we 
would prefer to give plenty of ventilation, even to 
burning twice as much oil to bring up the desired 
temperature, rather than economize at the expense of 
the health of the entire hatch. During our fine spring 
weather we are able to supply all the ventilation nec- 
essary, even to raising the cover, provided the chicks 
have a place, a hover, under which they will find 
comfort, as they do under a hen. 

We would advise beginners and others to look care- 
fully into this question of brooding and observe these 
things, as upon them will rest your success in the 
business. Too many buy a 300-egg incubator and 
but one brooder. Manufacturers are much to blame 
here. In the battles of fierce competition now rag- 
ing, too little regard is had for truth and honesty. 
They know as well as we do that fifty birds to any 
one brooder is sufficient, no matter whether rated a 
50, 100 or 200-chick size. The fact of the matter is 
they do not do well in larger numbers, and I would 
prefer a half dozen small brooders to one large one 
any time. Another thing to be observed is in sepa- 
rating the weak, stunted looking c'hicks from the oth- 
ers. They leach the others the crowding habit, and 
besides this never recover if left to be run over and 
trampled by t'he others. Lots of failures in brooding 
chicks are charged to feeding, when the whole thing 
is due to bad ventilation, overheating and c'hilling. 

Another thing observable in brooder chicks incor- 
their feet. Compared with the full, moist, shiny-look- 
rectly brooded is the dried, shriveled appearance of 



Peas Make a Very Fine Food for the Chickens. 



517 



ing feet of the hen's biddies, the comparison is strik- 
ing and noticeable. We prefer to liave a generous 
amount of clean sand in .the brooder — an inch deep is 
not too much — and it is advisable and 'helpful to stand 
in each brooder a can of water, so placed that the 
chicks can't get to it, which will be found very help- 
ful to them. You all know how hard and dry the air 
become in a room where a stove is burning, and how 
placing a kettle of water on it renders the atmosphere 
moist and more agreeable. It is similar in a brooder, 
and at best can do no harm and a little experimenting 
along this line will soon give you an insight into its 
value. 

With the heating and ventilating controlled, the 
feeding becomes easy. At the present price of all or- 
dinary grains, we would advise the use of the well- 
known brands of chick-feed advertised, as with this 
on hand the beginner is on an even footing with the 
oldest breeder in the land, for besides being about as 
cheap, it is a well-balanced ration prepared especially 
for young chicks, and contains everything necessary, 
even to grit and meat scraps. It eliminates the dan- 
ger of feeding stuff injurious to young chickens, saves 
time, insures raising the greatest number of chicks 
possible, and fed in litter, provides exercise necessary 
to the best development of the growing chicks. 

For the first few days, in cold weather, the chicks 
should be confined to the brooder, and not allowed to 
roam. After they become active and sprightly, they 
may be allowed a small inclosure about t'hree feet 
square to run in, and this should be increased daily 
until after a week's time they may run at will, they 
will know their home and return to it when cold, or 
at roosting time at night. Care should be paid to 
gathering in any stragglers. The heat should be 
gradually reduced, and in mild weather in the South, 
after they are several weeks old, tTieir bodies will 
generate sufficient heat to maintain the necessary 
temperat-ure for their comfort. 

BROODER CHICKS. 

Give water to drink from the start. 

Remove the chicks to new runs, if confined in pens, 
and plant oats, rye or other green feed. 

Tiny brooder chicks sometimes peck each others 
feet until sore. Keep them busy by feeding grain in 
short litter and they will forget these small vices. 

Don't feed your brooder chicks like mother used to 
do. Mother's chicks were brooded by hens, and were 
quite a different proposition. 



Keep out the sunlight let in the doctor. 

Assafoedita in the drinking water is good for little 
chicks with gapes. 

Remove your chicks from ground on which your 
chicks become infected with gape worms. Sprinkle 
lime freely, then spade the run and lime a^ain. 

Scrub treatment will make scrubs of thorough- 
breds. 

Accumulated manure breeds disease. 

Fresh water is worthless if poured into a filthy 
vessel. 

Clean the brooders dailv. 






"Goi_.DEN 

Queen" 



<^. 



Fig. 18. — A fine Buff Rock Hen, winner at Atlanta, Charles- 
ton, S. U., M.acon, Ga., and other shows. Owned by 
C. Wayne Fowier, Smyi-na, Ga. 

STARTING A "BROILER PLANT" ON LIMIT- 
ED CAPITAL. 

So long as the demand exceeds the source of sup- 
ply, so long will the raising of poultry for market or 
for eggs remain a profitable industry, when conduct- 
ed by persons who are adapted to the work. No one 
need attempt the undertaking with the expectation of 
running up against a "snap." It is work, work all 
the time, early morning until night with the closest 



5i8 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



attention necessary to details, cleanliness, regularity 
in feeding, guarding against vermin, and supplying 
every want of the fowl, and looking after its comfort. 

In going into t'his line of business, we should first 
determine upon the wants of the market which we 
aim to supply, whether it is broilers, or eggs or both, 
as upon this desire will depend the first steps to be 
taken in securing breeding stock, incubators, brood- 
ers, etc., as well as location, nearness to market be- 
ing a prime essential in some cases. 

We will suppose in this instance that broilers for 
the market is the main consideration, and take up the 
"egg farm" under a separate head. 



during the year under contract, if the breeder can 
give ample assurance of his ability to supply this de- 
mand. 

Two hundred hens should supply in season suffi- 
cient eggs to run two incubators of 200 egg capacity 
per week, and give you a surplus besides. In the off 
seasons more hens may be required, depending upon 
your ability to create the "laying habit" in your fowls. 
This would require six 200 egg machines with an ad- 
ditional smaller machine to start at the same time 
you do your large ones, so that at testing- time you 
can fill in from the surplus to offset the un'fertile and 
doubtful eggs removed from them. The first week 




^ FiffST PRIZED CUP 

. ' NEW YORK 1<^03 

- WILL?W BROOK PARn 



Fig. 19. — An ideal BiifiE Plymouth Rock. 



For this purpose one should have sufficient means 
at his disposal to b'ly his breeding stock, his incuba- 
tors and brooders, as well as feed, and look for no in- 
come the first 6 months. In the .'^outh broilers are mar- 
keted at from ]0 to 12 weeks old, and bring an aver- 
age of from 20 to 25 cents each in the markets where 
a demand has been created, and which can be regu- 
larly supplied. We have in mind several cities in the 
lower Sout'h that will take a large number of birds 



you start two, 2CO egg machines, together with the 
smaller one. One week later you start two more, 
testing out the unfertile eggs from your first lot, and 
refilling from your "tender" as we will call it. This 
will probably leave your "tender" empty, and readv 
to start again with your second hatch. Should it not 
do so, it might be well to have two small machines 
for "tenders," say of 100 egg size capacity, so that in 
event the first tender is not ready for use, the second 



If You Are Going to Make Poultry Raising a Business, use Pure Breeds. 



519 



may be brought into play, and on 14th or 15th day 
of last test you will have used up all surplus eggs 
from first tender leaving it ready for starting with 
your third 'hatch, which will now put in use all six of 
your machines, the first of which is already two 
weel s under way, so that when the last hatch has 
run one week, jour first machines are three weeks 
under way, and are hatching. Every week after the 
third you will have a hatch coming off. and at the 
lowest reasonable calculations you should get out 60 
per cent, of all eggs put in. or 240 chicks every week, 



this expense and further losses which one experiences 
when depending upon outside help. 

In arranging your yards and brooding accommoda- 
tions, you must figure on supplying your yard room 
for at least ten or twelve hatches of 250 chicks, for 
your first hatch will be from ten to twelve weeks old 
before coming to marketable age. so that you will 
have from ten to eleven subsequent hatches on vour 
hands ranging in age from one week to eleven, as the 
case mav be. 





Fig. 20. — A typical Brown Leghorn. 



from which you should raise to twelve weeks old at 
least 200, which should bring you $50.00 in your lo- 
cal market. This then wouid be your income from a 
small broiler plant running 6 200-egg machines with 
two small "tenders" from which you would have to 
deduct cost of feeding, expenses, etc. Besides this 
profit, you would have surplus eggs from your main 
flock, and if you have provided ample brooding facili- 
ties and prepared to keep your different ages sepa- 
rated, vou will with little or no outside labor avoid 



To handle them to the best advantage, your brood- 
er yards should be so arranged that they will increase 
in size, so that the one intended for the youngest 
hatches being suited to their ages, and each succeed- 
ing one being larger, to take care of tlie different 
ages, and if hawks and other vermin are trouble- 
some, it will be necessary for you to string meshed 
wire, the writer having found single strand No. 14 
wire or smaller well adapted for this ptirpose, string- 
ing it six inches apart. No hawk will attempt to go 



520 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



through, and if so, his hawkship will be unable to get 
out. 

You will experience little trouble with skunks, 
opossums, etc., during the day time, but care should 
be observed that houses are carefully closed at night 
before these prowlers are on the move. 

Snakes are sometimes very destructive to small 
chickens, and no high weeds or hiding places should 
be tolerated near your chicken yards. Many a prom- 
ising bird has given a meal to these "thieves" and 
are hard to detect in their stealthy work. 

In selecting the stock for the production of eggs for 
your incubators, birds of one variety are always pre- 
ferred, and for broilers, none surpass the Plymouth 
Rocks or Wyandottes. The whites in both varieties are 
the most popular, 'having no dark pin feathers, and 
make an ideal bird for broiler purposes. The first cost 
for good layers may be a little more than for a lot of 
mongrels, but then one should not embark in this 
business unless sufficiently equipped with capital to 
start right. While the income from the broiler plant 
practically begins with the maturity of the first hatch 
at 3 months, it is always advisable for "the operator 
to have sufficient surplus on hand to meet any disap- 
pointment that may 'happen to him. He must also 
bear in mind that while his first 200 birds are getting 
to marketable age, he has a large number constantly 
coming on that require feeding, which is a consider- 
able item when 100 to 200 chicks are considered, to 
say nothing of the hens that are kepi for supplying 
the eggs. 

One should never depend on eggs purchased from 
outsiders to run the incubators. This has been the 
source of more failures in the broiler business than 
all the other causes combined. No matter 'how well 
you think you know the people or the flocks from 
which they originate, it is seldom that the results will 
even pay the actual cost of the eggs. If your advent 
in the broiler business is dependent upon this source 
of supply of eggs, we say emphatically "don't." Many 
of the largest plants in this country amply capitaliz- 
ed have failed because of this same trouble that we 
are now warning our readers against. 

The treatment of the chicks while in the nursery is 
about the same w'hether intended for broilers or 
breeders, the object being to carry the chickens safe- 
ly past the many dangers which beset them during 
the first three or four weeks. The prepared chick 
feeds supplemented with grit and green feed, and 



plenty of exercise is now used by the most successful ' 
broiler people in the business. The thing of greatest '< 
importance is cleanliness and this applies not alone > 
to the brooders but to the runs as well. These should 
be plowed or spaded and if possible planted frequent- | 
ly in green feed of some kind. Foul ground is one or 
the causes of great mortality in chicks. If the broiler 
business of the past has been extremely hazardous, it ' 
has not been due to a lack of ready markets at good ' 
prices, but rather from causes entirely within the con- 
trol of the operator. 

Experience alone can give the desired information 
as to details, etc., and this must be supplemented with 
proper equipment of incubators, brooders and brooder ' 
houses. 

EGG FARMING IN THE SOUTH. 

There is no branch of poultry husbandry that ' 
carries with it less risk from losses, nor greater 
certainty of immediate profits with quick returns j 
than '"Egg Farming." As the greatest layers are- 
among the Mediterranean breeds, consequently non- 
setters, the successful egg- farmer relies ahnost w'hol- 
ly on artificial incubation and brooding for obtaining 
his annual supply of new stock birds which are to 
furnish the eggs for another year. 

On the majority of the egg farms in this country the 
non-setting varieties are used almost exclusively, with 
the preference greatly in favor of the A\'hite Leg- 
'horns. There are also some very successful plants in 
w'hich the American varieties are given full sway, no- 
tably the Barred, Buff, and White Plymouth Rocks, 
White and Buff Wyandottes, and tlie Rhode Island 
Reds. These birds become broody however, and 
some develop remarkabje tastes for obstinate broodi- 
ness. The successful egg farmer will, however, break 
up this broodiness as early as possible, usually at tlie 
very first sign of it, and a method employed with 
nnich success, w'hich eleminates any resemblance to 
cruelty is practiced on some of our largest egg farms. 

The method is as follows: 

A box such as is usually employed for the use 
of setting hens is procured, the bottom taken out and 
regular poultry netting nailed in its place, allowing 
it to sag down a little to form a hollow the shape of 
a nest. This box is nailed up from the floor, high 
enough to allow the air to circulate under it very 
freely. It seems as though the 'hen cannot stand this 
cooling off process, having nothing under her to 



If You Have Good Stock, You Will Have to Pay For Them. 



521 



break the air currents, and in two or three days all 
signs of broodiness disappear. This method is sup- 
plemented with another which usually effects a radi- 
cal cure. By placing this hen for a day with a young, 
vigorous male bird, all ambition for setthig seems 
to be obliterated and she soon resumes her egg lay- 
ing, to the satisfaction and profit of the owner. A 
notable observation where the practice has been in 
vogue for some years, shows that the tendency to 
broodiness is gradually .reduced, the birds exhibiting 
less and less inclination to set and devoting more 
time to egg production, which is what the egg farm- 
er is after. 

The remarkable demand for eggs, which increases 
as the years roll on, makes this branch of the poul- 
try industry an ideal one for anyone having the nee- 



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Fig. 21. — A typical Leshorn as grown by Joo. R. McMillan, 
LiOuisvtlle Ky. 

essary capital and love for the business to undertake 
it. It is conceded that the value of tlie laying pullet 
is $1.00, also that the food and labor fijr the year will 
average $1.25; this then would make a total of $2.25 
for one laying fowl for a year. This will be found an 
average cost throughout the country. While this cost 
may be somewhat higher than here in the South, this 
is balanced by the fact that we get a little less probab- 
ly for our product. 

Now, figuring that a laying pullet will produce lier 
first year one hundred and fifty Qggs, these at 25 cts. 
per dozen would bring $3. 13. At the end of her first 
laying year, this hen will have a market value of at 
least 60 cts. This makes a total of $3.73 which may 
be figured as the returns of one layer kept for egg 



production exclusively, and shows t profit of $1.48 
or over 60 per ce<U. profit on your original invest- 
ment of $2-25. ihese figures may be increased if 
pure-bred birds are used, when the farmer will have 
quite, a demand for incubator eggs at advanced prices, 
wnich will go a long way towards swelling the pro- 
fits of the year's business. Indeed, we know of one 
egg farmer in Georgia close to Atlanta who from 500 
birds kept, uses probably 50 per cent of his product 
in filling orders for incubator eggs at ¥5.00 to $6.00 
per hundred and his surplus is contracted for by an 
Atlanta firm at 25 cts. per dozen throughout the year. 
During one week he sold over $60.00 worth of stock 
at prices ranging from $2.00 to $5.00 per head, due 
to the fact tliat he culled his flock closely year by 
year until Lo-day yau can find fin this model "egg 
plant," finer specimens of Buff Wyandottes than 
usually grace the yards of the fancier who caters only 
to the "fancy trade." 

Another attractive feature of an egg farm is the 
fact that it is an all-the-year-round branch, which 
caters to a constant demand, and brings in an income 
throughout the year in proportion to the poultryman's 
ability to keep his hens laying. \\'e know of no oth- 
er branch of the poultry business that offers greater 
mducemeqts to a beginner, and it admits developing 
all other branches, as he adapts himself to the work. 

If we examine into the history of mo.st of our suc- 
cessful egg-farms, we find fhat they are the results 
of a small beginning, developing gradually to meet 
the demands of the trade, and growing steadily into 
a profitable business, which has scarcely any limit to 
its possibilities. 

While it is true that the success of any egg farm 
depends upon the number of eggs which can be pro- 
duced per head, which is influenced greatly by the 
method of feeding, etc., still the selection of birds' 
from ancestors that have established an egg-record 
is one of the most important things that is to be 
taken into consideration. This selection can only be 
made by the use of trap nests, which subject has been 
treated very exhaustively under the t''tie elsewhere in 
this work. A careful system of selection, continued 
through several years will result in gi\!ng you birds 
of established merit, and which as breeders, will pro- 
daice stock that is as near to egg machines as hu- 
man ingenuity can make them. After this, the feed- 
ing becomes a prime factor in assisting you in get- 
ting the greatest number of eggs, but if the bird itself 
is not a good layer by heredity, all the feeding in the 



522 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



world canno: make her a "record fowl," 'hence our 
advice that you select birds by the tiap nc-st method, 
whicii is the only sure way of knowing what you 
have, all others being purely guess-work. 

All experiments heretofore attempted prove con- 
clusively that pullets lay more eggs than hens, hence 
the farmer should use pullets exclusively. Pullet 
eggs are not as good to use for breeding as those 
from which you will produce the laying pullets an- 
other season. Use a male bird from a hen that has 
proven her U;ving qualities. Such a bird will go a 
long way towards fixing the strain. 

We prefer the colony plan for our b^tds which has 
t'he advantage of furnishing large range and exercise. 
This, however, becomes a matter f^r ibe considera- 



in the healthfulness of your stock, and the increased 
eggs produced from 'them. 

This is no lazy man's business, yer offers to any 
good worker a handsome profit on his investment, 
an mdependent life, with plenty of outdoor work, and 
health and b;;ppiness as a consequence. 

THE EGG BUSINESS. 

The market price of eggs during the past seasons, 
more particular during the winter months, has been 
such as to tun: the attention of many to this branch 
of the poultry business as offering tlie quickest and 
most profitable results, with greater clianres for suc- 
cess. Considering; the fact that it is a business from 











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Fig. 22. — Partial View of tiie Poultry Houses and Yards at West Virginia E^xperiment Staiion. 



tion of each individual's environments, and if the 
birds are to be yarded, as large a run should be given 
them as possible. In this case it is necessary to feed 
all grain in litter to induce exercise, without which 
best results are not obtainable. 

As regards the kind of house, this subject has been 
fully treated clsew'here in this book, and will convey 
a very good idea of the different styles of buildings 
adapted to ihe business. 

All rules of cleanliness must be carefulh observed, 
as much so in this line of poultry culture as any oth- 
er. Fowls cannot do their owner justice Tf lice and 
vermin thrive; and filthy quarters are a most fruitful 
source of disease and vermin. Chicken houses should 
be cleaned regularly, the accumulated droppings re- 
moved and appdied to the land used for crops, and the 
work necessary to do this will be greatly compensat- 
ed for in t'he increase of the yield of grain, as well as 



which a steady income is possible all the year round, 
it offers extra inducements to those of limited means 
w'ho can not wait over-long for the mcome to begin. 

The inexperienced often make the mistake of fig- 
uring too largely, basing their calculations too often 
on the misleading statements of catalogue writers 
and would-be poultry experts who never raised a bird 
in their lives. The 200-egg hen was an unheard of 
proposftion not many years ago, but piclc up a poul- 
try journal .ind go through the advertisements to-day 
and you will find hundreds of reputablef?) breeders 
ach-ertising stock and eggs of this 200 and 250-egg 
strain anywhere from $1 to $5 per setting. It is an 
easv matter to figure a fine profit on the basis of 200 
eggs per hen per annum, and this the enthusiastic be- 
ginner is more than apt to do, and wdien, therefore, 
he realizes only 100 eggs per hen cr less and his 
dream of fabulous wealth goes glimmering and the 



Hired Help Cannot be Depended on With Poultry V^ry Much. 



523 



reality forces itself upon him, too oft^:;i when too late 
his little earnings 'have sunk with hi,-, venture. 

It is more reasonable to figure on an average of 25 
cents per dozen than to select layers that will yield 
200 eggs per year. One hundred and twenty eggs are 
nearer what you will get, and this .average is only 
possible in large flocks under systeir.atic feeding and 
with care and cleanliness observed. To realize 25 
cents one must have access to a good market, or 
have acquired a reputation for his product that will 
command him a premium over the regular market 
quotations. 

One collar per head, thoug'h being generally allow- 
ed as the cost of feeding a fowl for a year, will hard- 
ly be sufficient with feed at its present prices — $1.50 
would be nearer the mark. So we see that with a 
flock averaging 10 doze-i eggs per annum and these 




Fig. 23. — Winner 1st prizes at Winston and Raleigh, N. C, 
1902. Owned by Cliickadotte Farm, Rural Hall, N. C. 

bringing $2.50, from which the feeding takes $1.50, 
leaves us a profit of $1.00 per head, providing we 
have no other losses to take from t'hese figures. 

The novice will be content to figure an this basis, 
and get great consolation from it, for if 100 hens will 
earn him $100 net. won't 1,000 earn him $1,000? Here 
is where he strikes a snag, for no beginner, and few 
older breeders, can make i.ooo pay the same propor- 
tion as the smaller number. So many things enter 
into this arrangement to cut down the profits that 
it is always best to take up the business on a small 
scale and work up to larger proportions. If any one 



thinks they have a flock of the 200-egg hens, you may 
dissipate this illusion by trap-nesting what you con- 
sider your best layers. Even the 200-egg hen can 
not be relied upon to reproduce chicks that will aver- 
age this number, so that when you purchase and pay 
for the reputation some breeder has made on a few 
birds, don't feel assured of what you have bought 
until the trap-nest has proven the fact. 

THE CARE OF BREEDING STOCK. 

About the middle of December we mate our birds 
for eggs used for hatching. lUil do not send out an 



egg for two or 



fou 



r weeks 



aftc 



rds have been mat- 



ed up, usually not until after incubating enough < ggs 
to test their fertility. 

We feed wheat, oats or cane seed in litter for 
morning feed, cabbage, turnips, beets or rape at noon 
unless t'here is ample green stuff in the runs, and the 
weather favorable to running out of doors ; at night 
we feed one evening corn, then the next evening a 
mash composed of 2-3 wheat bran and 1-3 corn meal 
to which is added once or twice a week 10 per cent, 
beef scraps. Once or twice a month after February, 
we add to this mash 2 lbs. of sulphur, or 2 lbs. Ep- 
som salts for every fifty or si.xty hens. We find that 
this keeps the fowls in good condition and in the 
spring time when cholera is apt to make its appear- 
ance, prevents it. ^^'e keep grit, oyster shell and 
■charcoal, or coal cinders in self-feeding bins before 
them all the time, also clean, fresh water. Once or 
twice a week we feed small quantities of green cut 
bone, and twice a week we feed clover hav thrown 
in the straw in the scratching room, or place it in 
little racks. We have never yet failed to get a rcn- 
sonable amount of eggs, and usually a verv Fati-i'a-- 
tory number. 

After June when our breeding pens are broken up, 
we usually let our 'hens have their own wav about 
the place, and are not quite so careful about our feed- 
ing, and feed much less corn until the hens begin to 
molt, when we begin to feed more heavilv, espe- 
cially on wheat and oats. We have tried the starva- 
tion molting process, but do not find that it is so sat- 
isfactory as some recommend it to be. With us the 
hens do better under a reasonable feed than to starve 
them from two to four weeks, and then increase the 
feed, as this method runs them down in condition, 
which takes longer to build up than it would if thev 
are fed during the time and feed more heavily when 



524 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



the hens show signs of molt. Take the hen that 
has the late brood that lives around the old garden 
or around the stable and is well fed, and she is the 
first to put on her new coat of feathers. 

The above method is not so necessary with farm- 
ers whose flocks run at large and secure a great 
many things that yarded fowls cannot secure. 

A good way to feed oats in the winter is to pour 
boiling water over them the night before and feed in 
troughs the same as a mash. With yarded fowls a 
great many things can be done to increase the egg 
production, suc'h as throwing in sliced onions, celery 
scraps, apple paiings, etc. 



every animal should get its sustenance. It was not 
intended that any animal should get its food without , 
working for it. So we can easily see the evils of lack , 
of exercise. Allowed to remain idle and given plenty. 
of feed will soon destroy the usefulness of any bird in- 
tended for laying purposes. And it will take longer 
to get the bird back to the proper condition for lay- 
ing than it would to get it too fat. Exercise is as we 
may say life to the bird, for it is only the active bird 
that proves itself an egg-producer. If we fail to. 
make them exercise they get fat and certainly will , 
not lay. A fowl too fat is liable to get some disease, 
suc'h as indigestion, etc. No need of allowing the , 




Fig. 24. — Single Comb Wliite Leghorns. 



EXERCISE. 



I wonder how many of the poultrymen of to-day 
still fail to give the fowls plenty of exercise, or rather 
to feed them in such a way that they will be com- 
pelled to work? Of course no one who calls himself 
up to the times would fail in this part of the work. 
A few will say, "Why must exercise be given ?" Look 
for a moment at the way wTiich nature intended that 



birds to get fat except when intended for market and. 
at no other time should they be allowed to become, 
fat. There is a proper condition for the laying hen^ 
to be in which can be learned by experience. To be. 
healthy and a good egg-producer the hen must be fed, 
well and yet be made to exercise enough to keep; 
down surplus fat other than that which should al- 
ways be present. There must be some fat, but not 
enough to be a detriment to egg-production. 



Do Not Let the Mites Get Started About the Houses. 



525 



Now, in regard to the way of giving them the ex- 
ercise. In summer, on the range, they will get it in 
hunting for bugs, etc., but in winter it will be neces- 
sary to keep six or eight inches of straw or leaves on 
the floor and scatter the grain in it so they will have 
to scratch to find it. They should be given a small 
amount of grain in the litter early in the morning so 
they can get to work the first thing and not stand 
around. It is a good idea to scatter the grain in the 
litter at night after dark so you will have it ready 
for them as soon as they come off the roost in the 
morning before you will want to get out to feed 
them. The first feed s'hould be a little grain in the 




Fig. 25. — ^A. B. B. Red Game Brood Cock. 

litter, then if a mash is fed it may be given along 
some time in the forenoon after the fowls have warm- 
ed themselves up working in the litter; then give a 
little more grain to keep them at work. Also give 
them green food, etc. Then at night the full feed of 
grain that is usually given may be scattered in the 
litter. Care must be taken that this last feed is given 
early enough that they may have time to get a full 
iTop before dark. It will not be too early to give it 
to them along in the middle of the afternoon, as the 
days are short during the winter, and it will take 
them some time to dig it out of the litter. — Percy W. 
Shepard. 

FEED FOR CHICKENS. 

The quiesticn of feed for chickens is one of impor- 



tance to the poultrymen, for it is by feeding that 
eggs and chickens are produced. The domestic fowls 
that receive very little attention from the farmer, that 
is, approach more nearly the natural conditions, lay 
most of their eggs in the springtime. There is a rea- 
son for this and that is the surroundings and food 
that are best suited for egg production. The weath- 
er is warm, the fowls have plenty of green food, some 
grain, a great many insects and plenty of exercise 
and fresh air. When all these conditions are met the 
fowl produces eggs. The successful poultryman will 
try to meet these conditions the year round, and let 
the fowls have a "continual springtime. Many farm- 
ers and poultrymen feed entirely too much corn. By 
some cause many people 'have the idea that corn will 
produce eggs. Indeed, until recently corn has been 
considered the universal poultry food of America. 
Experiments have clearly demonstrated that corn 
should not be fed to laying hens exclusively. Corn 
is too fattening to be fed to fowls kept in close con- 
finement. Wheat is perhaps a better food for lay- 
ing hens than corn, but since farmers in the South 
raise more corn than w'heat, corn will remain a 
standard food for poultry among farmers for a long 
time. Where corn is fed so constantly, green 
food s'hould be supplied. Oats is better than wheat 
or corn, and comes nearer being an ideal food than 
any single grain. When browned in the oven it will ' 
be relished more and aid egg production very great- 
ly. But there is no one grain, or no one food for that 
matter, that will be successful in itself. Fowls need 
a variety in their food just the same as any animal. 
Experiments have been made which s'how that a larg- . 
er per cent, of the food is digested when a great 
number of foods are fed together, than where* just 
one or two different kinds of food are used. To have 
a large variety of foods is more nearly natural and 
like the wild birds feed. So it is much cheaper in the 
long run and your returns larger to use a combina- 
tion food. .\lso, most poultrymen concede that 
ground or soft food should be fed as well as grains. 
Grain should be scattored in leaves and straw, as it 
furnishes them exercise. They need exercise and 
this will come nearer furnishing it to them than any- 
thing we know of. But they should not be fed more 
than they will eat up clean. Fowls should always be 
kept active and on the lookout for another grain of 
corn, wheat or oats. 

Most farmers do not realize the importance of 
green feeds. In the spring they have all the green 



5-^6 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



food that they want. And we remember that this is 
the time of the year that they do most of their lay- 
ing. In order to make a success in raising poultry 
you must see to it that they have green food the year 
round. Rye makes an excellent food for chickens, 
and it comes in at a time when fowls are sadly in 
need of some green food. Turnips, stock beets and 
cabbage make a good variety and are easily pro- 
duced. If you make the right kind of effort you can 
supply them with green food t'he year round. 

Fowls that are confined need some meat. Fresh 
bone that is obtained from the butcher shop makes 
an excellent food, if cut finely with -a good bone cut- 
ter manufactured forthe purpose. You can with this 
cutter turn bones into the best of food. Tainted 
bones should never be fed to poultry. See to it that 
the meat you give t'hem is fresh and not spoiled. If 
you cannot obtain meat, skim milk may be substitut- 
ed. If you are living on the coast and can obtain fish 
cheaply, you will find that they make an excellent 
food either baked or boiled. 

Cotton-seed meal is a good food. Many poultry- 
men do not realize the value of cotton-seed meal as 
an egg producer. One authority says that he con- 
siders cotton-seed meal as valuable as cut bone as an 
^Sg producer. In feeding cotton-seed meal it should 
be dampened, but it should not be wet. It should be 
fed in proportion to one teaspoonful to two fowls. 
Do not, however, feed it too constantly, -l)ut alternate 
it with other things. It should be fed mi.\ed with 
some ground feed, preferably oats, corn and wheat- 
bran in equal parts, finely ground. These soft feeds 
.should be seasoned with salt and a little dash of red 
pepper. Soft feed should be moistened with warm 
water. It should not be fed boiling hot even in cold 
weather. Do not feed moldy or spoiled grain at 
any time, although it may be bought for a small 
price. It would be dear in the end, causing bowel 
trouble, and all kinds of similar troubles. There are 
many ready mixed grains for sale, which seem to be 
the very thing needed for the scratching pen, and are 
cheaper in the end than buying separate grains. 

THE MOLTING SEASON. 

Mr. R. M. Drake has the following to say concern- 
ing the Molting Season: 

"There is no season of the year when mature fowls 
need more careful attention than during t'he molt. At 
this time the fowl replaces its old coat of feathers 



which has become worn and dirty with a year's use, 
by one that is new and clean and beautiful. The 
making of this new coat taxes severely the powers of 
the bird, usually stopping egg-production and some- 
times so overtaxing a weaker constitution as to bring 
about death. 

"Time of Molt. — The time of molting varies with 
t'he age, condition and treatment of the individual. It 
frequently begins in June or July but may not do so 
until late in the fall. As a rule younger birds molt 
earlier than older ones, and fall-hatched pullets are 
usually through with their molt by the end of their 
first summer and are ready to get to laying again. 
On the other hand, pullets hatched verv early in the 
spring are apt to shed their first mature coat toward 
the end of the fall and to be in molt when the cold 
weather sets in. Hence if eggs are- wanted in the 
early fall months when the most of the, hens are tak- 
ing a vacation, it is wise to hatch fall and winter pul- 
lets. But these should be marketed when t'he later 
spring pullets come to the nest, in November or De- 
cember. The first because they are not likely to come 
up to standard size or to be good breeders having 
l;een retarded by the winter coming in their growing 
season, and the latter because they will probably take 
a long vacation during the season when eggs are high 
and the cost of keeping animals is greatest. 

■'An early molt is considered desirable, as t'he warm 
summer months are more propitious for this change 
(if clothes and the hens can return to their laying in 
the fall when eggs are especially desirable. 

"It has been asserted that the period at which molt- 
ing takes place can be controlled. What is called the 
\ an Dresser system consists of penning t'he fowls 
pretty closely for two weeks about July ist on' half 
rations (which is thought to cause the feathers to be- 
gin dropping) and then to give Ihem free range with 
abundance of food best fitted to form feathers. It is 
claimed that this brings about an early and quick 
molt, and certain experiments reported from the West 
Virginia Experiment Station seem to sustain the 
claim. 

"I 'have been creditably informed that in a certain 
community in Tennessee a more vigorous method is 
adopted. The hens are picked and left bare to get 
new feathers as best they can. The results are said 
to be good. I should, however, be cautious in trying 
such a method. 

"During the period of molt the hens should be at- 



A Few Turkeys Will Pay on Most Every Farm. 



527 



tended to with more than usual care. Their quarters 
should be kept clean and dry, and they should be 
kept free of lice and mites. 

"In regard to feed they should have a plenty, and 
it should include some feather-forming elements. 
Sunflower seed are highly recommended at this time. 
Oats make a good feed. If it is practicable to turn 
the flock on oat stubble that ought to be of great 
benefit. A mash consisting of equal parts of w'heat, 
bran and corn hearts has given good results for me. 
Some corn should be fed also. If on range fowls will 
probably provide themselves with animal food, but if 
they do not it should be provided for them. Clabber 
makes a very good feed at this time or at almost any 
time of the year. 

"With a little attention the hens should be soon 
filling the egg baskets again and more than paying 
for their keep." 



for incubating. Before setting the hen she should be 
well dusted with some good insecticide, and given a 
nest of clean straw in some quiet place where she 
will be free from intrusion from the balance of the 
flock. A few days before hatching she should be 
again well dusted with insecticide. After the hatch, 
grease the head of each chick with lard, and give the 
hen another dusting, rubbing the powder well into 
the feathers ; then remove the. hen and brood to a 
clean coop with slatted front, and a good close, slant- 
ing top that will shed rain; put a few handsful of 
straw in coop with a generous supply of clean sand 
or grit ; this should be renewed once or twice a week. 
Attach to coop a movable pen 2x4 without bottom, 
made of plastering laths, in which the hen can dust 
and exercise. We keep the hen in this coop until 
chicks are ready for weaning, when we remove them 
to their permanent quarters. 




Fig. 20. — Winner of 1st prize Winston Fair. O'wiied by the 
Chiokadotte Farm, Rural Hall, N. C. 



Feed. — Young chicks should be fed about five 
times a day, and just so much as they will eat up 
clean at a feeding. We find that chicks do well and 
grow off nicely on the following foods, which we al- 
ternate at each feeding: Corn bread, cooked until 
crumbly, millet seed, cracked corn, cane seed, wheat, 
etc. We are strong advocates of dry feeding, and 
seldom ever feed soft food, especially to summer- 
hatched chicks. And last, but by no means least, is 
the question of water. We believe that stale and im- 
pure water causes the death of more fowls and chicks 
every year than any other two causes combined, so 
look well to it that your chicks have before them all 
the time a goodly allowance of fresh water, and our 
word for it, that with due regard for cleanliness, 
proper food, and a generous supply of clean, fresh 
water you can raise prize-winners, even in the sum- 
mer-time. Some of the finest birds in our yards to- 
dav were late hatched. 



SUMMER CHICKS. 

There are three important essentials to the success- 
ful raising of summer chicks, viz., cleanliness, proper 
food, and a generous supply of clean, fresh water; 
and taking up the subject in the order named, we will 
endeavor to present a few facts from our experience, 
together with the methods we have used and found 
to give the best results. 

We will presume that we have decided to get off 
some late hatched chicks, and that we will use hens 



LITERATURE THAT SHOULD BE IN THE 
HANDS OF ALL POULTRYMEN. 

The U. S. Department of Agriculture at Washing- 
ton, D. C, has just issued a pamphlet on "Incuba- 
tion and Incubators," by Richard H. Wood, M.D., 
that will be of interest to poultrymen generally. In 
the summary, the following rules have been laid 
down ; 

Study your incubator. 

Acquaint yourself with all of its parts. 



52» 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Read the manufacturer's directions for setting it 
up. 

Set it up carefully according to instructions. 

Never try to run an incubator in a drafty place, 
nor near a stove, nor where t'he sun shines upon it. 

Set fertile eggs only. Waste no effort upon those 
that»are infertile. 

Learn how to> trim and clean a lamp. 

Keep the lamps full and the wick and tube clean. 

Avoid smoke. 

See that the eggs are clean and dry before setting. 

Balance the eggs, large end up, a few hours before 
setting them. 

Do not overfill the tray. 

Cool the eggs every morning. 

Be sure your hands are clean when handling eggs. 

Test all eggs by the 7t'h day. 

Test again by the nth day. 

Test again by the 15th day. 

If the air space is too large, supply moisture ; if too 
small, put a saucer of dry lime in the room and run 
without moisture a day or too. 

Do not expect to learn all about the air cell the 
first hatch. You will learn that later. 

Do rot disturb the eggs after the evening of the 
1 8th day. 

Have a regular hour for incubator work. 

Do not tinker too much with the regulator. 

Get the adjustment right and keep it so. 

Heat your machine and make your adjustment be- 
fore placing the eggs in the chamber. 

Experience comes from the work itself. 

Among the many publications of the Department 
of Agriculture that are free to all, the following: are 



of interest to poultrymen and can be had without 
charge by sending reciuest to Secretary of Agricul- 
ture, Division of Publications, Washington, D. C. 

No. 22, The Feeding of Farm Animal, 

No. 37, Kaffir Corn, Culture and Uses, 

No? 41, Fowls, Care and Feeding, 

No. 51, Standard Varieties of Chickens, 

No. 59, Bee Keeping. 

No. 64, Ducks and Geese, 

No. 74, Milk. as a Food, 

No. 85, Fish as Food, 

No*. 94, The Vegetable Garden, 

No. 98, Suggestions to Southern Farmers, 

No. loi. Millets, 

No. 102, Southern Forage Crops, 

No. 118, Grape Growing in the South, 

No. 125, Protection of Food products from injuri- 
ous temperatures, 

No. 126, Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings, 

No. 128, Eggs and their uses as food. 

No. 141, Poultry raising on the Farm, 

No. 154, The Home Fruit Garden, 

No. 156. The Home A'ineyard, 

No. 182, Poultry as Food, 

No. 183, Meat on the Farm, Butc'hering, Curing, 
etc., 

No. 185, Beautifying the Home Grounds, 

No. 200, Turkeys, 

No. 234. The Guinea Fowl and its use as food. 

No. 236, Incubation and Incubators. 

A perusal of these works will prove of benefit to 
our readers, and they make a handy library for use- 
ful reference. 



Diseases of Poultry. 



By J. A. P. WOLF. 



Cleanliness is next to Godliness, so goes the oIq 
maxim. This we do know tliat cleanliness is neces- 
sary to healthfulness. Plenty of clean fresh water, 
sound wholesome food in variety and moderation are 
the best cures or rather preventatives for all diseases, 
as they keep the birds in good health and condition, 
thereby preventing to a great extent, and when con- 



tracted give the fowl the constitution to withstand 
the ravages of disease. 

CHOLERA. 

Cholera, which is a liver trouble is attended with 
fever, often very high, but easily controlled if taken 



Keep Every Thing Clean Around the Poultry Yard. 



529 



in time, by separating the sick fowls and giving one- 
fourth teaspoonful kerosene oil to each sick bird once 
a day, giving water and food only once per day. We 
find wheat is the best food at this time, although 
soft food with plenty of Epsom salts is good. After 
you have separated your sick birds, do not neglect 
the rest of your flock. Cut down your feed one-fourth 
and add 10 drops of carbolic acid to each gallon of 
drinking water. Once a day feed one tablespoonful 
kerosene oil to each gallon of mash, made of one- 
third corn meal and two-thirds wheat bran, until you 
are satisfied that you are past danger. 



COLDS AND ROUP. 

Colds and roup, the most dreaded of all diseases, 
will first be noticed by a discharge from the nose, 
usually one or both nostrils being pasted over with 
a feather, dirt or other substance by the discharge. 
This is a cold, and if not attended to will run into 
roup. The eyes and head swell, and sometimes there 
is a disagreeable odor. Birds often contract colds at 
shows, and this will run into roup, if neglected. 

Remedy.— For colds feed 2 lbs. Epsom salts in 2 




Fig. 27. — An excellent specimen of the Brown Leghorn hen. 



Another Remedy. — For 12 grown fowls taice one 
quart of meal, one large tablespoonful coal oil (kero- 
sene,) one heaping teaspoonful black pepper, one tea- 
spoonful table salt. Mix it all together and dampen 
it and place it where the chickens can get to it once 
a week and you will seldom have cholera in your 
flock. However, if they do have it make them eat 
this prescription even if you have to force it down 
them. 



gallons mash to every 30 or 40 fowls two or three 
times a week. Take equal parts sweet oil and kero- 
sene oil and inject into the nostrils of the sick fowls 
a few drops of the mixture. Use 10 drops carbolic 
acid to each gallon drinking water as in cholera. For 
'oup treat in the same way, first washing the fowl's 
lead in a weak solution of carbolic acid or strong 
carbolic soap suds and warm water to clean the af- 
fected parts. Keep the fowls in clean, dry, warm 
35 ' 



530 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



quarters and feed well. In very severe cases anoint 
the swollen or inflamed parts with carbonated vase- 
line or camphorated sweet oil. The above treatment 
will be found to be effective in the treatment of sore 
head, canker and chicken pox. Clean and whitewash 
all houses and coops and spray with water to w'hich 
has been added a tablespoonful of carbolic acid to 
each gallon of water. 

SCALY LEGS. 

Scaly legs is caused by a parasite burrowing under 
the scales of the legs. 

Treatment. — For yellow legged fowls use lard and 
sulphur mixed into a good paste and grease the legs 
two or three times per week until cured. For white 
legged fowls wash the feet and legs in kerosene oil. 
This remedy would be better for the yellow legged, 
except for the fact t'hat it fades the yellow legs and 
r'ins them white. 

CHICKEN POX OR SORE HEAD. 

This is a disease peculiar to Southern States where 
the climate is warm. The disease is caused by over- 
crowding of the fowls in the house and yard and the 
lack of cleanliness. It makes its appearance as a rule 
on the head, a small eruption appearing near the eye, 
ear or on t'he bill. These eruptions spread until 
finally the eyes are covered and the whole body is 
infested. It sometimes appears on the legs of the 
fowls. As soon as the disease appears, the affected 
fowls should be removed and the premises disinfect- 
ed by using whitewash, Bordeaux mi.xture or carbol- 
ic acid. For the diseased fowls take one part of car- 
bolic acid and mi.x with twenty parts soft soap and 
apply it on the sores and unfeathered parts of t'he 
head. This should be put on until a cure is effected. 

Another Remedy. — Take one part calomel and 
eight parts of vaseline and mix and apply to the sores 
and unfeathered parts of the head once a day until 
a cure is effected. Another remedy is to put a little 
pine tar on the sores each day until they get well. 

LIMBERNECK. 

This disease is a new one and the authorities say 
that it is caused by fowls eating maggots that prey 
on dead carcasses of fowls or animals. One author- 



ity says that when a case of limberneck is reported 
to him he always advises that all possible sources of 
deca3'ed meat be cleaned up. The chickens seem all 
right when they go to roost at night and on the next 
morning the affected ones will remain on the perch 
with their heads hanging down and their necks ap- 
pear to be broken. The head and neck are bluish 
and feverish. The fowls are very sleepy and thirsty 
and if their skins are examined they will be found to 
be red. There is no sure cure for this disease. The 
best plan is to prevent it. All decayed meats should 
be burned or buried deep especially in the summer 
time. When the disease is developed give your birds 
a dose of castor oil. Allow one teaspoonful of oil to 
each bird, mix with corn meal to a stiff mash and 
feed so that each bird gets its share. But it is safer 
to prevent the trouble than to try to cure it after it 
has taken hold of your fowls. Be careful to keep 
everything clean and do not throw the refuse of the 
chickens that you kill where the live ones will get it. 

GAPES. 

(Treated in another part of this work under same 
head.) 

Gapes are caused by little white worms in the 
throats of fowls. These worms are so numerous at 
times as to completely choke the fowls. This dis- 
ease, like most others with poultry, is not so easily 
cured, but can be prevented without much trouble. 
The pens and yards should be kept clean and dry, and 
the chickens kept in as healthy condition as possible. 
For treatment of, say, 35 chickens, take one teaspoon- 
ful of flowers of sulphur, mix in wet corn meal, and 
give one feed once a day for three days, then omit 
this medicine for three days, and then givv: it to them 
again, once a day for three days. 

Another Remedy. — Moisten a feather in turpentine 
or kerosene oil and insert in the windpipe of fowls, 
and turn it around until the worms are removed. 
This is a popular remedy. 

PNEUMONIA. 

Pneumonia is a disease brought on by shipping 
fowls in very cold weather, keeping fowls in houses 
that are not ventilated, and exposure to the winds. 
The fowls make a noise in t'he throat, droop and sit 
around with their head back in their feathers and fi- 
nally they die. The comb turns light and not dark. 



See That Your Poultry Have Fresh Water in Wini:r. 



531 



The disease as a rule kills the fowls before you realize 
that they are sick. There is little that you can do in 
treating this disease. The fowls should have plenty 
of fresh air, but they should not be in a draft. The 
house should be sunny and kept as near the same 
temperature day and night. 

HOW TO KEEP RID OF HEN'S LICE. 

There is a tendency on the part of fowls to be in- 
fested with lice. They do a great deal of harm, cov- 
ering the body of- the hen to such an extent that 
sometimes you are unable to tell the natural color of 
t'heir feathers. But by a little attention you can rid 
your poultry of lice and it will pay you to do so. 

Remedy. — Sprinkle the nests and the brooders with 
Scotch snuff or flower of sulphur at intervals of two 
or three days. Keep the hen-house and all houses 
connected with the poultry business white-washed. 

Another Remedy. — Close the house up tightly and 
burn sulphur in it. The sulphur fumes will go into 
every crack and destroy the lice. 

CHICKEN MITES. 

The chicken mite is one of the worst enemies to 
the chicken and it is very important that your poul- 
try yard be kept free from them. It is a very easy 
matter to keep the house and yards free from mites 
if you will only start in time. Dusting the house in- 
side by throwing the ashes so the house will be fill-- 
ed with dust and keeping dry ashes where the fowls 
can dust in them will keep the chickens free from 
mites. However, if they should get the start of you, 
you can rid your place of them by smoking the house 
out with tobacco. First stop the cracks and then 
burn tobacco or tobacco stems in it, keeping as much 
of the smoke in the house as possible. 

Another Treatment. — It is quite important that all 
old nests and straw be removed from the house and 
burned. Then white-wash house, roosts and every- 
thing connected with the house with a mixture of 
lime and kerosene. Then make a mixture of ashes, 
Scotch snuff and air-slacked lime, using equal parts 
of each, and take the chickens by their legs and while 
suspended in the air thoroughly dust their feathers. 
Get this dust thoroughly in them and you .should 
have no more trouble with mites. 



Another Remedy. Take an empty quart bottle 
and fill two-thirds full of kerosene and add four table- 
spoonsful of spirits turpentine, also four spoonsful of 
camphor gum dissolved in whiskey or alcohol. Shake 
well together and sprinkle the roosts, nests and all 
places infested with this mixture. This is said to be 
an excellent remedy. 

INDIGESTION. 

Liver disease or, more properly speaking, indiges- 
tion ; is the result, direct or indirect, of improperly 
feeding fowls. 

It may be that the food is not wholesome, or per- 
haps the fowls are permitted to eat decaying animal 
or vegetable matter, or oftener still the food given 
the fowls is not of the kind that they need, and is 
not given at the proper time and way. 




Fig. 28.— First Prize Wliite Plymouth Rock at Atlant;i, Ga. 

By degrees the digestion of the fowls is impaired, 
and by degrees the system gives way, until the final 
breakdown, and then it js that we begin to search 
for the cause and the cure. 

During the warm months fowls need but little food 
other than that which they gather. 

Bugs, w^orms and insects swarm over the fields, 
and the fowls enjoy them. 

Dtiring their pursuit they not only get exercise, but 
they obtain the very kind of food that gives them 
health and vigor. 

Fowls that show symptoms of indigestion, that 
droop or decline to eat, should be driven to a shaded 
field or pasture and left to seek their food as best 



532 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



they may. A few weeks of such outdoor living will 
restore them to health. 

STIFF JOINTS. 

Mr. H. B. Greer, of Nashville, Tenn., has the fol- 
lowing to say concerning stiff joints : 

It is a little singular that there should at this time 
be so much complaint about chickens developing stiff 
joints and lameness, with a tendency to sit about 
<luring the daytime, and gradually weaken and final- 
ly die. 

In my past experience, I have noticed the symp- 
toms most prominently, in inbred stock; that is, 
stock that has been bred for a number of years with- 
out c'hanging cocks, so as to infuse new blood, which 
latter is always invigorating and valuable in stimu- 
lating more active or rapid growth, and earlier and 
more prolific laying on the part of t'he pullets from 
such matings. This is one way in which to forestall, 
or prevent stiffness and swollen joints; but it does 
not help us any with fowls that are already affected 
with it. 

There is one remedy, however, which is very sim- 
l)le, and whic'h costs nothing, and that remedy is to 
be found in the scratch pile. Let a chicken scratch 
for it's living as nature intended it should, and it will 
soon limber up and be healthful and vigorous. I 
would suggest this remedy to our friends who have 
fowls with stiff joints: Fix up a place where the 
rain can not get to t'he litter, and scatter it to the 
depth of 4 or 5 inches, boarding up the sides three 
feet high, and then scatter the grain for the chickens 
in the enclosure — raking the litter about so as to cov- 
er the feed up completely, and leave it to the fowls 
to find. They will work with a hearty goodwill 
and be the most active and happy lot you ever saw. 
Do this daily, and all stiff joints will become normal, 
the combs will redden, and in a short time there will 



be music and eggs. Indeed, it is advisable to adopt 
the scratch pen now, at the beginning of the winter 
laying season, as a means of stimulating the hens in 
this latter respect. 

POULTRY AILMENTS. 

When a fowl has difficulty in breathing look out 
for pneumonia. 

When the crop is hard and unyielding there is dan- 
ger of the bird becoming crop-bound. 

When the discharges are streaked with blood it is 
time to give preventives for diarrhoea. 

When the hen seems giddy and turns round and 
round, she is probably suffering from apoplexy. 

When the joints are hot and swollen and the fowl 
is disinclined to stand, rheumatism has taken hold. 

When the excrement secreted by the kidneys, which 
is normally pure white, appears yellow, look out for 
bowel trouble. 

When the bird has leg weakness, with no disorder 
of the liver, feed lighter and give plenty of bone-form- 
ing material. 

When a bird is "going light," has good appetite, 
but passes food from the bowels undigested, it is the 
early stage of consumption and treatment is useless. 

When the nostrils are clogged with dirt and the 
eyes water, ward off a possible case of roup by time- 
ly treatment. If the case is bad apply the Tiatchet 
and bury the carcass. 

When a hen seems to drown down behind and 
goes repeatedly to the nest without laying, she is 
usually suffering from a disorder of the oviduct, and 
might as well be killed and eaten. 

When the bird seems lame and has a small swell- 
ing on its foot, remove to a house with no perches 
and oblige it to roost on a bed of straw. Rumble- 
foot is easily cured in the early stages if the cause is 
at once removed. 



Iron Vessels are Very Poor Things to Water the Chickens In. 



533 



Duck Raising. 



It has been but a few years since it was thought 
that ducks were fit for but little else than to swim 
the ponds and streams and furnish their owners once 
or twice a year with a poor crop of feathers. Along 
with the progress of the age, however, the insignifi- 
cant art of duck-raising has kept steady pace. As the 
country was first inhabited along the seacoast, duck- 
raising was principally carried on along the shore, 
and the ducks were fed and fattened upon the refuse 
fish which the fishermen couldn't use. Then, like all 



tory prices. Now, with a ranch capacity of io,ooc 
ducks yearly, I cannot fill my orders." 

The reason for his success was proper food and 
care. Thus, if they are fed upon about the same kind 
of food other fowls of the better grades are fed, there 
will be no trouble about there always being a ready 
market for tliem. 

But some ask, is it profitable to raise ducks? A 
pertinent question. Is it profitable to raise anything 
the people demand? The demand for a thing is 




Fig. 29. — ^Pair of Muscovey Ducks. 



the scrub stock of years ago, the ducks were brought 
through on as clean, scanty fare as possible, render- 
ing their flesh coarse and fishy and wholly unpalata- 
ble to most people. But later years and proper care 
and feeding have made the duck more delicious food 
than either turkey, chicken or goose, while the de- 
mand is constantly increasing for this splendid bird. 
A noted duck-raiser's experience fully proves this 
statement. He says: 

"About twelve years ago, when I was growing less 
than 1,500 ducks a year, I was obliged to visit the 
city markets personally and tease the dealers to pur- 
chase my birds in order to get anything like satisfac- ■ 



bound to make its production profitable. But that 
crop which is the most largely produced is not al- 
ways the most profitable. Crowding the market is 
one of the most dangerous calamities to producers. 
If a man raises nothing but cattle and corn, he is 
sure to go under with all he has if every other man 
does the same. The same with cotton-growing or 
any other crop. Now, it is very seldom the market 
is over-crowded with poultry of any kind, much less 
with ducks. 

Occasionally the market is full up with chickens; 
sometimes turkeys are a little slow selling, but this is 
seldom, if ever, true of ducks. Why is this? Is it 



534 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



because there is not sufificient profit in raising ducks? 
Not at all. I have personally made the rounds of the 
markets lately, and to my utter astonishment could 
find but very few ducks on sale. I asked dealers why 
they had so few of them on their counters with other 
dressed poultry, and if they were not salable. With- 
out an exception I was told there was a ready sale 
for ducks, but they could not get them except in 
smaJl lots, for there were few to be had, and that 
they would gladly pay 15 cents per pound and pos- 
sibly more. 

It is estimated that it costs 5 cents per pound to 
raise a duck. Early ducks sell readily at from 20 to 
40 cents per pound, but taking the minimum price. 15 
cents, will give a profit of 200 per cent. Ducks will 
lay 130 eggs each, annualh'. The eggs can be suc- 
cessfully hatched by an incubator at small cost. 
Ducks are less liable to disease than other fowls, are 



They are hardy, the young are easily raised, and 
the cost of their feed is so insignificant, compared to 
the many uses to which they may be put, that it is a 
wonder more of tvhem are not seen throughout our 
section of the country. 

They Uve to a good old age, and as breeders con- 
tinue to be profitable, one in Scotland said to have 
reached the clearly ascertained age of eighty-one 
years, and killed by a sow whilst setting over her 
eggs. The goose sets from twenty-eight to thirty 
days, usually covering from thirteen to fifteen eggs. 
A nest should be prepared for her as soon as she be- 
gins to carry straw in her mouth, declaring her read- 
iness to lay. A goose on range will gather the largest 
portion of its food, and where there are fields that 
have streams, branches, or unused springs on them, 
they may be turned to good advantage by making 
them into goose pastures. The care and attention 




Fig. 30. — Ducks raised -witliout water. 



less trouble to care for, and can be raised at a cost 
allowing the grower a profit of 200 per cent. 

Now, we are ready to ask the ciuestion : Is there 
any other industry that will return a profit of 200 per 
cent, on the capital invested, or that can be made out 
of so small a capital as it reciuires in the industry of 
raising ducks for market? 

THE GOOSE ON THE FARM. 

We call the attention of our readers to the advan- 
tages of having geese on the farm, for there are very 
few farms that have no waste places, where they can 
roam and almost pick up a living for themselves. 



necessary for raising geese is small when compared 
with the returns, and compared with the cost of food 
used for other birds bred for market, is insignificant. 

They require only the simplest kind of shelters, in 
fact, in the lower South they thrive as well sheltered 
under trees, although any open s'hed will be a suita- 
ble place for them. We prefer not to keep ganders 
for breeders that are over three years old, the young- 
er birds being more vigorous and active, which in- 
sures greater fertility of the eggs, and young ganders 
are less pugnacious than older ones. 

An important source of revenue are goose-feathers, 
which find a ready sale at profitable prices. One 



Chickens Will Appreciate Green Food in Winter. 



535 



pound of feathers per annum is about t'he average 
yield. They should be plucked when there is no 
blood in the ends of the quills, which is easily ascer- 
tained, as they will leave the flesh without hard pull- 
ing. As a rule, t'hey are good setters and attentive 
mothers, and make their own nests, if not disturbed, 
and hatch a good percentage of eggs. The eggs may 
be taken from them and placed under hens, and by 
breaking them from setting, they will soon lay an- 
other clutch of eggs, when they may be permitted to 
set and bring off a hatc'li. The gander will stand sen- 
tinel at the chamber door of his wives, and woe be- 
tide the unfortunate who ventures near, to disturb 
their quiet. 

In purchasing stock, one thing should be borne in 



breaking them of setting t'hey may be forced to lay 
three settings, upon the last of which they sTiould be 
permitted to set. After hatching the goslings should 
be left in nest for twenty-four hours, and when they 
are four days old t'hey will be able to take care of 
themselves, but if allowed to roam see that they arc 
cooped at night. 

Breeds. — There are several standard breeds of 
geese, among which are Toulouse, White Embden, 
African, Brown and White Chinese, and Colored 
Egyptian. The latter are strictly an ornamental 
breed of beautiful plumage, but very vicious, and not 
to be kept with other geese. 

In feeding and dressing young geese for market, it 




Fig. ol. — Pair of Cayuga (black) Ducks. Tliese are good 
layers, and gi-ow oQ! quickly. 



mind, that is, to buy in the fall, so that they will be- 
come accustomed to tlieir surroundings, and be ready 
for business in early spring. Of the many varieties, 
perhaps none excel the African goose, being the most 
prolific, quickest to mature, and easiest to handle. 

If African geese are used, mate two geese to one 
gander, and you will have strong, fertile eggs. We 
prefer birds fully two years old, and they may be fed 
grain through the winter months, and will then be in 
good breeding condition when spring arrives. In our 
section geese frequently begin laying in January. By 



is admissible to place them in a pen, not large enougli 
for them to exercise, and feed them all they will eat 
up clean of the following ration: corn-meal, mixed to 
a dry crumbly state, with beef scraps added to amount 
of about twenty per cent, of the bulk of corn-meal. 

In killing and dressing for market, cut them in the 
roof of the mouth, or hit them a quick, sharp blow 
on the head. Pick the feathers carefully, dampening 
the hands at the finish to remove all the down. Some 
feathers should be left on the neck, and on the first 
joint of the wings. 

In fattening old geese, they should be so penned 



536 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



that but little if any exercise is attainable, and in this 
way t'hey lose much of their toughness, and if prop- 
erly fed are even better than the famed "green goose," 
and different from the hard, strong things fresh from 
the stubble fields. 

Best Markets. — In marketing geese, ship to mar- 
kets having a large foreign element, particularly Jews 
and Germans. The former will use only live geese, 
but dressed stock will be taken by other buyers at 
profitable prices. 

GOSLINGS. 

The Epitomist has the following on goslings: 
•'If one has the large range necessary for geese to 
roam about on, it generally pays to grow them, the 
more so in that there is a fair market for the fowls 
when their usefulness as feather producers is over 
with. Not only do the feathers command good 
prices, but the live birds, also, and especially if they 
be the white China or Toulouse variety. These, on 
a large range, will so pick up their living as to make 
the cost of otherwise maintaining them very small. 
The' point in raising geese is to get them rightly 
started. Rather than giving an exclusive grain diet, 
composed for the most part of corn, they shouM have 
at the beginning vegetables and short clover hay in 
abundance, that they may not become too fat. Gos- 
lings hatched early in the season must also be kept 
from the severe cold, for a while. On emerging from 
t'he shell they should be brought, one by one, into a 
warm room and wrapped in flannel until all are hatch- 
ed, with no food given them for twenty-four hours af- 
ter hatching; in which case the mother and her brood 
should be confined in a big box in a sunny shed for 
two or three days, the wraps being removed from the 
young when they are returned to t'he hen. The best 
time to do this is in the evening. 

Their First Feathers. — Until they get their first 
feathers goslings should be furnished with no more 
water than they need to drink, and never should they 
be allowed to go into cold spring water, as swimming 
in that will cause them to contract cramp, whereupon 
they are liable to turn over suddenly on their backs 
and die. Of course, it is not so essential to keep 
them away from water if the weather is warm and 
when the later hatches come off they may be allow- 
ed to run with the mother goose, which, as a matter 



of truth, supplies more oil to the down of goslings 
than a hen and if used for a mother will thus enable 
them to shed water better. Nevertheless, it is ad- 
visable in any case to shield the little things from 
showers, including wet grass and damp floors at 
night and not let them go near ponds or streams un- 
til they have shed their down. They should be fed 
at first on bread and milk, corn-meal, mush and milk, 
or corn-meal and bran, half and half, moistened with 
milk and water. Dry cracked corn may be given lat- 
er, also wheat, cabbage, chopped onions, and apples 
and boiled vegetables may be omitted, however, if 
they have a run on short new grass. Provided they 
are kept in yards, grit must be supplied." 

DUCKS AND GEESE. 

There are few farms that have not sufficient spare 
land to devote to ducks and geese, more particularly 
to the latter, which from now on 'till winter will get 
the greater part of their living from the range, and 
as they make a toothsome morsel when properly pre- 
pared, they make that variety in the diet which is the 
spice of life. Considering the excellence of the flesh, 
and the ease with which they are reared, it is strange 
that more of them are not found on our farms. A 
mistaken idea prevails that ducks and geese can not 
I' Tve without a pond of water to swim in, but thi.. 
is a mistake, as thousands are raised annually that 
never 'have water to swim in. While we admit there 
are some advantages where swimming-pools abound, 
it is not of such importance as to make its absence a 
barrier to breeding them with profit. 

Some few breeders find it profitable to raise the 
different breeds in their purit}-, of which there are 
t'he White Pekin, Wliite Aylesbury, Colored Rouen, 
Black Cayuga, Coloied Muscovy, White Muscovy, 
Gray Call, White Call, Black East Indian and Crest- 
ed White, all standard varieties. The demand for 
most of these is not sufficient to justify any extensive 
production. 

When it comes to geese, the co^t of raising is so 
insignificant as to make them a desirable addition to 
any farm where a pasture or waste land is to be had. 
The principal demand for them is in the large trade 
centers with a foreign element, although any native 
of our country readily becomes their admirer when 
once a prime, fat green goose is served in the proper 
style. 



Keep The Poultry in a Healthy Condition, and They Will Lay. 



537 



Among the breeds of standard geese most in de- 
mand we have the Toulouse, White Embden, African, 
Brown Oiina, White China, Gray Wild and Colored 
Egyptian. Of the^e, the Embden are most in demand 
for market purposes, the adult gander weighing 
about 20 pounds, the young gander 18 pounds, and 
the adult goose 18 and the young goose 16 pounds. 
They are not as piolific as the China geese, laying 
about 20 eggs in a season. 



As an ornamental bird, the most beautiful of geese 
are t)ie Colored Egyptian, being bred almost exclu- 
sively for show-room purposes. Because of their 
quarrelsome nature, they are not to be raised with 
other breeds, and males of the same species have to 
be confined to separate enclosures, or they will fig'ht 
until they are killed. 



Turkeys. 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT. 

The constantly increasing demand for turkeys as a 
holiday feast, more especially around Thanksgiving, 
and Christmas, has been an important factor in keep- 
i ing prices up, and making this line of poultry culture 
j a profitable one for those adapted to the work. We 
! say adapted to the work, for experience has shown 
that there are little details to be taken into consider- 
ation, which all breeders of turkeys do not care to 
I bother with, and in consequence we find many peo- 
; pie who get along very well with poultry conspic- 
'I uous failures as successful breeders of our national 
bird. 

The failures of many with turkeys in the past have 
J been through inbreedmg, and this applies particular- 
ly to our section, where the same male birds have 
been used for years, without any attempt at intro- 
ducing new blood. While it has been stated by 
some authorities that the w'ld turkey of this coun- 
try would not breed with our domestic birds, many 
of our Southern breeders know better, having intro- 
duced them to their flocks, always with the best re- 
sults, and through so doing succeeded in increasing 
their vigor, supplying rich, new, vigorous blood and 
building up stock that had deteriorated through care- 
lessness and inattention, thereby benefiting the tur- 
key-raising industry of our country. 

In many sections of the country the people have 
become so disheartened, that no attempt is now made 
to breed turkeys, ascribing the causes of failure to 
anything but the right one, not realizing that it was 
due to undermining the breeding of stock through in- 
breeding that caused disaster and loss. If there is 



anything necessary to emphasize the necessity for 
the introduction of new blood, we need only to look 
to the successful breeders, and wherever you find one 
you will find him or her working carefully after the 
little details and bringing new blood into the flock 
either through the purchase regularly of male birds 
not related, or using birds from eggs of wild stock 
that have been found and incubated. With the many 
advantages the South offers for successful turkey- 
raising, we see little reason why the average breeder 
of poultry should not succeed with them, if they will 
follow along the line of advice we shall give. The 
idea is to raise the best, and with a good demand the 
past season in the big markets with prices ranging 
up to thirty cents a pound, you have some idea of the 
public's willingness to pay a good price for the best. 

As regards the profits that can be made per head 
on turkeys, if we can eliminate the great losses that 
have hitherto been such a drain upon the industry, 
you will find that your flocks will average you great- 
er profit than other poultry. They will, after six 
weeks of age, gain the greater part of their living in 
the fields and woods, eating bugs, grasshoppers, and 
waste grain that they pick up in their wanderings 
over the range, with little or no cost to the grower. 
If sufficient range is provided they become almost 
self-sustaining. 

The greater and more general the use of the flesh, 
the greater the chances for profit in raising them. 
There are few up-to-date restaurants, hotels, etc., that 
do not use them constantly as cold cuts for sand- 
wiches and for salads, to say nothing of the great de- 
mand for roasters, and late hatched poults for broil- 
ers. 



53» 



T11.1.11MU THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



The preferred weights for market are from four- 
teen to twenty pounds. An extra large bird is not as 
much in demand as those averaging as stated. The 
idea is to mature your birds within the shortest pos- 
sible time, which can be done readily if proper care 
and attention be given. 

In the selection and treatment of breeding stock 
there are rules that must be followed if one hopes to 
succeed, and the one that must be observed above all 
others, is the introduction of new blood. Without 



The male should be a yearling or over The large, 
overgrown birds are not the best. An eye should be 
had to strength, health and vigor, with well propor- 
tioned, medium size. 

In introducing new blood, it would be well to send 
a long distance off for your new blood, rather than 
risk the chances of getting a bird already akin, and 
inbreeding. The bird should be secured in the fall, 
so that he will be acquainted with his surroundings, 
and his health and condition assured. 




Fig. oo. — A typical Mammoth Bronze Gobler. 



observing this, you may give every care and attention 
to a fiock without results, while with this precaution 
observed you will have overcome the greatest obsta- 
cle in turkey-raising next to that which comes from 
lice. 

In selecting breeding stock T. F. McGrew, one of 
our best authorities, advises the use of turkey hens 
over one year old, strong, healthy and vigorous, and 
of good medium size. Small ones must never be se- 
lected, neither should they be unnaturally large. 



We would have from four to five hens to one gob- 
bler, and when we consider that the male is one-half 
of the flock in the matter of breeding, we do not over- 
estimate the necessity of careful selection. Plenty of 
bone, a full round breast and long body are the re- 
quisites. No matter of what stock or breeding the 
hen may be, the male should be selected of some 
standard variety. If the hens are all of one variety, 
procure a male likewise to tnaintain their purity. 
Nothing is gained bv crossbreeding, but rather a ten- 



Laziness and Success in Raising Poultry are Enemies. 



539 



dency to bring to tlie surface the weak points of both 
sides of the cross. 

If your intentions are to yard your birds, this is 
feasible, but the larger the pens the better. Range 
is preferable and the best results can only be obtain- 
ed in this way. Care should be taken that the breed- 
ing stock is not too fat, nor should they be allowed 
to go hungry and underfed. If they have the run of 
the farm where any other stock is fed, there will be 
little danger of their lacking food. They are untir- 
ing foragers, and there is little danger of them be- 
coming overfat, if they range freely. They must 



in the trees, and we prefer to have them there, in 
preference to a closed house. If the latter becomes 
necessary, perfect cleanliness should be observed, the 
quarters should be airy and roomy. The roosting- 
poles should be placed well up from the floor, and 
special care should be taken to keep the place free 
of vermih. Some of the most successful Rhode Island 
breeders keep their turkeys roosting the year round 
in trees, and in our section we think it advisable at 
all times. At any rate, no closed 'houses need be pro- 
\-ided, any kind of a slielter providing comfort and 
increasing the hardiness of the flock. 




Fig. 32. — Miammotli Bronze Turkeys. Ttie-kiad that they breed 
in Sunny Tennessee. 



have plenty of fresh water, also grit and shell-form- 
ing material. 

In mating, it is quite unusual for the male to pair 
I with t'he female more than once for a clutch of eggs, 
and hens will wander miles, if necessary, for this pur- 
pose. 

It is through this habit that destructive inbreeding 
is caused, for if breeders who keep only a few turkey 
hens depend upon one gobbler in a neighborhood to 
serve, he often pairs with his own descendants, which 
accounts for the lack of vitality in the pullets, and 
the failures which too often result. 

Turkeys are in their natural element when roosting 



The limited number of eggs which a turkey hen 
produces makes artificial hatching unnecessary, and 
we prefer to give them to a hen to hatch (turkey 
hen.) They make the best mothers and are requir- 
ed to brood the poults. While hens do very well to 
brood poults to a certain age, best results are had 
with turkeys. The eggs from hens over two vears of 
age are considered best for hatching, producing 
stronger and more vigorous poults. 

In selecting a nest, a dirt foundation covered with 
some slaked lime is good. Place some straw or hay 
upon it. Lice are most destructive to young poults 
and every precaution should be observed to keep 



540 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



them in check. Eternal vigilance is fhe price of suc- 
cess here. 

The turkey hen sits twenty-seven to twenty-nine 
days, and their eggs are usually found very fertile, 
but we would be careful to give only so many eggs 
as a hen will cover readily, which will insure better 
results. She should be supplied regularly with food 
and water and should be placed where t'hey can be 
had at will. Wheat and corn are best for this food. 

In growing poults, nothing in the way of advice 
can take the place of actual experience. They should 
not be pampered and fed unnaturally, and should 
have light, room and air. Exercise is essential, but 
the 'hen should be cooped to prevent her wandering 
away with her young before they are able to stand 
it. They should not be allowed to run out on wet 
days, nor while the grass is wet, 'till old enough to 
wander with the mother and roost out on fences or 
trees. 

For the first feed nothing is better t'han very fine 
oatmeal or finely cracked wheat or corn, supplement- 
ed with a little granulated meat scraps and fine grit 
of some kind. Some of the commercial brands of 
chick feed are very good. Fresh water should be 
provided. Gravel makes good grit. Be careful and 
not over-feed, feed sparingly, yet often. Give them 
what they will speedily clean up and no more. Bow- 
el trouble means improper feeding. 

We say again then^ feed the young poults at the 
start oatmeal, broken w'h'eat and finely cracked corn ; 
as they grow older whole wheat, hulled oats and 
coarser cracked corn, and still later whole corn. 

This course of treatment, carefully followed out, 
will place the beginner on a good footing and enable 
him to overcome a great many obstacles he would 
otherwise meet with, if he was compelled to do all 
his work along experimental lines. As to varieties, 
there are several, w'hich are treated elsewhere in these 
columns, and in their selection, attention should be 
paid to their chief characteristics, so as to secure such 
as are best adapted to your surroundings. It is claim- 
ed by some that the White Hollands are less inclined 
to roam and wander off. and Ijecause of having no 
black pin-feathers are preferred as market birds. 

TURKEY BRIEFS. 

The American Bronze Turkey originated from the 
union of the wild turkey of North America with the 
domestic turkev of this countrv. 



One fecundation is sufficient to render fertile all 
the eggs of one laying. 

Inbreeding is the source of most failures in tur- 
key-raising. 

Texas leads as a turkey-raising State, followed by 
Missouri, Illinois, Iowa and Ohio. 

Rhode Island leads in the quality and reputation of 
her product. 

The demand for turkeys is constantly increasing. 

The medium-sized, plump carcass has the prefer- 
ence. 

Over-large males to pair with small, weakly hens 
is not desirable. 

It is quite as easy to grow the Rhode Island qual- 
ity as the other kind, but it takes brains to do it. 

Of all domestic fowls, none show the harm of in- 
breeding as soon as turkeys. 

Size and constitutional vigor come largely through 
the female. 

Discard the undersized birds at all times. 

Length of shank and t'high, if out of proportion, 
should not be mistaken for size. 

Full, rounded body and breast indicate value ; size 
and strength of bone indicate constitutional vigor. 
All these characteristics are of no- avail if inbreeding 
is permitted. 

Variegated turkeys are of black ground color, each 
feather ending with a band of steel gray, edged with 
black. The males of this variety run from 20 to 30 
pounds; the females 12 to 18 pounds. 

True buff color is seldom found in the Buff Varie- 
ty- 
Use 'hens over one year old for breeders. 

Unnatural size is not desirable or profitable. 

Large over-grown males are not best. Year-old 
birds or older are preferable for breeders. 

Annual introduction of new blood is necessary. 

Health and vigor in the foundation stock count for 
most. 

In all fowls, size is influenced largely by the female, I, 
and color and finish by the male. f 

The wise farmer always selects the very best corn 
or grain for seed. Equal care should be given for se- 
lecting breeding turkeys. 

The best raised on the farm should be reserved for 
producers, and the fact should be kept in mind that 
turkey hens in their second and third year of laying 
make the best producers. 

Trees make good roosting places, and arc preferred 
to close houses, barns, etc. 



Give the Chickens as Much Room As You Can. 



541 



The Bronze holds the place of honor, both for mam- 
moth size and beautiful rich plumage. 

In inbreeding, much of the richness of color, which 
the Bronze secured through its wild progenitor, is 
lost. 

As the market preference is given to the best 
grown, and best finished specimens, any variety rais- 
ed to the desired perfection will command ready sale. 

When young turkeys are suitably housed, properly 
fed and kept free from lice, they are quite as easy to 
grow as young chickens. 

Varieties. — There are six standard varieties of tur- 
keys grown in the United States, viz. : The Bronze, 
Narragansett, Buff, Slate, White and Black. The 
differences are mainly in size and color of plumage. 
Among the largest we find the Bronze and Narragan- 
sett. while the Buff and Slate are medium and the 
Black and White the smallest of all. The latter have 
been bred up recently to almost third position of 
size and the Blacks also show great improvement. 

Turkeys begin laying in the South from February, 
and in Florida even as early as January. 

Where hens are unrestrained and no attention paid 
to protecting their nests, results are not usually prof- 
itable. 

To insure fertile eggs a vigorous male bird must be 
used, as after pairing once the hen devotes her entire 
time in locating her nest, etc. Never allow but one 
male to run with a group of breeding hens, as they 
are apt to disturb each other at the time of pairing, 
and ruin an entire hatch. 

Wide range is essential for the best results. 

Watch the hens in their wanderings, until their 
nests are located. If it is advisable to remove all the 
eggs, large sized nest eggs should be substituted, oth- 



erwise they may become dissatisfied and wander and 
locate elsewhere to the detriment of the hatch. 

The hens naturally select their nests in the most con- 
cealed places, and if you find that it is not well pro- 
tected, provide a box or coop with a suitable opening 
to protect her from the weather, and also against 
"varments." 

There are several varieties, all having their al- 
mirers, but the White Holland and Mammoth Bronze 
are the prime favorites. It is claimed for the White 
Holland that they are more domestic, and less inclin- 
ed to wander away from home, and like all white 
birds, are easily picked, having no dark pin-feathers, 
which is some advantage. 

Trees are the natural roosting-places for turkeys, 
and are preferred to close houses at any time. 

Inbreeding, or using birds too closely related in 
breeding, is one cause of failure with turkeys. 

The markets prefer a medium-sized plump carcass, 
and over-grown birds are not much in demand except 
for show specimens. 

The Buff varieties are seldom seen in our section, 
and the true buff color is seldom found in this varie- 
ty. 

When young turkeys are suitably housed, properly 
fed and kept free from lice, they are quite as easily 
raised as young chicks, provided the foundation stock- 
are healthy, vigorous birds. 

Turkeys lay from fifteen to twenty eggs before be- 
coming broody; if desired they can be broken-up from 
sitting the first time, when they will commence lay- 
ing again, and may be allowed to bring off the second 
lot of eggs. 

While turkey-eggs can be hatched successfully in 
incubators, the question of brooding them makes us 
prefer to use the natural methods. 



Line Breeding. 



So much stress is being laid nowadays on line-bred 
birds that many who have not given this subject care- 
ful study are asking "What is a truly line-bred fowl?" 
and when we speak of "cockerel" and "pullet strains," 
our meaning is not at all clearly understood. Now, 
this question of line-breeding is of such importance 
and real value, that even the amateur should stop 
long enoug'h to master enough of its principles to be 



able to put it into practical operation in his own yard, 
for whatever success he may happen to have the first 
year or so that he mates up his birds in "any old 
way," there is for him only one end — degenerate 
stock. Then, when he discovers his error he goes out 
after fresh blood to restore the vitality of his impov- 
erished flock, but alas! after he has gone down, into 
his pocket for a choice bird or so — birds bred in line 



542 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



for generations, he finds that they do not "nick" wit'h 
his run-down strain, and wit'h disgust he either quits 
the business altogether or goes after another breed — 
perhaps for a like experience. 

The accompanying charts may prove of benefit to 
some — some w'ho are seeking a safe route to suc- 
cess, and by way of explanation — the circles repre- 
sent the male line, the squares the female line, while 
the diamonds show the blend of the two — our breed- 
ing base: The unbroken arrows are males, the dot- 
ted arrows are females — this explanation enables one 
to follow the charts easily. 



washed-out barring, notwithstanding other excellent 
traits; exercise a good deal of hard common sense, 
and yet the best. Number the male i — the female 2 
— (see chart No. i) — blend the two and we have in 
group 3 chicks wit'h half blood of each (ist season.) • 
Take a female from group 3 and mate to her sire and 
we have in group 4 — chicks with three-fourths of the 
blood of the male. A cockerel from group 3 is mated ' 
to his dam, and in group 5 we have chicks with three- 
f<njrt'hs the blood of the female (2d season.) 

Take a female from group 4 and mate to original ' 
male No. i and in 6 we have chicks seven-eighths 
blood of original sire, while a cockerel from group 5, 



female: 



PULLET LINE 
FEMALE "7. Jc^ 








MALE 8 / ^^ TEMALEa ^^ 



6 '--,13, 



.CASoJl ^[^fj 



~*<47>'^- -SEASON , ^ ■ 



8^ iEA50N 



St; iEA50N 

Fig. 34. — Showing 'the effect of line breeding as shown in 
the matter referring to this cut. 



Now, then, for a start, select a male and female 
with great care, seeing to it that no same serious de- 
fect appears in both, but let them offset each other 
in weak points, bearing in mind that we are aiming 
at the "standard of perfection ;" therefore, if you are 
breeding Cornish Indians and the standard calls for 
"broad heads with over-hanging brows," don't let 
both of your selections have heads inclined to nar- 
row, or if your breed is Barred Rocks, you are wast- 
ing your time if you select two birds with faded or 



maicd to original female, gives ns in group 7 chicks 
with seven-eighths blood of original female No. 2 (3d 
season.) Now a male from group 6 and female from 
group 7 gives us in group 8 chicks once more with 
half blood of each original sire and dam (4th season.) 
but if we 'have been careful in our selection of breed- 
ers the chicks should show a marked improvement 
over those that came in group 3. for by the fusion of 
blood we ought to have eliminated some of the de- 
fects of the original pair. 



Make The Chickens Scratch. 



543 



Now for our new strains, cockerel and pullet lines. 
Up to this time we have closely watched the product 
of the different matings, and have carefully noted 
where the finest cockerels came from, as well as the 
choicest females, say, for illustration, that we have 
seen that our best cockerels came from matings where 
there was a predominance of male blood, i. e., groups 
4 and 6, and the most desirable females from the oth- 
er side of the line, where the original female blood 
was in excess, i. e., groups 5 and 7, why the way is 
clear. Preserve those dominant forces by two ways. 
Take a choice male from group 6 and number him 
20 in chart 3 ; select a female from group 8 and num- 
ber her 21 in same chart. A fusion of these two will 
form a base for our cockerel line in group 22, which, 
though not mathematically correct, is to all practical 
purposes three-fourths the original blood of the male 
(No. I,) and one-fourth that of the original dam (No. 
2.) A female from group 22, mated to male No. 20 
maintains the supremacy of the male line in group 23. 
From this number on down we get our cockerels and 
cockerel-breeding females. Please note that in every 
mating here (except one) in both sides and center the 
male blood predominates; only once was it allowed to 
become one-half. In this line all the birds, male and 
female, should be selected with traits decidedly after 
the original male, except defects. 

To establish a pullet line, the same course is pursued, 
except that here (chart 3) we select the female from 
group 7 and the male from group 8, the fusion in 42 
forming the base of this line, while the line-bred pul- 
lets and pullet breeding cockerels came from 43 and 
on down. Here the inverse of chart 2 is seen, for in 
all these matings, with one exception, the female 
blood is dominant. All the selections in this line 
should resemble the original female. Now, look at 
our charts once more. Take a male from 27 and a 
female from 47, mate them together and what do we 
get in group 48? Why, as to blood just what we had 
in 3, 3-8 and 48, being mathematically the same rat- 
ings ; but after eight seasons' breeding, if we have 
used good judgment in our matings, our stock is not 
only not deteriorated but actually improved, for in 
groups 25 and 45 we should have better individual 
specimens, higher scoring birds (weight not except- 
ed) than we had in Nos. i and 2, while the chicks 
in fusion 48 should outclass those we had in 3. Why? 
Because we have fused the best traits, of two high- 
grade birds into one, thus attaining nearer the stand- 



ard. This process should be carried on in single mat- 
ings and in no case should more than two females be 
used and they full sisters and as much alike as "peas 
in the same pod." 

But, says the thrifty, practical breeder, "Am I to 
lose the revenue from my flock while all this is going 
on?" By no means: you can have choice birds even 
from the first matings, and after that as many as you 
want to make up your large pens and to sell to the 
man who wants first-class, line-bred stock ; but the 
birds in the chart-pens constitute your vital forces, 
your cream, your "royal blood," if you please. Band 
all of these last with their group numbers and care- 
fully keep your charts or you'll get all in a muddle, 
and watch your diamond groups; it is fitting that 
they should be so designated, for if you get any 
"gems" for the breeding-pen or show-room it will be 
through these fountains of blood. 

THE TRAP NEST AND ITS VALUE TO POUL- 
TRY-KEEPERS. 

F. O. Wellcome, of Yarmouth, Maine, inventor of 
"The Ideal Trap Nest," wrote the following article on 
the Trap Nest : 

For various reasons which need not be discussed 
here, the great majority of poultry keepers cveryr 
where know nothing whatever of the trap nest sys- 
tem in its best and most practical form. So my 
Southern readers need not feel that they are in this 
respect to any great extent behind the poultry keep- 
ers of New England or elsewhere. 

The practical trap nest system is as 3'et a brand 
new proposition to the majority of the poultry keep- 
ers, although it has been completely and thoroughly 
tested for years by many in various parts of the coun- 
try — especially in California — and they value it so 
highly that they would hardly know how to get along 
without it. 

The best patented trap nest and also the best "free 
plan" trap are both products of the State of Maine. 

The most common type of the trap nest is merely 
a nest box so constructed that any hen that wants to 
can enter it, but can not get out until released. If 
she lays an egg while in the box, it necessarily fol- 
lows that the attendant when visiting the pen will 
find the eggs in the nests in company with the hens 
that laid them. If each hen wears a leg band with a 
number stamped upon it — a different number for each 
hen, of course — it will be seen at once that the poul- 



544 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



try-keeper can keep a record of the product of each 
lien, just as the practical dairyman keeps account of 
the product of each one of his cows. 

Now that I have described in a general way what 
a trap nest is, I can understand how some ingenious 
reader with a mechanical trend will set about devis- 
ing a nest box fitted with a trap door which will al- 
low a hen to go in but will close after her and pre- 
vent her escape. He will very naturally do what 
hundreds of others have done ; that is, he will adopt 
some familiar type of hinged or sliding door to a box 
of some sort and arrange a string, a spring, or some 
other contrivance that will cause the trap to admit 
the hen and close after her. That will be alright 
enough for a more or less costly experiment ; a great 
many have tried it and learned things that they did 
not know before. 

I believe that I am familiar with the results of 
some two score or more of such experiments and 
most of them were failures. Althoug'h exploited 
more or less — often gratuitously in the interest of the 
something-for-nothing schemer — very few if any of 
them have ever been installed in adequate numbers 
by practical people and used continuously for busi- 
ness purposes in business blocks; which is the final 
and true test of merit. 

Something like twenty patents have been granted 
for trap nest devices and among t'hese patented traps 
are to be found the very best trap nests as well as 
the worst, the least expensive (worthy of note) as 
well as the most costly. 

One of the hardest problems that has confronted 
the trap nest inventor has been to devise a trap that 
in practical and general use would allow but one hen 
to occupy the nest at one time and would surely keep 
her there until 'her number and egg were taken. 

That problem has been satisfactorily solved. An- 
other problem, that few have considered, has been to 
so design the trap that a hen would not enter the 
nest unless she wanted to use it. That also has been 
thorougTily solved. 

Another has been to so construct the trap that the 
hen could lay and remain in the same small nest with- 
out too much danger of breaking her egg. Some 
seem to think that impossible. It has been done. 

Another problem that some poultry novices seem 
to be working at quite persistently is to devise a nest 
that will automatically record the work of each layer 
without labor or attention on the part of the poultry- 
man. Those who are honest in that effort have per- 



haps been deceived by "gold brick" advertising that 
has occasionally appeared in very interesting places. 
Unfortunately, poultry journalism 'has not yet be- 
come courageous enough to bar those humbugs that 
do so much to injure legitimate advertising, and the ' 
novices who alone invest in "gold bricks." 

Such a nest is inherently impossible, so far as prac- | 
tical results are concerned. Any nest that will mark 
the hen that occupies it and then passes out will re- 
quire much more of the time and attention of the care- 
taker — even if the desired record could be obtained 
in that manner — than would any trap nest properly 
installed. 

A little knowledge of hen nature and habits, and 
the details of practical poultry keeping would prevent 
much self-delusion in this connection. Rut I must 




Fig. 35. — Winner 1st prize Winston, N. C. and Raleig-h, N. C 
Owned by Oiickadotte Farm, Rural Hall. N. C. 

not weary the reader with details. Suffice it to say, 
we have some practical trap nests that are designed 
for and are used by practical poultry keepers for bus- 
iness purposes. 

In trap nest installation there should be about two- 
thirds as many nests as the average number of eggs 
laid daily ; or about one nest for eac'h three hens that 
are actually laying well. The total number of hens 
has no 'bearing aside from that. 

It is by no means necessary to watch the nests, 
neither is it desirable, and it is not important that 
the hens should be released soon after having laid. 



Do Not Overfeed. 



545 



llie trap nest user who is a practical person and 
has a practical installation of nests, will so arrange 
his work with his flock that he will visit them at 
least four times a day during the time that abundant 
laying is in progress. With the "Ideal" system he 
can collect and record from four to eight eggs per 
minute after he has gained practical experience in at- 
tending to them. 

Mr. Davis Lawtom, of Winstead, Conn., a market 
poultryman who has kept careful account of the mat- 
ter, says that it requires about twelve minutes extra 
time per day to attend the traps for each hundred 
l.ens in the flock. M. K. Boyer, whom every "old 
timer" knows, says that it does not take five minutes 
to look after fifty hens. 

Those who only keep a few hens and have no one 
to visit the pens during the day, can only use the 
nests as traps at intervals w'hen they can be attended 
to, using them at other times as self-releasing nests, 
the hens going and coming at will. In such circum- 
stances individual egg records that will be continu- 
ous and accurate are impossible to obtain by any 
means, unless it be an extremely small flock of hens 
that are much mixed in blood and lay eggs that dif- 
fer much in appearance. 

The office of the trap nest is to identify each layer 
and her egg at any time or all of the time at the op- 
tion or convenience of the user. It shows which hen 
laid t'he egg. That knowledge enables the poultry 
'keeper to learn which hens pay profitably fpr him, 
and which do not, w'hich lay good eggs and which 
do not. He can convert the non-layers, the poor lay- 
ers and the layers of imperfect eggs into ready 
money, retaining only those which produce good 
goods in profitable quantity. He can breed from 
good layers only, discarding those, which, in his 
opinion, would not be likely to transmit a persistent 
laying tendency and other desired qualities to their 
offspring. He can pedigree his stock if he likes, just 
as other animals are pedigreed, for he can keep a re- 
cord of the sire and dam of each and every chick. I 
would rather know the dam of the 200-egg pullets 
than to know how manv eggs that dam laid. 

In short, the trap nest assists the poultryman to 
learn all about eac'h individual hen, her good and her 
bad qualities for stock purposes, and also her breed- 
ing value if desired. 

The domestic hen when compared with other do- 
mestic animals, is a fearfully mixed up proposition. 
There seems to be no stable system of breeding, or 



feeding or caring for hens and no such thing as uni- 
formity in production than can be depended upon 
year after year. 

A practically universal lack of knowledge of the 
individual bird and failure to build upon known in- 
dividual producti\-e ability, combined with the prac- 
tice of mi.xing blood without guide or reason, is suf- 
ficient to account for the condition as it is. 

The trap nest system is practical. Those who are 
fortunate enough to own a suitable equipment of 
good traps, and are practically interested in poultry 
work, give it their unqualified endorsement. 

Some widely exploited trap nests have limitations 
which make them expensive to install and also make 
excessive demands upon the time of the user, but 
those specific faults should not be charged against 
the trap-nesting system as a system. 

HOW SOON AND LONG ARE EGGS FERTILE? 

The question. How soon are eggs lertile 'is often 
asked during the hatching season and very few can 
answer it or come anywhere near doing so. We give 
below an experiment which certainly throws consid- 
erable light upon the subject. A number of experi- 
ments have been made, but one of the most thorough 
of those experiments was that made some years ago 
by M. C. E. Spires, of Ohio, says the Farmer's Voice. 
It was directed to the solutions of the two related 
questions, how soon after the introduction of the 
cock in the pen can fertile eggs be expected, and for 
how long after the removal' of the male will the eggs 
continue fertile? In carrying out the experiment 
forty Leghorns were divided into three pens, with 
suitable runs, and males of the same variety were 
placed in the pens on February 18. They were the 
first males that had been on the place, so that there 
had been no opportunity for any previous fertiliza- 
tion. Twenty-one eggs were secured on the first 
dav, none of which were fertile; eighteen on the sec- 
ond day, with two fertile ; twenty-four were laid on 
the third day and twenty on the fourth and of these 
twelve were fertile in each lot ; twenty were laid on 
the fifth day, of which fifteen were fertile; twenty- 
four on the sixth day, of which nineteen were fertile ; 
fifteen were obtained on the seventh day, of which 
twelve were fertile ; nineteen on the eighth day. of 
which seventeen were fertile, and nineteen on the 
ninth day, of which eighteen were fertile. 

The males were removed on July i, on that day 



35 



546 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



nine eggs were obtained, of w'liich six were fertile; 
on the second day thirteen eggs were laid, all of 
which were fertile ; on the fifth day twelve were laid, 
of which ten were fertile; on the seventh nine were 
laid, all being fertile; on the eighth thirteen eggs 
gave twelve fertile; on the nint'h day eleven eggs 
gave nine that were fertile; on the tenth day twelve 
eggs gave nine that were fertile ; on the eleventh day 
nine eggs gave six that were fertile ; on the twelfth 
day nine eggs gave three that were fertile; on the 
thirteenth day nine eggs gave three that were fer- 
tile ; on the fourteenth day eight eggs v/ere laid, of 
which but one was fertile, and on the fifteenth day 
ten eggs gave two that were fertile. 

From this experiment it would seem that with 
breeding stock in good health and vigor eggs may be 
expected to be fertile after the birds have been mated 
for a week, and that they will continue to be fertile 
for about ten days after the male has been 'removed 
from the pen. 

KEEPING POULTRY IN HEALTH. 

There is no reason why we should not have strains 
of strictly hardy stock, and yet it seems to be a fact 
that contagion and a multitude of ailments continue 
to be the "besetting sins" of poultry in the hands of 
the farmer. 

A glance at the "querv departments" of the lead- 
ing poultr)- journals shows that now, as of yore, 
there are cases of cholera, roup, liver complaint, ver- 
tigo, apoplexy, scaly legs, bronchitis, canker, swelled 
head, diarrhoea, crop bound, indigestion, catarrh, egg 
bound, soft eggs, bumble foot, scurvey and scroful- 
ous troubles, and so on. "We mention them as they 
come to mind. 

Now, from past experience, we know that at least 
two-thirds of these "besetting sins" can be avoided. 
And we further know that it is possible to 'have a 
strain of strictly hardy stock. In the first place, lice 
cause more trouble than anything else. These mis- 
erable pests sap the life out of the stock, both old and 
young, niiey weaken the body, and any other dis- 
ease has. in consequence, easy prey. 

Dyspepsia or indigestion can be avoided by the use 
of sharp grit. But it must be sharp, or it is not 
worth anything. Oyster shells will not do for grit. 
neither will coal ashes. Something harder is requir- 
ed. Neglected indigestion will lead on to liver trou- 
bles. Keep the fowls free from indigestion, and liver 



complaint will be more scarce. The combination of 
life and indigestion is what makes up the average 
case of so-called "cholera." Genuine cholera is a i 
verv rare article in this country. 

Over-feeding is the direct cause of vertigo and ' 
apoplexy. The blood rushes to the heads of the 
fowls, the body becomes sort of paralyzed — death I 
suddenly winds up the case. 

This getting hens too fat ends in cases of egg- | 
bound and soft-shelled eggs, where it does not reach 
the vertigo or apoplexy stage. 

Uronchitis comes from exposure to damp or wet 
weather, and when neglected results in consumption, i 

Roup, canker, distemper and swelled head have 
their origin in some neglect by which fowls catch 
cold. 

Diarrhoea, too, follows exposure to damp, cold and 
wet weather ; and filtln- houses and runs, or too much 
green food and not enough grain, are also guilty. 

Sleeping in draught, or confinement in damp 
places, not only gives swelled head, but also shows 
itself in dyphtheria or ulcerated throat. 

Costiveness and constipation are due to continual 
feeding on dr}' food, without sufficient green stuff. 
Also to a want of sufficient supply of pure drinking 
water, or too close confinement. . 

Rheumatism and cramp come from e.xposute to 
cold or wet weather, or roosting in damp and cool 
houses. 

Leg weakness is another penalty for over-feeding. 

Bumble foot comes from flying from high roosts. 

Too close confinement, damp and muddy runs, and 
not sufficient meat or green food, are the prime causes 
for scaly leg. 

^^'llen fowls are sick they should at once be placed 
in warm, dry quarters. Colds, roup, dyphtheria, diar- 
rhoea, cholera and scaly legs are contagious, and 
should never be allowed in well flocks. No matter 
how slight the ailment may seem, the bird should be 
isolated. 

Over-crowding is a common evil, and should be 
avoided. Nothing is gained. It is false economy of 
space. Lice more rapidly accumulate in crowded 
quarters. Filth is more sure to present itself only 
to introduce sickness and death. The vice of feath- 
er pulling. owes its origin to this condition. 

Inbreeding. — Need we say Swnything concerning in- 
breeding? Some fanciers are endeavoring to stretch 
a point by saying "No harm is done." Can any wise 



Naturally it Takes a Chicken All Day to Earn its Food. 



547 



person be of such an opinion? Can any one who has 
bred stock of any kind s'how that new blood is not 
highly essential to good health? War^ jays con- 
sumption is the disease most carefully to be guarded 
against. A consumptive strain will be a constant 
source of care and disappointment. Squirrel tail is 
sure to be reproduced in many of the young birds. 
Wry tail is also hereditary. Crooked breasts, thumb 
marks on combs, or any peculiarity in the spikes of 
the comb, white face where red is the proper color, 
is dangerously hereditary ; ear-lobes splashed or 
marked with red where pure white is a point, vultured 
hock — all these defects will be reproduced. Birds 
with malformations or anything missing, such as be- 
ing short a toe, or having any peculiarities, should 
not be used for breeding. 

So, in short, to have a good and sound strain of 
fowls, all deformities and evils in breeding fowls 
must be noted; the stock must be kept free from 
lice, have clean, warm, dry and roomy quarters ; must 
be compelled to exercise to gain a good appetite — 
and sharp grit to masticate the food. During cold, 
wet weather, the birds must not be exposed, and 
must be equally protected from the hot suns of sum- 
mer. 

Prevention is an art, and if we know the cause of 
disease, how- easy it is to check it before it starts, 
and how hard to cure it after it has begun to root 
itself. 

STICK TO ONE BREED. 

It is a hard matter to convince the beginner that 
his chances o.f success are multiplied when he con- 
fines himself to one lireed, but this fact is admitted 
by experienced breeders in every section of the coun- 
try. The uninitiated will put forth what to him ap- 
pears very good argument against sticking to one 
variety, but we have noticed that those who began 
with many breeds, if t'hey succeeded at all, dropped 
them, one by one, imtil finally the one breed which 
paid them best, received their entire time and atten- 
tion. 

The selection of the breeds depends a great deal 
upon the end in view. An egg farm would undoubt- 
edly get best results from the Leghorns, while a 
combination broiler and egg plant would prefer the 
Wyandottes, Plymouth Rocks, or some other similar 
variety. 

For the farmer there are few breeds that can beat 



the Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes, and no one 
will make a mistake in selecting either of these va- 
rieties for their foundation stock, whether buff, bar- 
red or while, this being merely a matter of prefer- 
ence. The advantages of one breed over several are 
many. A man who starts with several breeds, must 
confine each separately, and to do this requires time 
and money. It also means denying them the free 
use of the range, and although confined birds have 
produced as well as any others, the free range birds 
always show the greater stamina and vitality. 

The best breeders may tell you that their birds do 
equally^ well penned, but it is more expensive, and 
as breeders, their eggs are not usually as fertile, nor 
are the offspring as vigorous and healthy. Howev- 
er^ the fancy breeder handling several varieties, has 
usually no other recourse, but why should the farm- 
er want more than one breed? 

Mixing* them don't get him better results, that is 
sure. If he thinks so, let him select two coops of 
birds, one to be all of one color, the other the usual 
coop of farm-yard mong,rels. Take them to town, 
offer them for sale, and we venture it will not take 
him long to decide which is the most profitable. 

It is not alonu the farmer, however, whom we 
would pin down to one variety. The beginner, 
whether he is going in for fancy or utility, should 
decide on one breed. Look over j-our poultry jour- 
nals to-day, select the names of the foremost breeders 
in the land, and invariably you find them concentrat- 
ing all their time and energy perfecting one breed, 
and reaping a golden harvest in consequence. 

If you think otherwise, write to any breeder who 
through his success is entitled to speak with author- 
ity, and we think he will bear us out in our advice, 
stick to one breed. 

THE VARIOUS STANDARD BREEDS OF 
FOWLS. 

American Class. 

Plymouth Rocks— Barred, White, Buff, Black, 
Partridge, Silver Penciled. 
Javas — Black and Mottled. 
Domineques — Rose Comb. 
Rhode Island — Reds, Single Comb. 
Buckeyes — Pea Comb. 

Asiatic Class. 

Brahmas — Light and Dark. 



548 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Cochins— Buff, Black, White and Partridge. 
Langhanis — Black and White. 

MEDITERRANEAN. 

Leghorns — Single Comb Brown, Rose Comb 
Brown, Single Comb White, Rose Comb White, Sin- 
gle Comb Buff, Double Comb Buff, Silver Duckning. 

Minorcas— Single Comb Black, Rose Comb Black, 
Single Comb White. 

Spanish — White-faced Black. 

Andalusians — Blue. 

Anconas — ^Mottled. 

ENGLISH. 

-Dorkings — White, Silver Gray, Colored. 
Red Caps — Rose Comb. 

Orpingtons — Single Comb Buff, Single Comb 
White. 

POLISH. 

Polis'h— White Crested Black, Bearded Golden, 
Bearded Silver, Bearded White, Buff Laced, Non- 
Bearded Golden, Non-Bearded Silver, Non-Bearded 

White. 

DUTCH. 

Hamburgs — Golden Spangled, Silver Spangled, 
Golden Penciled, Silver Penciled, White, Black. 

FRENCH. 

Hondams — Mottled. 
Cuvecoeus — Black. 
La Fleche — Black. 

GAMES AND GAME BANTAMS. 

Games — Black Breasted Red, Brown Red, Golden 
Duckning, Birchen, Red Pyle, White, Black. 

Game Bantams — Black Breasted Red, Brown Red, 
Golden Duckning. Sih'er Duckning, Birchen, Red 
Pyle, White. Black. 

ORIENTAL GAMES AND BANTAMS. 

Indians — Cornish, \\''hite. 

Sumatras — Black, 

Malays — Black Breasted Red. 

Malay Bantams — Black Breasted Red. 

ORNAMENTAL BANTAMS. 

Seabrights — Golden. Silver. 
Rose Comb— White Black. 
Booted— White. 
Brahma — Light, Dark. 



Cochin— Buff, Partridge, White, Black. 
Japanese — Black Tailed, White, Black. 
Polish— Bearded White, Buff Laced, Non-Bearded. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Silkers— White. 
Sultans — White. 
Frizzles — Any Color. 

TURKEYS. 
Bronze, Narragansett, Buff, Slate, White, Black. 

DUCKS. 

Pekin— White. 

Aylesburry — White. 

Rowen — Colored. 

Cayuga — Black. 

Call— Gray, White. 

East India — Black. 

Crested — White. 

Muscovey — Colored, White. 

Indian Runner — ' 

Swedish — Blue. 

GEESE. 

Tonlouse — Gray. 
Embden — \\'hite. 
African — Gray. 
Chinese — Brown, White. 
Wild or Canadian — Gray. 
Egyptian — Colored. 

WHAT BREED TO SELECT. 

Many mistakes are made by the beginner in select- 
ing breeds that are not suited for the purposes which 
they are needed. In selecting breeds that are want- 
ed for egg production we should not make mistake 
in securing those breeds that are needed for .this 
characteristic. The same will apply if in want of 
breeds for the amount of meat we should not secure 
the smaller breeds. What is wanted is heavy-bodied 
fowls. Before purchasing fowls to make a start, we 
should decide what we want and what is expected of 
the breeds we are going to keep. If we want fowls 
for egg production we have a large variety to select 
from, any variety of which will pay a good profit if 
properly cared for. The Mediterranean class produce 
large quantities of eggs. These fowls are so strong 
physically t'hat they will stand much pushing for egg 
production. They are regular egg machines. They 



Study Your Incubator and Know Your Brooder. 



549 



do not stand confinement as well as most other 
breeds; if given free range their egg production will 
be doubled. The leading varieties of this class are 
Black and White Minorcas, White and Brown Leg- 
horns. The Minorca resembles the Leghorn in shape 
and style, but is much larger. This breed can be 
safely recommended to lay as many or more eggs 
than other breed of fowls. They lay large, white 
eggs. Both as chicks and fowls are very hardy, ma- 
ture early, and are non-setters. Leghorns, both 
white and brown, are the most popular of the Leg- 
horn class, and are wonderful egg producers. They 
are much smaller than the Minorca. Leghorns are 
considered to be non-setters, but 1 have had the 
Brown to set and make good' mothers. If fowls for 
meat are wanted, sel'ect some variety of the Asiatic 
class. The most popular are Black and White Lang- 
shangs. Light Brahma and Buff Cochin. Lang- 
shans should be placed in the middle class ; our per- 
sonal experience 'has taught us to prize them very 
highly as a general purpose fowl. For eggs and 
broilers they are not surpassed by any breed. They 
are smaller than other Asiatic varieties, and mature 
much quicker; they produce more eggs during the 
winter than any other breed. Light Brahmas stand 
at the head of all breeds as meat producers, t'hey are 
the largest of all other fowls ; they are good winter 
layers and stand confinement better than other 
breeds. Buff Cochins are not quite as large as 
Brahmas, but look much heavier on account of their 
being more fluffy; they are fair layers of large, brown 
eggs ; make good setters and first-class mothers. If 
you wish to raise fowls for general purposes, that is, 
meat and eggs, select some variety of the American 
class. The most popular are White and Barred Ply- 
mouth Rock, White and Silver Wyandotte. As a 
utility fowl any of these varieties cannot be surpass- 
ed. Barred Plymouth Rocks are great favorites; 
they are adapted to both farmer and fancier; they 
do well on free range or small runs. They are good 
egg producers, good setters and good mothers ; chicks 
are hardy and mature rapidly. Silver and White 
Wyandottes are the ideal farmers' fowl — have the 
same qualities as Plymouth Rock, but their chicks 
mature two to three weeks earlier than any other 
breed. 

BREEDS OF FOWLS. 
There are many popular breeds of fowls. As to 



which breed you should select, that depends upon sev- 
eial matters. A great many poultrymen advise that 
you select the breed that suits your individual taste 
or fancy the best. But to advise thus is wrong. If 
you are breeding fancy fowls, that advice may do, but 
if you are raising eggs or poultry for the market that 
advice will not do. For instance, if you are raising 
eggs for the market, you do not want to select a 
breed that will not produce eggs. For egg producers, 
you want not the large fowls that are noted for the 
meat production. Should you want a meat producer, 
you will not want a small, nervous, active egg pro- 
ducer. And there are other questions that will af- 
fect this matter. We give here the characteristics of 
the different breeds and you should study this matter 
with a great deal of care, for many mistakes are made 
regarding the breed that is selected. There is a medi- 
um class that is good for both meat and egg produc- 
ers. These are not as large as the Asiatic breed, and 
are not so good for meat producers, but still they 
grow large enough to be profitably raised. And they 
a^e good when it comes to egg producers. The Wy- 
andottes and Plymouth Rocks are good specimens of 
the American class of fowls, and the Leghorns of the 
Mediterranean. 

It will not be out of place here to insist upon your 
selecting a pure breed. Many poultrymen make the 
mistake of selecting anything in the shape of a chick- 
en. You will find it more profitable to have a pure 
breed and stick to it. Scrubs do not pay. If you are 
going to raise poultry for your family use, you can 
select a pure breed just as well as you can a mixed 
breed, or a scrub. If you have not the money to start 
out on a large scale in the pure breed, select just a 
few and get rid of your scrub stock. You do not 
need mongrels if you are going to make money out of 
the poultry business. If you have a pure breed you 
will take much more pride in them, and secure better 
results than if you had a mixed stock., 

WHITE GEORGIAN GAMES. 

This Southern B-owl makes one of the prettiest 
sights that you can see on a lawn. They are pure 
white in color, have an elegant carriage, have great 
courage and intelligence. They are now pure bred in 
the South, and are popular wherever known. As a 
farm fowl, they are excellent, producing a goodly 
number of eggs. They should be pure white all over, 
with no shade on the neck, breast, hock or tail. The 



550 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



legs have to be wliite or yellow and the beak should 
harmonize with the legs. 

GAME BANTAMS. 

The Game JJantams are wonderful birds, being but 
little larger than pigeons, but having wonderful cour- 
age, brilliant plumage, and carrying themselves erect. 
They can be kept in the yard with large breeds with- 
out any danger of intermixture, but at the same time 
they will be found masters of the yard. They will be 
found quite profitable in protecting the fowls from in- 
truders, as fhey will give due warning of approach of 
danger. 

There are other varieties of Bantams, such as the 
Black, the Cochin, the Vs'hite. the Brahma, the Sea- 
bright, and the Japanese. The Seabright is also di- 
vided into two classes, the Golden and the Silver. The 
cocks of the Seabright should not weight more than 
twenty ounces, and the hen more than sixteen ounces. 
The Japanese variety is the most striking -of any vari- 
ety of Bantams. The variety cannot stand cold 
■weather, and for that reason are very suitable for the 
South. 

COCHINS. 

This is one of the largest of the many breeds of 
birds, and is quite popular. There are several varie- 
ties of this breed, and the characteristics for several 
of these varieties are as follows: The comb of the 
cock is single, rather fine, upright and straight, stout 
at the base and tapering to a point ; the eye is bright 
and mild in expression; hackles of the neck full and 
abundant, reaching well to the shoulders and cape ; 
the back broad with a gentle rise to the middle of the 
tail, with a great many saddle feathers; the wings 
small ; the tail small, curved feathers numerous, the 
tail being carried horizontally rather than upright; 
the breast deep, broad and full ; thighs large and strong, 
covered with soft feathers. This variety still contin- 
ues to hold a higli place in the estimation of the pub- 
lic, the Buff variety being the most popular. Like the 
Brahma, they are good winter layers and being of 
good size make excellent roasters. There are four 
varieties, the Buff, Partridge, White and Black, the 
two former having the preference in the estimation 
of the public. 

LANGHANS. 
Another deserving breed, of which there are less 



shown every year, although one of the best winter 
layers of all the large varieties ; very hardy, easily 
kept thriving in confinement, and layers of dark shell- 
ed-eggs of medium size. The Black is the most pop- 
ular color, the surface of ^he plumage throughout be- 
ing close and smooth, very brilliant with greenish re- 
flections. The standard weights are as follows: Coclc 
10 pounds, cockerels 8 pounds, hens 7 pounds and pul- 
lets 6 pounds. 

WYANDOTTES. 

The Wyandottes are another American breed that 
have sprung into public favor by virtue of their good 
qualities. They are a fine combination breed, being 
good la3'ers and a fine table fowl. Under strong 
specialty club work the Wyandottes have been rap- 
idly placed in the front ranks, which position they 
will maintain. 

Hamburg and Dark Brahma blood runs in their 
veins, and in breeding the white varietv it is found 
to be a hard matter to get them free from creaminess. 
Their standard weights are: Cock 8 1-3 pounds, Cock- 
erel 7 1-2 pounds, Hens 6 1-2 pounds, Pullets 5 1-2 
pounds. 

BRAHMAS. 

This grand breed of birds deserves a place in the 
houses of more breeders than are at present 'handling 
them, but they are not found at the shows in numbers 
like in former days. They are among the most beau- 
tiful of all birds, hardy, fine winter lavers and lar.e:- 
est of all the breeds, standard weight of the male be- 
ing 12 pounds, hen 9 1-2 pounds. There are two va- 
rieties, the Light and Dark Brahmas, the former be- 
ing the most popular. 

PLYMOUTH ROCKS. 

The Plymouth Rock is an ideal fowl, and probably 
one of the most popular of all the breeds, being 
found on nearly all the farms of the country, mak- 
ing a good combination egg and meat bird. It is 
somewhat larger than the Wyandotte, not so blocky, 
and different in all sections. 

The three varieties of this breed, the Barred, White 
and Buff are all identical except in color, that of the 
Barred Rock being extremely hard to describe, and 
can only be learned by observation. Good specimens 
are extremely hard to raise, and in the Barred varie- 



It Requires Intelligence to Raise Poultry. 



551 



ty the same shade of color should prevail in all sec- 
tions, and should be barred to the skin. 

The White Plymouth Rock is fast eclipsing all 
others, plumage should be clear and white and free 
from all business, as well as creaminess. 

The Buff Plymouth Rock plumage should be a rich 
golden Buff, very light and very dark, being two ex- 
tremes that are undesirable. The same shade should 
prevail throughout every section. The cock should 
weight 9 1-2 pounds, cockerel 8 pounds, hen 1' ]-:3 
pounds, pullet 6 1-2 pounds. 



LEGHORNS. 



A breed so well and favorably known as to require 
very little introduction. They originated in Italy, are 
somewhat small in size, with yellow legs, white ear 
lobes and active and sprightly in disposition. They 
are hardy and prolific, non-setters, few of them ever 
showing a tendency to broodiness. As producers of 
good sized eggs in great numbers, they stand unriv- 
aled and on the egg farm are readily the preferred 
fowl. 



!.<>• 




Fig. 37. — ^Nomenclature Di.Tgvom of Fowl. 



0. Beak. 

1. Comb, 

2. Face. 

3. Wattles, 

4. Ear Lobe, 
5. Hackle, 



G. Breast, 

7. Back. 

8. Saddle, 

9. SacUlle Feattiers. 
10. Sickles, 

11. Lesser Sickles, 
24. Spur, 



12. Tail Coverts, 

13. Main Tail Feathers, 

14. Wing bow. 
1.5. Wing Coverts. 

16. Secondaries, wing-bay; 



18. Flight Coverts, 

19. Point of Breast Bone, 
19-20. Body and Fluff, 

21. Thigh, 

22. Knee Joints, 



17. Primaries or Flight feathers, 23. Shanks, 
25. Toes or Claws. 



552 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



There are seven distinct varieties, but the White 
and Brown are the ones that hold the favor of the 
breeders everywhere. 

They are too small to hold a place as broilers, but 
are the ideal fowl for the man who wishes to produce 
eggs for the market. 

MINORCAS. 

The largest of the Mediterranean class, formerly 
known as Red Faced, Black Spanish. Like the Leg- 
horns, they are non-setters, layers of the largest white 
shelled eggs of any breed and one of the prettiest 
fowls in the entire list. In the Black variety purple 
shade in surface color is a distinct detriment, a green 
brilliant black being the desired color. The single 
comb variety is the most popular, the Rose Combs 
not being popular in the South. For cold climates, 
the latter are preferred, the single comb variety be- 
ing susceptible to cold, owing to t'heir large comb 
and wattles, which are easily frozen. Their general 
appearance is graceful, aggressive and commanding, 
and as layers they excel many of the other breeds. 

The White Minorcas resemble the White Leghorn 
to a considerable extent, and are not very popular 
here. 

ORPINGTONS. 

We now come to one of the English classes that 
has gained marked popularity throughout the coun- 
try by virtue of their niany meritorious qualities. 
They are the latest importation from England, are 
large and stately in appearance, very full in the breast 
and in the development of the back. They are docile, 
easily kept in confinement, and a fine combination 
fowl for their stately appearance and they are rapidly 
becoming a general favorite with all who breed them. 
Good specimens are high, but the demand is such 
that these are readily obtained. 

HAMBURGS. 

In the Dutch class, we have the Hamburgs among 
the prettiest of the entire feathered tribe. There are 
six varieties, the Golden, Silver Spangled, and Golden 
and Silver penciled leading in popularity. The White 
and Black are not seen much at the shows. They are 
excellent layers of medium sized eggs, and good for- 
agers. They have been bred to that degree which 
makes them a general favorite wherever introduced. 

CORNISH AND WHITE INDIAN GAMES. 
In the Oriental games we have two that excel and 



have earned their popularity in the estimation of 
breeders everywhere, these are the Cornish and the 
White Indian. They are of English origin and pro- 
duced by crossing a low Derby Black Breasted Red 
Game with a Red Aseel imported from India, the 
blood of the -Sumatra Game having also been later in- 
troduced. They have short thick legs, large thighs 
and deep and broad breast, great width of back at 
shoulders, with comparativelj short neck. Their 
plumage is beautiful, that of the Cornish having great 
lustre, and as layers they rank with the best. 

JUDGING. 

In judging any of the Standard Breeds of land and 
water fowls, the judges either use the Score- card or 
judge by comparison. The latter system is used al- 
most entirely at all the large shows, and is gaining 
advocates even among those who formerly stood fast 
for the Score-Card system. We append herewith a 
copy of the Score-Card as now used, which will give 
the reader an idea as to what sections are considered 
by the judge in cutting for defects. 

OFFICIAL SCORE-CARD OF THE ATLANTA 
(Georgia) POULTRY ASSOCIATION. 

There are two. ways of judging a chicken, by score 
card and by comparison, the latter is principally used 
at early shows and fall fairs, when birds are not in 
full feather, and is not near so satisfactory as the 
score card, for under the comparison system if you 
do not accompany your birds to the fairs, if you are 
fortunate enough to win a ribbon or two, you have 
no means of knowing which bird or birds won, as 
there is no record kept of the particular bird win- 
ning, and you are only notified of your success with- 
out telling you which bird was the successful com- 
petitor, and a breeder, especially if he is just start- 
ing out, would like to know his best bird, so that he 
may be able to compare it with others of his flock, 
and see how many are like it. The score card system 
is much more exacting, and where a class is well fit- 
ted as the Rocks, Wyandottes, Leghorns and Minor- 
cas are at most shows to win in these classes is an 
honor, especially is this true when the judge is an ex- 
perienced man and knows his business. The ideal 
bird should score 100 points, but the ideal has never 
been attained, 96 points is as near a top notch as com- 
petent judges go, and a 94 or 95 point bird is a "thing 



A few Ducks Will Pay On Mcst Any Farm. 



553 



of beauty" in the show room (even if it 'is not much 
of a breeder or egg-laj'er.) The score is divided in- 
to sections, and run as follows: weight, symmetry, 
.condition, head shape and color, comb, shape and col- 
or, wattles and lobes, shape and color, neck shape and 
color, back shape and color, breast s'hape and color, 
body and fluff shape and color, wings shape and col- 
or, tail shape and color, legs and feet shape and color, 
so you can see that it would be almost impossible for 
a bird to be perfect in all these points, and it takes 
long and hard study for one to be able to pick from 
a flock of pen or trio to exhibit, in fact, it is almost an 
impossibility to do so without one has a copy of the 
Standard at hand, and then to go over each bird sec- 
tion hv section. And at shows where the score card 



are a yellowish flesh color. A pair of Plymouth Rocks 
with clean, bright, yellow legs is a rarity, and not 
often seen. 

In the above I 'have briefly related one or two of 
the Standard requirements of the B. P. Rock, another 
great point is color, which should be grayish white 
with blue bars across each feather, which should be 
even on all parts of the plumage, and the male and 
female should be exactly alike in color, and those who 
are breeding Rocks know how hard it is to do this, 
as nine times out of ten the cockerels are light and 
the pullets dark and, in fact, are sometimes almost 
black. Such birds would stand no chance in the 
show room, and the only way to produce such birds 
is to go "agin" nature, and double mate; t'hat is, all 




Fig. 38. — Part of poultry farm of G. B. Tliraslier, Dallas, Tex. 



is used you receive the score card from the secretary 
of the show, showing wherein your bird or birds were 
defective. The heaviest cut is for weight, for instance 
the Standard weight of a B. P. Rock cock is 9 1-2 
pounds and the specimen shown only weighs 8 1-2 
pounds, he is cut two points, one point of every one- 
'half pound he is short ; that would bring his score 
down to 98 points on the start, and with such handi- 
cap, the bird could not score over 90 or 91, if that. 
The comb on any breed is hard to get true, and on 
most scores a cut of 3-4 to 1 1-2 will generally be 
found. The comb of a Rock should be medium sizei, 
single and straight, with regular serrations or points 
five in number. Then again, the Standard says Rocks 
should 'have yellow legs and bill, and it is almost im- 
possible to produce them, a little brown or black will 
crop out on bill, and the shanks are more or less 
cloudy with blue black scales, and instead of the legs 
of either sex being yellow, the larger number of them 



the dark hens and dark males to produce cockerels, 
and all the very lightest hens and light males to pro- 
duce pullets; the cockerels from the pullet yard are 
worthless and the pullets from the cockerel yard ate 
only fit for table. 

THE AMERICAN STANDARD OF PERFECTION 

No one who raises poultry can expect to do so in- 
telligently unless he is familiar with the rules w'hich 
govern the judgm'ent of fowls, as laid down by the 
American Poultry Association in their work known 
as the American Standard of Perfection. 

This work is absolutely necessary, and should be 
in the hands of every breeder of thoroughbred or rath- 
er standard-bred fowls. It is a valuable aid to the 
beginner and an essential to the older breeder, and so 
far the new edition has already passed flie 10,000 
mark in copies sold. 



554 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE 



It fully covers the ground which every breeder has 
to know, in order to breed fowls intelligent!}', gives a 
full description of all the breeds recognized in the 
Standard, and defines and illustrates the various sec- 
tions of the bird, gives a glossary of technical terms, 
general disqualifications, etc. 

A full description, with illustrations of all the 
breeds are given and with this work in hand any one 
can soon familiarize himself with the rules, so that 
he can score his birds with a certainty and satisfac- 
tion. 

A STUDY OF THE POINTS OF FOWLS'NEC- 
ESSARY. 

If you are going to raise poultry, especially fancy 
poultry, you must -make a close study of the makeup 
of fowls. You must not only know the physical char- 
acteristics of fowls, but you must have a close dis- 
crimination for the various feathers, markings and 
characteristics, for these are quite important especial- 
ly with fancy breeders. 

SEASONABLE HINTS. 

Do not permit the old fowls to have access to the 
same inclosure in which your brooder c'hicks are 
kept, nor mix the chicks reared under hens with those 
that come from the incubator, as lice and mites are 
often thus communicated to the detriment of the 
entire flock. 

Chicks hatched in incubators are free from vermin, 
provided you have kept the machine clean, but all 
this is of no .avail if the chicks from a lousy hen have 
access to these ouarters. 

The beginner 'having a lot of breeding stock to pur- 
chase in getting his foundation slock, is bound to get 
some birds inferior to others, birds that it would pay 
him to cull out entirely. It is imperative to start with 
young stock, preferably pullets headed by vigorous 
matured males, and by doing so you Avill liave less 
occasion for losses, and with care and attention yotir 
profit will commence the first season. 

The old notion that old hens would produce better 
and stronger chicks than a young 'hen, has long since 
been exploded. Pullets with a vigorous cock bird is 
the wa)^ to mate for strong healthy offspring. 

Culling is one of the most impoTtant requisites in 
successful poultry breeding. It takes more to weed 



out everything in the Hock that should go, but it pays 
ni the end- 

An egg-eating or feather-pulling hen ; no matter 
how fine a bird or how excellent a layer; should be 
killed and marketed at once. Besides teaching the 
vice to others she will in a short while eat up more 
tiian her worth in eggs. 

The hen that develops a mania for broodiness is all 
right in that particular line, but in no other, and should 
l.^e promptly disposed, of Likewise, the lazy hen 
that lingers on the roost late in the day, cull out and 
replace with others or fewer hens, but have them 
good, which means profit. Any ot'her means loss and 
disappointment. 

One of the great secrets of success in profitable poul- 
try keeping is the prompt isolation of droopy or sick 
fowls from the flock, and the killing and burning of 
diseased fowls, as soon as discovered where the case 
seems beyond cure. 

The bird must indeed be a valualde one to warrant 
the breeder in risking the balance of his flock in the 
attempt to cure. Every well-regulated poultry estab- 
lishment should have its quarantine and it will many 
times re'pay the cost oif construction, and insure 
against spread of contagion from diseased birds. 

The man who succeeds with poultry is usually a 
close observer an.d critically examines his birds on 
ever}' occasion. A visit to the hen house at night will 
eventually impress you with its importance. 

If you 'hear any wheezing or sneezing or see any 
shaking of head, take these birds in hand at once- 
Few who make a practice of visiting the houses at 
night have occasion to complain of spread of conta- 
gion, as by this process we are enabled to nip in the 
bud any disease with which the birds became affected. 

Avoid damaged and musty grain, and feed no carris 
or tainted meats. The meat scrap should be sweet 
and fresh, and the grain good and sound. Have the 
water fresh and clean, cool in summer and not froz- 
en in winter. Supply grit, also lime in some shape, 
such as crushed oyster shells, plaster, rubbish or its 
equivalent, and granulated or broken charcoal contin- 
uousl_y. 

Of equal importance are comfortable and clean 
quarters. You may observe all other rules and still 
fail if you neglect to protect 3^our fowls against lice 
and mites, tainted ground and draughty houses- One 
of the villainous practices which are still observed by 
unscrupulous breeders, is the killing, dressing, and 



The Man That Does Not Feed Chickens Ought Not To Eat Them. 



555 



marketing of diseased poultry. It is a good rule nev- 
er to sell a fowl that you cannot leave the head on, 
nor buy one with the head off. The offering of 
dressed poultrj- so presented that evidence of disease 
is not discernable, gives opportunity to rascally deal- 
ers and hucksters which they eagerly grasp. Just as 
some eggs look best '"scrambled" so some birds look 
best "heads off." 

One needs only to look into the dealers' coops 
throughout tne country to appreciate the luxury of a 
farm-raised, healthy fowl. The servants entrusted 
with the buying of the table fowl are often careless of 
his or her responsibility, and many an unhealthy bird 
finds its way to the table that one would spurn to eat, 
were the facts known. 

The trap nest, while not much in use in our section, 
has everything to recommiend it to our people. Those 
who use them become their firm advocates and they 
should be used by every breeder in the land. 

Fattening broilers is an art worthy of greater study 
on the part of those engaged in supplying market de- 
mands. Free range is neither essential rior desirable. 
The young chicks put on better growth and develop 
a larger frame when given the raug'e, but fully two 
Vv'eeks before marketing they can be fattened 
quicker and to greater advantage by confining, which 
causes relaxation of any of the m.uscles that have de- 
veloped on the range, and makes the fattening process 
surer and cjuicker at less expense than otherwise- 
Forcing food will do very well for broilers, Avhere the 
profitable age is short, but it is a mistake to force 
chicks intended for breeders. For these nothing is 
better than free range, sound, hard grain, freedom 
from crowding on the roost, and clean, well-ventilated 
quarters. 

The practice of feeding chicks under four weeks of 
age mash feed has its ardent advocates, but we advise 
our readers to stick to the successful tried methods of 
hard grain, which eliminates or at least minimizes the 
chances of bowel trouble, and a hundred other ills 
which follow the other method when used by inex- 
perienced people. 

The number of excellent brooders now on the mar- 
ket are the result of a demand for less death-traps and 
more chicken-raisers. Buy the best, regardless of first 
cost, as it will save yon loss of time, worry and ex- 
pense. In the South much attention must be paid to 
ventilation in the brooders. Disregard operating in- 
structions when your own judgment prompts yon to 



do so. It is safe to give plenty ventilation at all 
times, provided the temperature is kept rig!ht. As long 
as the chicks crowd they are not comfortable and 
more heat should be given. 

The brooder should be kept clean by using sand or 
earth on the floor. Dusty sand is not best, coarse 
sand is what is needed- By using a coarse comb "as 
a rake, the droppings are easily removable without 
changing the sand often. As soon as the chicks show 
an inclination to roost, get them out of the broders 
into conveniently arranged chick houses, witih low 
roosting poles, and if necessary place them on these 
a time or two, when they will take to them naturally 
and teach any of those otherwise inclined to do like- 
wise. 

DUCK RAISING FOR PROFIT. 

This branch of the ponltry business holds special in- 
ducements for those whose yarding space is limited 
or circumscribed, for the reason that ducks are quiet 
creatures. An inclosure twelve inches high suffices 
for duckling- harbors, and a two, and at the most, a 
three-foot-high fence for large ducks. 

The fence does not rgquire to be so firmly built, es- 
pecially at the base, as for other birds, ducks having 
no "scratchers," but if properly fed and watered are 
"contented in their lot." 

More pounds of ducks may be raised to the square 
foot than of any other fowl. In three months twenty- 
five ducks will market between 125 and 150 pounds 
and produce five pounds of fine feathers and do^-n. 
Ducks mature more quickly and get out from un- 
der the mother wing sooner than onr other standard 
varieties of poultry. The ducklings are independent 
little creatures. After the first month or six weeks 
they require very little attention from the parent bird- 
I have tried ducks and found them verv satisfacto- 
ry. On a quarter of an acre we annually raise between 
one and two thousand birds. The rest -of the place 
except along the river, is left at peace. 

I used hens for incubating the eggs, at first having 
five female ducks, and a drake and about a dozen 
good, motherly hens. About four hens were set at 
a time, nine eggs under each hen. In about ten days 
the eggs were tested out, the nests doubled up so each 
still held nine eggs. In this way we secured a good 
sized flock of the same age. that at about six weeks of 
age were separated from the hens, yarded and fed to- 
srether. 



556 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



Ducks need little exercise on an extended range, 
especially where preparing for market. But they need 
clean, dry bedding at night and shade from the sun 
during tlie day. and they must not be exposed to long, 
cold rain-storms. They do well in feeding from a V- 
sliaped trough and the same for drinking. There may 
be a slat running lengt'hwise through the center, so as 
to keep the birds, all but their bills out of tlie trough. 
They need a pan or box of warm sand or fine grit in 
the yards, near the feeding troughs. 

Regarding their housing or shelter. When it is pos- 
sible, a good roof is a great comfort to the care taker, 
and a floor space protected from the rains, but they 
can be raised out-doors in roomy packing boxes quite 
successfully. 

Mortality among ducklings is mostly due to over 
and improper feeding and the chilling of young birds. 
They can be fed to good advantage four times a day, 
all that they will eat up clean and quick in about fen 
minutes. The troughs should be sufficiently roomy 
to give each bird an equal chance at the food and no 
danger of the weaker being crowded away and los- 
ing the nourishment that it specially stands in need 
of- It is better to water the birds after, not before 
thev are fed. Tlie drinking vessels should be suffici- 
entlv deep to submerge tlie entire bill so the little 
fellows can squirt the water through (and thus 
cleanse out the nostrils'). Otherwise the nostrils be- 
come clogged and the birds are liable to smother. 
AVhen in this condition they tlirow back their heads, 
tumble over on their backs, a few kicks and they are 
amone the vesterdays. The same symptoms accom- 
panv indigestion and sunstroke. 

Indigestion is due to a forcing diet and overfeed- 
ing. Also a sudden chill — the change from a hot 
brooder to a cold outer atmosphere, especially at feed- 
ing time. Ducks require more freslr air, and will 
stand more cold than 'chicks. It is t'he sudden 
c'hanges and the fetid brooder atmosphere that is in- 
jurious. 

A good diet for the first week is one-third wheat 
bran, one-third brown middlings, one-third corn, to 
which is added a tenth of coarse sand or fine grit all 
mixed into a creamy mash- For fhe balance of the 
first month to the above add 5 per cent, or one-twen- 
tieth of fine beef scrap or blood meal. During the 
second luonth increase the beef to one-tenth (in 
weight nine parts of grain and one part beef) and 
add about one-fourth in bulk green stuff, cut clover, 



lettuce, grass, etc. During the last two weeks of 
the third month give one part bran, one part mid- 
dlings, two parts coarse meal and one-seventh of beef 
with same proportion of green stuff till within a vyeek 
of marketing, wdien green must be discontinued. 

Ducks will onlv stand this last high-forcing diet 
about two weeks and musit be then promptly market- 
ed, else they fall back in flesh and it is never possi- 
ble to get them up to as good weight again, besides 
the extra expense. During the high-forcing it is very 
important to watch their 'eed and keep them a little 
hungry all the time. 

THE BEST HATCHING SEASON. 

Spring is the season of the most rapid growth and 
quickest dcA^elopment of all the year. It is the wild 
fowds' and the birds' hatching tiiue — nature's own 
time. The Marc'h winds have ceased, the cold, blowing 
rains are o-'er. the April showers are giving way to 
the more settled and calm period that comes with 
]\[ay- Indeed, all Ihings are now favorable to the 
hatching of the chicks and their rapid development. 
Nearly every egg set now means a cliicken at hatch- 
in.g time, for the highest per cent, of fertilitv is now. 

There is a certain aggressiveness in human nature 
that makes us trv to do things out of season, and to ac" 
complish that whicli ordinarilv is ciuite impossible. 
That is wihy we study the methods that will make 
hens lay in winter; and the same natural bent pro- 
duces t'he artificial hatcher and brooder. We all love 
to overcome the seeminghr impossible, and to be 
ahead of t'he seasons — to circumvent natru'e, as it 
were. 

And so we rush through the hatching process pre- 
maturely, and then, when nature has just settled 
down to it. we are through. .'Vt least, the man witli 
the incubator is W'ell supplied with voung chicks 
when the trees are in full leaf- And yet it is then- — 
t'he present time, that things have just gotten in good 
shape for natural hatcliing, as we have cited in the 
case of the wild fowl and the songsters of the groves 
and the fields. 

In the spring is really the best time for hatching and 
brooding chickens with hens, because the conditions 
are so favorable for foraging. The cbickens that are 
hatched now will soon take to the range with their 
mothers and earn the greater part of tlieir own living. 
.'Knd that which is true in this respect now will hold 
good for the next six weeks followingf. for the latter 



Keep The Nests Clean. 



557 



part of April and the first half of May comprise the 
ideal hatching period; and if kerosene oil should be 
used freely about the nests and coops the young, 
chickens will suiter no setback whatever in growth 
and development. 

Let no one who has not yet taken action in regard 
to getting out some chickens this year hesitate tmder 
the impression that it is now too late, for such a con- 
clusion would be erroneous, for better results and 
quicker returns could, not be obtained at any season 
for one's work and money in the hatching line 
than in the spring. This is particuarly true of the 
.smaller varieties of thoroughbreds and of Pit Games 
■\vTiich are rapid growers, and which also develop ear- 
ly. Neither is it too late to hatch the larger breeds 
successfully. Only to-day we saw a fine young 
Barred Plymouth Rock cockerel in a breeding yard — 
a cockerel wliich wias hatched as late as July, and yet 
he is now well developed and a very fine bird. Pul- 
lets of the same mating with him are now laying; and 
yet they are good sized young 'hens, too. But it is 
notjuly yet, nor June — not even May, btrt mid-April, 
the zenith of the laying and hatching season, and we 
should utilize it fully by unusual activity among our 
fowls. 

PINFOLD'S PIN FEATHERS. 

Sometimes the hens get tired of raw vegetables, no 
matter whether given to them whole or chopped. 
Try them with some that have been cooked, drained 
and mas'hed with a little meal. A little salt in the 
food will render it more appetizing and 'healthful. 

Do not forget to put some charcoal in the box with 
the shell. The hens like it in pieces as fine as cracked 
corn. 

If the hens show any disposition to "sour crop," 
put a little cooking soda in their drinking water. 

Tlie best layers should be noted and their eggs re- 
served for settings. Keep some of them on hand 
readv for the first old biddy that will set well. 

It does not hurt a hen — if she has been properly 
cared for — ^to hatch out two settings in succession. I 
have done this a number of times when the hen 'has 
proved to be a good, quiet setter, and broody hens 
have been scarce. The hen has set the six weeks and 
then has come out in fairly good condition because 
she had come off the nest every day for food, water 
and exercise- Freedom from lice as insured by allow- 
ing her to dust and by keeping the nest clean. It is 



never advisable to set two hatches in succession un- 
less it is absolutely necessary. 

When hens steal their nests it is a pretty good sign 
that the proper nests need investigating-. Look them 
over and see if the biddies have any real excuse for 
deserting them. 

Allow ten 'hens 100 square feet of space. 
The cheap "rolled oats" is the best food for little 
chicks. 

CHICKENS AND THEIR CARE. 

Keep a record of each hatch. 
_ Never set a hen with scaly legs. 

Pullets are unreliable as setters. 

A wild hen will 'have wild chickens. 

Neglected chickens will be stunted- 
Set eac'h hen in an apartment alone. 

When the chick droops look for lice. 

Dust the hen well before setting her. 

Make this the banner vear for chicks. 

Keep the coops and nests clean. 

Be sure and set the hen in a warm place. 

Keep small grit constantly within reach. 

The fres'her the eggs the better the hatch. 

There are not positive non-setting breeds. 

Sprinkle insect powder in the nests every week. 

Leave the hen with her young so long as she clucks- 
It is not always the fat hen that becomes broodv. 

Covered runs are a protection from hawks, cats or 
dogs. They should be moved to fre.s^h plots every 
week. 

PREPARATORY TREATMENT OF SHOW 
BIRDS. 

As it takes some time to prepare a bird for sTiow 
purposes, and as we hope all our readers who have 
anything worth exhibiting intend to prove their faith 
by sending it along to their agricultural fairs, we 
have captured a few hints for their benefit. These 
methods are practiced by most experienced exhibitors, 
and there is no reason why they are not legitimate 
for the amateur's use, provided he desires to benefit 
by the experience of others. 

It is needless to say select your very finest and 
most perfect bird to put in trim. The healthiest birds 
y^iW always win, so it is needless to waste time trying 
to prepare any other. As your exhibition cock and 
hen are apt to be moulding now, and as their new 



558 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE 



feathers will very largely determine their success or 
defeat, great care must be taken to have them moult 
correctly, as well as looking to their new feathers. 
The following tonic fed to those intended for exhibi- 
tion is highly recommended by one of the most suc- 
cessful exhibitors in America: One ounce carbonate of 
iron, pulverized gentian root, black antimony, man- 
drake, ginger and flowers of sulphur ; one ounce bi-car- 
bonate of soda; fourteen ounces flaxseed meal. Mix 
level teaspoonful in each quart of soft feed. The ton- 
ic is to be fed every other morning regularly, from the 
beginning of the moulting until the bird is completely 
clothed in its new feathers. Here is the treatment 
followed by the above mentioned fancier: 

The birds intended for exhibition are placed to 
themselves in clean, comfortable quarters, where 
t'here is shade enough to prevent the burning of their 
plumage. (Rain and dampness are likewise bad for 
the new feathers, which should certainly receive as 
much attention as a delicately tinted dress). A lit- 
tle ammonia added to the drinking water is recom-" 
mended to help remove the straw color from plumage, 
but it is much easier to prevent by judicious shading, 
than to remove after the mischief is done. The above 
tonic is mixed with ground oats, bran and shorts, 
which is thoroughly cooked and fed mornings, the 
tonic being added only every other morning. (Of 
course the cocks are kept by themselves"). They are 
on grass runs, but where this is net possible, are fed 
chopped vegetables, besides receiving regular feeds 
of hulled oats, wheat, barley, millet, etc., liberally. A 
month before the date for their exhibition the birds 
are placed in fitting pens where the weight-forcing 
is begun- The tonic is then discontinued, after hav- 
ing given them appetites like hunters. Great care is 
now exercised in keeping a variety of feeds before the 
birds, not to get them "ofF feed." They still receive the 
soft food mornings, a moderate stipplv of raw vege- 
tables are fed often, a liberal supply of cracked corn 
every night, and a small feed of lean beef every other 
nig^t. Once or twice a week they must be dusted 
with insect powder, and each pen is kept bedded in 
clean, soft, cut straw. 

In putting on the finishing touches, the legs are 
■washed several times a week in warm, soft water, to 
which a little alcohol is added. They are then dried 
carefully and greased with a little .sweet oil. after 
which t'hey are thoroughly rtibbed with a flannel rag. 
As redness of the leg is to be avoided, a little oxide of 



zinc it applied to remove the redness. To give a 
handsome red face, ten drops of calchicum wine in one 
teaspoonful of water is administered daily, for ten 
days before exhibition. For comb and wattles, apply 
a little glycerine daily, working it in gently, with the 
fingers and thumb. Towards the end of treatment add 
a little alcohol to the glycerine. 

Whites lobes should be handled carefully to avoid 
reddening. To such as need whitening, bathe in 
wanm milk twice a day, and after drying apply a lit- 
tle oxide of zimc. 

The following instructions should be strictly ob- 
served in shipping: On each coop securely fasten a 
card on wihich is plainly written, first, the breed of 
fowl it contains ; second, name and address of exhibit- 
or : third, cock, hen, etc.; fourtTi, 'T.y Express." This 
will insure safe delivery, and avert confusion and mis- 
takes on the part of the =;how management. 

ROOSTER TALK. 

There is more in this subject than may appear on 
the surface totthe casual reader. There is much in it, 
because the suhiect of roosters has muc'h to do with 
the prosperity of pullets, and the pullets have a direct 
bearing on the profits of the poultry yard. 

The truth is. there are about eleven more young 
roosters in everv dozen hatched than we need. Because 
thev are consumers and non^pmducers. And. in ad- 
dition, they soon become a nuisance in the poultry 
yard, and tend to run down the whole flock of young 
.«tock by the crowding, quarreling, etc. 

It certainly does not pay to keep a number ot them 
on the place until they reach maturity. They should 
be disposed of early in the season. We 'have 'had this 
subject up before, but. as it Is a seasonable topic, it 
mav not be amiss to consider it again. 

If we will only stop to think — think what a differ- 
ence it would make in the appearance of the flock of 
young chickens, to have none but pullets, and how 
much easier it would be to force their growth then, 
and bring them to early development and laying, we 
would think luore then of clearing the yard of the un- 
profitable half of the flock. 

Let the rascals be bundled up and marketed Just as 
soon as they are large enough to eat. There is some 
profit in them then, and the advantage of their absence 
in the advancement of the pullets will add an addition- 
al profit to the season's work. 



Have You House in a Dry Place. 



559 



The exception to ttiis plan is -vvhere one has pur- 
chased some fine eggs, with a view of starting a yard 
or mating of thoroughbreds. Then, of course, it is 
best to retain all of the roosters until grown, in order 
to select the best for mating the follo'wing season, and 
for the double purpose of selling the surplus ones to 
other poultrvmen for breeding purposes. The worst 
specimens in a flock of thoroughbreds may be utilized 
to advantage in cross-mating with common hens. 
For, if of the great laying strains, they carry the char- 
acteristics of their breed with them ; and if of the large 
heavy-weight kind tliey will produce chicks, when 
mated with the ordinary stock, that will be superior 
in size and usually of quicker growth and earlier ma- 
turity than the common run. 

Indeed, it is worth our while to consider the rooster 
question from several different standpoints. 

POULTRY POINTERS. 

Lice cause more trouble to the poultryman than all 
else. 

A little oil meal will help your poultry as well as 
other stock. 

Keep the lice down, or down goes the profits of the 
poultryman. 

Season the mash you feed your hens with a little 
pepper, or ginger, or both. 

Many so-called poultry powders have but little val- 
ue except to the seller. 

Don't allcnv your fowls to go thirsty. They need 
water, especially the laying hens. 

We advocate pure breeds, because experience has 
taught Us that scrubs and crosses are not profitable. 

Lime is a verv good product about the poultry 
house. Liberal use of whitewash cannot be too 
highly recommended. 

Lime is essential in the formation of the shell. See 
that your layers are provived with a little lime, but 
not unslaked lime. 

If fowls have a good range, feeding will be light, as 
they will gather most of their living and destroy mil- 
lions of insects. 

A good mash is made of ground wheat, oats and 
corn and buckwheat, to which add a little meat scrap, 
bone meal and pepper. 

Hens muist have exercise. If they have not free 
range, give their feed in pens littered with straiw when 



they will have to scratch to find it. Scratching is ac- 
cording to their nature and makes them healthy. 

The best whitewash for a poultry house is made by 
slacking the lime with hot water. It should be about 
the consistency of soft soap, then thin it with coal oil 
to the proper consistency for applying and your white" 
wash will stick where applied and you will find it 
"death to lice." 

The infusion of new blood into the flock is of much 
importance, but be sure that the new blood introduced 
be of a high grade. 

The perches should be removed and cleaned fre- 
quentlv. Treated with a good coating of coal oil at 
each cleaning will be found the best and quickest way 
of exterminating lice. 

It is best to remove the old nest immediately up- 
on taking the brood off, and so prevent the spread of 
anv insects which might have incubated with the hen. 

Thoroughly grease with melted lard the heads of 
both hen and chicks on taking off: The hen may need 
greasing along the under side of the roots of large 
wing feathers, also. 

At little pepper in the morning feed will stimulate, 
and correct bowel trouble in little chicks. 

Never feed sloppv foods to young chickens nor oth- 
er poultry. Most foods can be crumply with corn 
meal. 

P>e sure rain ^cannot make their sleeping places 
damp. Dampness ranks next to insects in its death- 
reaping power. 

Alwavs keep drv wood ashes or dry dust and lime 
where the flock can dust at liberty. They are sure to 
take frequent advantage of this opportunity to bathe. 

Don't let the little chicks get damp or chilled. A. 
little care for the first few weeks will save much loss 
and worry. 

Don't be in a hurry to feed the little chicks. Nature 
has provided them with sufificient food for twentyfour 
hours. 

Don't crowd too many little chicks in one brooder 
or give too manv to one hen. Twelve now and twenty 
later are sufficient for a brood. 

Don't grease the little chicks, esipecially in cold 
weather. Insect powder will destroy mites and do no 
injury. 

Don't put too many eggs under the setting hen. One 
too many will often cause half or more not to hatch. 

Don't let the vounsr chicks roost in filthv boxes. 



56o 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE 



Move them around every few days and sprinkle lime 
where they stood. 

Don't let brooder chicks become lazy. Scatter 
grain in litter and make them scratch. 

Goose, duck, guinea, turkey and chicken eggs that 
are s'hipped a great distance will 'hatch well if they are 
turned upside down in the basket and left to stand 
for twenty-four hours and then put under a good hen 
or in an incubator. 

The hens prefer good nests, and when they refuse 
to lay in the poultry house and begin to deposit their 
eggs in the hay loft, the chances are that lice have 
taken possession of the nests. 

Let turkeys roost on trees until it gets real cold, as 
they do better that way than if confined to close quar- 
ters. Whitewash and clean up your poultry-houses in 
t'he fall and have everything in first-class shape and 
see to it that your house is warm and then feed right 
and vou can get eggs when they are 'bringing good 
prices. Laying hens need extra good care through win- 
ter. 

Do not feed too much pepper to make hens lay. 
Pepper is a stimulant, not a food, and should be used 
M'ith great caution. 

If vou do your part by your chickens, your chickens 
will do t'heir part by you. Tlie poultrv' business is one 
of give and take: if you give fair treatment to your 
fowls, they will reciprocate with gold dollars and plen- 
ty 0:f them. 

Fresh ground bone is a splendid animal food for 
both eg-,g production and growtb. 

Select hens that lay the greatest number of eggs, 
for your breeding stock, if you want to increase egg 
production. 

Feeding good, healthy feed together with good care, 
will require less running to the drugstores for chicken 
medicine. 

In selecting a male for breeding purposes you will 
miake no mistake in choosing the cock that carries his 
head highest, is so full of nervous energy that he 
dances on his tiptoes in strutting around, and who is 
most gallant and gentlemanly with his hens. 

Always select your incubator or setting eggs with 
care. Pick out the largest, roundest and least chalky 
eggs. Nor should a "shiny" egg ever be set. They 
are very a^Dt to prove unsatisfactory, and yoti will find 
them unhatched w'hen your hen comes off. Really 
fresh egsfs are seldom glossy, you will find. 

No fooid is better for young ducks than cornmeal 



and bran in equal parts, made into a mush with milk. 

Before being fed to young chickens corn should be 
crushed or cracked. The whole grains are unmanage- 
able. 

In arranging perches it is best to place theim on the 
same level and not, as is often done, with some higher 
than others. 

The average farmer will find it the best plan to keep 
only one breed of poultry, but of course he should see 
that it is a good one. 

When ducks get to be two weeks old they must 
have some green food, or they will begin to pine away 
and. if they do not diie, will not thrive. 

An ill-ventilated poultry house is sure to become a 
breeder of disease and debility. Fowls must have 
plenty of fres'h air or they won't thrive. 

Two-year-old hens produce the best eggs for hatch- 
ing purposes. They possess the necessary fertility 
and all the elements for vigorous offspring. 

Good cornmeal has been found to be one of the best 
of fatteners. Give the fowls all they will eat up clean, 
and rapid putting on of flesh will be noticed as a re- 
sult. 

In arranging nests, it is important that they sbould 
be so placed that the hens in getting in and out, will 
not break the eggs. Allow plenty of room, avoid 
crowding. 

While whole Avheat is an excellent food for 'hens it 
must not be made an exclusive diet. Variety is de- 
manded to produce the best results, just as in the case 
of all inimals. 

Every business requires attention to bring success 
and poultry raising is no exception to the rule. Fowls* 
especially the young ones, are silly and helpless things 
and need constant care. 

If chickens show loss of appetite, and do not eat 
their food with relish, it is a sign that tbey need more 
exercise and a change in the''bill of fare. It is the busi- 
ness of the owner to look after these things. 

To keep both the fowls and their house clean, is the 
w'hole law and the pror)ihets in poultry raising. Oth- 
er things are essential, bnt wdthout cleanliness as a 
basis there will be no permanent success in the busi- 
ness. 

The dust bath is where the hen rids herself of ver- 
min. 

The roosting perches should be so arranged as to 
be movable. 



The Poultry Yard Ought To Be In a Shady Place. 



561 



Chickens and "chinck" are certain results of good 
care of the flocks. 

A rpod dusting place for chickens is as necessary 
as anything about the poultry yard. 

Keep on good terms with your hens, for wild hens 
that are afraid of you are not desirable. 

Early hatched chicks are the best. Select breeders 
from earl)'- hatches as they are more vigorous. 

Alwavs aim to make your poultry better. There is 
much room for improvement in the poultry flocks yet. 

Good shape, graceful carriage and general symmetry 
should be well considered in selecting 3'our breeding 
stock. 

Remember that overfat hens will not lay, and are li- 
able to leg weakness and suddent death. If your hens 
are overfat, shorten the feed, espcially corn, force ex- 
ercise and you'll see a change for the better. 

Do not cease to guard against insects in your flock. 
Kerosene and crude carbolic acid are cheap, and time 
5s money where poultry are concerned. 

We are told on good authority, that perfectly 
healthy, properly fed poultry are never troubled by 
insects. The poi«on thrown out of the fowl's system 
breeds the parasites as scavengers. 

Never try rushing the hens with patent "e^g stim- 
ulants.'' whose eggs von expect to set. Egg-producing 
"foods" are verv apt to weaken the vitality of the 
e<?2"s. if thev stimulate the production. Where they 
do not they are evidently useless. 

A flock of hens are disturbed bv moving from one lo- 
cality to another and will quit laying for a few days 
upon such a change. 

Til shaped eggs should never be set. Thev are often 
infe'-tile and those which do hatch never bring forth 
the best of chicks. 

Poultry raising is not an experiment. Tt has been 
proven to be profitable either as an exclusive business, 
or as a side line. 

Cheap food and cheap remedies should he given the 
go-by. Better be sure you are right, than to feed 
something unreliable. 

Poultr}'' raising on the farm requires but little capi- 
tal and less attention because of the free range. 
Where the fowls have free range, less feed is required 
because' they gather so much food stuff and what they 
gather is best. 

Poultry culture, if properly conducted is a source of 
revenue every day in the year. A poultry plant that 
is properly managed should afford eggs all the year 



round, and if broilers are wanted they too, can be 
had at any season if the poultryman desires to have 
them. 

Build poultry houses in the South with curtain 
front mad'e of burlaps. Our wmters, unlike those in 
the North, are never so severe as to require artificial- 
ly heated poultry houses. Do not coddle your fowls to 
death. 

Cleanliness and watchfulness are the secrets of suc- 
cess in poultry raising. Keep the houses, roosts, 
watertroughs, and nests in clean and sanitary condition 
and you will not be bothered by diseases amon.g your 
fowls. Watch out for unfavorable symptoms and' re- 
member that prompt action has saved many a fine 
chicken's life. 

See that your poultry has a regular feed of ground 
bone and a plentiful supply of green vegetation, and 
you will materially increase the number and fertility 
of eggs. 

Feed plenty of green food to your fowl and they 
will pay you with full e^tr baskets. 

Clean water, clean, wholesome food and judicious- 
ly administered insures healthy, vigorous, active and 
profitable poultry. 

Many Poultry .Associations in the Eastern and 
Western States hold experience meetings at stated in- 
ten'als, to which the general pu'blic is invited. A 
timely lecture on the proper methods of poultry rais- 
ing for profit is also provided. These meetings are 
not only popular, but educational and profitable, and 
Southern Poultry .Associations could do no better than 
follow the practice of their contemporary associa- 
tions. 

Milk, \v'hether s«weet or sour, skimmed or not., and 
even buttermilk, all make excellent food for chickens. 

Keep down the lice and mites in your chicken hous- 
es. This can be done by cleaning the house thorough- 
ly every week and spraying with any of the advertised 
lice-killers, or you may use kerosene oil mixed with a 
small quantity of crude carbolic acid. Whitewash 
ever\'thing in sight, and do it at least four times a 
year. 

Keep incubators at work — there's where the profit 
lies. Early hatched chicks produce gold dollars in a 
few weeks. Don't neglect your incubator. 

Women make most successful poultry raisers, be- 
cause they are satisfied to start with a small business 
and increase as profits and knowledge are acquired. 
They are painstaking, cleanly and energetic, hence are 



5^2 



TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 



admirably adapted by nature to reap success. 

Drinking water in winter if tepid, not cold, will in- 
crease the health and eg^g-laying- propensities of the 
hens. Water must be both fresh and clean at all sea- 
sons of the year. 

A writer in the American Poultry Journal tells of 
feeding- Spanish peanuts to show poultry, with the re- 
sult that t'he fowls' plumage "fairly shone." He also 
claims it to be an excellent egg-prodncer. 

No amateur should begin poultry raising on a large 
scale, unless he can afford to throw away his invest- 
ment. One year's actual experience in rearing poul- 
try will be worth more to such a person than his in- 
vestment would amount to. 

It is simipiv wonderful how much finer poultry will 
thrive for those who really like them, than for only 
the mercenary owner. 

If you haven't bought an incubator, we would ad- 
vise you 'to begin investigating the merits of the vari- 
ous makes' at once. 

Ponltrv can stand extremes of cold weather as well 
as human beings, but they cannot live in close, damp 
houses winter or summer without getting the roup. 

Hens t'hat lack the energy to hustle micrht as well 
be killed at once to save the expense ol food they will 
consume if allowed to continue their useless lives. 

There are only three real essentials for the breeder to 
labor for, and they all add to the value and utility of 
the fowl; thev are egg; production, size and early de- 
velopment. 

It is possible to breed up a flock of fowls to a better 
(o-rr production and a larger size just the same as it is 
to t?ke a dairy herd and breed it to an increased flow 
of milk. 

One hen aliways comes off the perch before any of 
the others in the morning, and retires last at night. 
She is the best layer in your flock. Better save her 
eggs for hatching. 

Setting hens like a dark place in w^hich to cudd'le 
their brood. A piece of old 'burlap hung up around 
the nest boxes w'here they sit will make them more 
contented during tine last few days of their sitting. 

Have vour miller crack two bushels of corn, one 
ibushel of Avheat. one bushel of oats, and a half bushel 
of peas, sift out the fine meal to avoid wiste, and 
screen out the oat and pea hulls for .safety, and add 
twenty pounds of ground beef scraps. Use this as a 
dry feed for all young chicks. 

The careful selecting of the better layers year after 



year, and the use of them on!}' mated to males as care- 
fullv selected from the largest egg producers, has in- 
creased the egg yield, until to-day many flocks of hens 
average over 150 eggs each, and individual flocks or 
pens have gone as high as 180 per year. 

The nest box of a sitting hen should be large enough 
for her to move abo'Ut easily wlien turning her eggs. 
It is claimed that a sod of grass cut to fit the bottom 
of the bo.x and slightly hollowed in the middle, makes 
the most comfortable nest, and keeps the eggs at a 
more uniform temperature, while it neither encour- 
ages or harbors vermin. 

Formerly the average egg production of 100 hens 
was about 12 doz. per week; to-day it is about 20 doz. 
per week or a little better, and those t'hat do not aver- 
age so many or its proportion from their hens can feel 
assured t'hey are not getting what they should, while 
those who use the most approved methods get as 
many as 25 dozen per week from each 100 'hens. This 
is only three eggs per week from each hen, or 156 
eggs per year from each hen, not an unusual number 
at the present time. 

With cool nights and heavy dew prepare to prevent 
■roup and other fall diseases, b'urnish decentlj'' com- 
fortable and cleanly quarters — if you have fine breeds, 
especially — keep clean drinking water, and a good sup- 
ply, where they can get it. Be sure there are no in- 
sects tormenting your fowls if you are expecting them 
to be healthy and profitable. 

The following is highly recommended as an egg 
preservati\-e : A solution of ten parts water to one part 
water glass. Put mixture in stone jar and keep in 
cool, dark place. Put your clean, fresh eggs in this 
solution and keep immersed. An inverted saucer can 
be used to keep eggs under water, for it is necessary 
that they do not come in contact with the air. The wa- 
ter glass will cost from 40 to fiO cents per gallon at 
your druggist's, and t'he solution can be used repeated- 
ly- 

We are assured by distinguished poultrymen that 
the color of the meat of poultry can be regulated by 
the food. When we wish yellow meat, confine the 
fowl, and fatten principally, or exclusively on com. 
When we desire white meat — 'wdiich he claims is firm- 
er and of a more delicate flavor, — we have only to 
•confine the diets to cereals and milk. 

Remember corn is a heat producer and cold weather 
food. Vegetables and green foods are good at all 
seasons. 



Keep At Work Around The Poultry Yard. 



563 



Whole wheat placed twice a day in the little chicks' 
feed coop, will pay. 

Beware of air-tight poultry houses here in the 
South, if you do not wish to encourage roup. In ex- 
treely cold weather, the' danger of coming from such 
an artificial atmosphere out into the frosty air, where 
the greater part of their lives is lived, is much greater 
than from even leaving them to find their own lodg- 
ings under sheds and in cedars. 

Neither compel them to roost in strong draughts or 
damp places. To have them roost between two open- 
ings is bad. If one, or two adjoining sides of the 
house are of lattice-work that is another matter. In 
the latter case they will have the benefit of fresh air — 
■which seems to keep them hearty- — ^without direct 
draughts : and there will be no great change of tem- 
perature to chill them when they run out in the morn- 
ing. If they are kept warm on the inside, by plenty of 
good food, you need not fear our winters for the ma- 
jority of poultry. 

If the comb and wattles of poultry are not of a 
liealthv color is a sure sign that something is wrong: 
either in feeding, or insects. 

Dust nests, roosts and house well with wood ashes. 
by throwing it about with a short -handled shovel. Al- 
so sprinkle a liberal quantity in their dusting plaices. 
It is death to mites and is so powdery that it will pen- 
etrate everything. Where this treatment is not con- 
venient coal tar thinned with kerosene and applied 
with paint brush to roosts and crevices, once or twice 
a year, has proven very satisfactory. 

A small piece of logwood — 'procurable at drug 
stores — placed in their drinking vessels, is said to pre- 
vent cholera in chickens. A little turpentine in corn 
meal douTh has always cured it. for the writer. 
Where an individual fowl only is affected, catch it, 
and after putting a drop or two on a breadcrumb, 
open its bill and place far down the throat. Repeat 
this everv day until cured. The flock affected should 
have two or three feeds a week. 

Place all newly purchased fowls in coops by them- 
selves until sure they have neither disease or in.sects. 

Never force your poultry to Ry from high roosts un- 
less you court bumblefoot or other leg or foot ail- 
ments. This is especially trying on heavy breeds. 

Remember oats are muscle and bone\ feed, and is 
fine for growing chicks. Do not feed wMi the husks 
on, however, if procurable in any other form. 

Select your best two-year-old hens for eggs to set. 



Never set pullet eggs if you desire fine, large, healthy 
chicks. Where one has no incubator, the older lien 
makes the most sensible mother, and is more easily 
handled and managed during incubation. 

Gather eggs every evening, and take a pencil — if you 
ha\e no stamp — marking the day and month, on each 
one as you gather it. Be careful to keep these setting 
eggs where they will not become chilled during freez- 
ing weather. Where children or servants are allowed 
to collect the eggs, see that they do not shake or jolt 
them, as many an embryo prize fowl never material- 
izes-from just such causes. 

We find it best to feed setters on their nests in win- 
ter. They do not remain off so long, thus allowing 
the eggs to chill. 

Cotton seed hulls make draft-proof foundations on 
which to place straw for winter setting. We find a 
liberal sprinkling of ashes in the nest before setting 
very objectionable to all insects. 

Keep an eye on the nest when a hen begins to hatch. 
Twice a day is not too often to investigate operations 
and keep the nest clear of old shells. Many a chick 
has had its life crushed out by another chick's shell. 

Reanemher it is your spring hatched pullets that are 
your profitable winter layers. 

Amateurs should be sure the floor on which their 
incubator rests is non-shakable and solid. 

Careful people sticceed with incubators where care- 
less persons do not. 

Very ofter mature incubator chicks die in the shell 
for lack of moisture. 

Looseness of bowels in chicks is a sure sign of lack 
of heat in the brooder. Weak legs may be caused by 
either insects, dampness, or lack of well-balanced food. 

A successful poultryman feeds his incubator chicks 
the following: Bread made of flour, meal, ground 
meat, milk and soda, baked until cooked thoroughly. 
To this he adds some green food, and always keeps 
fresh, clean water for them. 

That reminds me, in winter be sure to melt the ice 
and dump it from, the fowl's drinking vessels early 
every morning and refill with fresh water from the 
well. Early in the morning and late in the afternoon 
is when they drink most. 

If your hens are not laying well, an open corn-crib 
Or hog-pen is apt to be the cause. Too fat. Nail up 
the cracks and keep fowls shut in until aft?r hogs 
have eaten their breakfast. 



Index 



A 

Page. 

Abronia 125 

Acorn Weevil 211 

Actinomycosis 4*51 

Aerators : Milk 401 

Age ot Horses 3UU 

AgeraLum llij 

Agriculture as a Science -i 

Alfalfa or Lucerne 11 

Alyssum 125 

Amaranthus 120 

Amaurosis liSS 

American Merino Sheep 447 

American Tent-Caterpillais lU'J 

Ammonical Copper Carbonate Solution, 242 

Anaem.a 402 

Analysis of Feed Stuffs 4S4 

Angora Goat 450 

Aulcrrhinum 127 

Antbracnose ^3 

" Bean 245 

■ Ijlackberry 251 

" Cotton 247 

" Dewberry 251 

■• Grape 112, 248 

" Raspberry 113, 251 

Anthrax ; Cow 4-'i5 

" Horse 361 

Apbis: Apple 244 

•■ Black peach 1U8, 24'J 

" Cauliflower 245 

" Cherry 246 

" The New rium 1'.I7 

■■ Woolly 200 

*' Woolly Apple 244 

Apoplexy : Hogs 435 

Apples 89 

Apple Aphis 244 

'■ Balsam 13G 

" Bitter Bot 244 

" Borers 244 

•■ Bud Worm 244 

" Canker Worms 244 

•• Codling Moth 244 

" Crown Gall 244 

•■ Curculio 204 

•■ Fall Web Worm 244 

•■ Insects 200 

" Leaf Blight 244 

•• Rust 245 

" San Jose Scale 244 

" Scab 110, 245 

" Tent Caterpillar 244 

•• Tree Borer 200 

•• Woolly Aphis 244 

" Worm 244 

Army Worm 248 

Aristolochia 13G 

Arsenate of Lea<y 241 

Artichokes 64 

" Seek Required 85 

Articulation : Inflammation of .... 332 

•To page 563 should be added the first 
fifteen pages of this book which will make 
the total number of pages up to now 578. 



Page. 

Asparagus 65 

" Beetles 245 

" Rust 245, 82 

" Seed Required 85 

Ashes for Hogs 435 

Asters 126 

Azoturia 367 

B 

Babcock Tester 490 

Bacteria for Alfalfa 12 

Balloon Vine 136 

Balsam 127 

■■ Apple 136 

Banking Sweet I'otatoes 33 

Bantams: Game 550 

Barley 13 

Barley : Seed Requ.red 85 

Balky Horse 427 

Barn : The Cow 481 

Barn-yard Manure 159 

Bark Beetle: Fruit Tree 190 

Beans 66 

Beans : Velvet 52 

" Seed Required 85 

Bean Antbracnose 245 

•• Beetle 245 

Bean Leaf Beetle 245 

Bee Department 281-291 

Beginning wilh Bees 285 

, Feeding Bees 288 

Food Value of Honey 290 

Hives 280 

Money in Bees 284 

Queen Bee 291 

Stings 288 

Swarming of Bees 287 

Bcecher on the Horse 410 

Bee Stings 236 

Bedbugs 234 

Bed : Hot 59 

Beggar Weed 14 

Beets 67 

Beets: Seed Required 85 

Beet Leaf Spot 245 

Beetle: Asparagus 245 

Beetle : Bean 245 

Beetle : Bean Leaf 245 

Beetle : Click 212 

Beetle : Colorado Potato 221, 251 

Beetle : Cucumber 221 

Beetle : Flea 222 

Beetle: Flour 229 

Beetle : Grape Flea 248 

Beetle : Rose 252 

Beetle : Snout 212 

Beetle: Striped Cantaloupe .246 

Bellis Perennis 127 

Berkshire Hogs 436 

Bermuda Grass 25 

Bermuda (Jrass : How to kill . . . .273 

Bellowsed Horse 354 

Big Head 364 

Bird's Eye Rot: Grape 112 

Bitter Milk 47r. 

Bitter Rot : Apple 244 



Bite : Snake 342 

Black Aphis : I'each 249 

Blackberry 91 

Blackberry Authiacnos,-' 251 

" Orange Ruse 252 

■■ Rose Scale 251 

" San Jose Scale 251 

■' Slug 251 

Black Knot : Cherry 247 

" Knot 112 

Black I'each Aphis 198 

Black Root : Cotton 247 

Black Rot Ill 

" Cabbages S3 

" I'otatoes 250 

" Tomatoes 85 

Black Rot: Grapes 113 

Black Spot Ill 

Wart 112 

Bladder : Inflanimallua or 469 

Bladder: Stone in the 356 

Blanket Flower 131 

Blight : Apple Leaf 244 

" Cantaloupe 246 

•' Celery 246 

" Cherry l;47 

" Fire Ill 

" Fire I'ear 250 

•' Leaf 84 

" Leaf Quince 251 

" Leaf Stawberry 252 

" I'ear Lea,f 250 

•■ I'otato 251 

•' Tomato 85, 253 

" StrawLeriy Leaf 114 

Blinndess : Moon 392 

Bloat : Cow 465 

Blood Weed Weev.is 212 

Bloody Milk 474 

Blossom End Rot 253 

Body of the House 298 

Boil : Shoe 337 

Boll Weevil : Slexcan Cotton .... 205 

Boll Worm : Cotton 213, 247 

Bone Spavin 328 

Bordeaux Mixture 241 

Borer : Apple Tree 201, 244 

Borer : Corn Stalk 217 

" Flat Headed 203 

" Peach 187, 249 

" Peach Twig 192, 250 

" Round Headed 201 

" Squash Vine 219, 246 

" Sugar Cane 252 

Bots 344 

Bowel Trouble : Chi< kens 512 

Bowels: Inflammation of 349 

Boys ; How to keep them on the farm 3 

Brahmas 550 

Brain: Inflammation of the 469 

Breeding Age of Sheep 449 

Breeds ot Sheep 44T 

rreeds of Hogs 435 

Breeding Animals : Diseases of .... 368 
Breeds of Cows for the Dairy .... 491 

Breeding Stock : Care of 523 

Breeding: Line 541 



5G4 



Page. 

fjreeds of Fowls 550 

Breeding Corn 17 

Broccole : Seed Kequired 85 

Broom Corn 14 

" Corn : Seed Required 8S 

Bronchitis: Horse 351 

" Cow 464 

Broiler Plant 517 

Brooders 504, 509 

Brooding the Chickens 515 

" by Hens 509 

Brussels Sprouts: Seed Kequired ... 85 

Brown Rot Ill, 250 

•• Cherry 246 

" Grape 113 

" Peach ... 102 

Buckwheat : Seed Required 85 

Bug : Chinch Corn 247 

•■ Spined Tobacco 225 

" Squash i;21, 246 

Budworm : Apple 244 

■' Pear 250 

" Tobacco 225, 252 

Buffalo Moth 235 

Bulbs : Flowers from 139 

Bull : The 476 

By-Products of the Dairy 495 

c 

Cabbage 67 

" Black Rot 83 

" Club Foot 245 

" Harlequin Bug 245 

" Seed Required 85 

" Eice 224 

" Web Worm : Radishes 252 

" Web Worm : Turnips 252 

" Worm 222, 245 

Cacalia 128 

Caladiums 143 

California Poppy 131 

Calf: The 478 

Calyx 10 

Cane .... 40 

" Blight : Raspberry 113 

" Rust: Raspberry 113 

Canker 318 

" Worm : Apple 244 

" Worms 205 

Cannas 128 

Candytuft 132 

Cantaloupe 74 

" Blight 246 

" Louse 246 

" Striped Beetles 246 

" Squash Bugs 246 

Capillary Attraction 6 

Care of Farm Tools 279 

Carnations 127 

Carnation Leaf Spot 246 

Carpet Beetle 235 

" Grass 26 

Carrots 71 

" Seed Required 85 

Castor Bean 15, 134 

Cataract 385 

Catarrh : Malignant : Cow 463 

'* Simple ; Cow 463 

Carbon Bisulphide 243 

Caterpillars 199 

Caterpillar: Cotton 216, 247 

" Shade Trees 252 

" Tent Apple 244 



Page. 

Cauliflower : Seed Required 85 

" Aphis 245 

Cedar Apple Fungous 110 

Celery 69 

■• Leaf Spot 240 

" Irrigation of 262 

" Seed Required 85 

Cerebo-Spinal Meningitis 360 

Charbon : Cow 455 

Cherry 92 

'■ Aphis 246 

" Black Knot 247 

" Curculio 246 

•• Leaf Spot 247 

" Brown Rot 246 

" Scale 183 

" San Jose Scale 247 

" Slug 247 • 

Chestnut 92 

Chinch Bug : Corj 247 

Chlorophyll 6 

Chestnut Weevil 211 

Chinkapin 03 

Chrysanthemum 12'J 

'• Leaf Spot 246 

Chronic Indigestion 346 

Chafer : Rose 252 

Chester Wh.te Hog 436 

Cholera : Chicken 528 

" Hog 440 

Chicken Department 496-563 

" Mites 531 

" Pox 530 

Choking of Cows 475 

Choking of Horses 343 

Chinch Bug : Wheat 253 

Chufas 15 

Churns 491 

Cicada 205 

Clay Soils '. . 5 

Cleft Grafting 115 

Climbers for I'orcbes 136 

Click Beetle 212 

Clods : Necessary to crush 5 

Closure of the Pupil 385 

Clothes Moth 236 

Clover : Crimson 16 

" Seed Required 85 

Club Foot : Cabbage 84, 245 

" Collard 245 

Cochin 550 

Colds and Roupe 529 

Cold : Cow 463 

Coleus 128 

Cold Frames 59 

Collards 70 

" Seed Required 85 

Collard Worm 245 

'■ Sucking Bugs 245 

Colic 344 

Colic : Spasmodic 345 

Colorado Potato Beetle 221 

Colic : Flatulent or Wind 345 

Codling Moth 202 

Composition of Soils 152 

Corn 16 

** Broom 14 

" Sweet 80 

" Seed Required 86 

Composition of Soils 152 

Corn Chinch Pug 247 

" Root Worm 218 

" Stalk Borer 217 

" Wire Worms 247 



Page. 

Corns : Horse 318 

Conjunctivia : Diseases of 377 

Cornea : Diseases of 380 

Corneitis 380 

Cornea : Ulcer of 382 

Cornea: Opaceties of the 383 

Cornea: Staphyloma of ilie 383 

Cornea: New Growth ou the 384 

Contagious Diseases 357 

Colorado Potato Beetle 251 

Cotton 21 

Cotton Anthracnose 247 

Corolla 10 

Cotton Boll Weevil 20» 

" Boll Worm 247^ 213 

" Cushion Scale: Or...:se . . .233, 249 

" Black Root 247 

" Caterpillar 247 

" Lice 247 

** Sharpshooter 212 

" Seed ■..'.'.'.'. '.'.'.160 

Cobea Scandens 137 

Codling Moth : Apple 244 



I'ear 



.250 



Copper Sulphate Solution 242 

Corrosive Sublimate 243 

Cosmos 229 

Contagious Diseases : Hogs 440 

Controlling the Horse 402 

Congestion of the Brain 441 

Contagious Pleuropneumonia ; Cow . 454 

Coops for Chickens 5(14 

Constipation: Cow 407 

Cow Department 452-495 

Anaemia 4g2 

Anthrax or Charbon 455 

Bloat «r Hoven 463 

Bloody or Stringy Milk 474 

Bronchitis 4(^4 

Butter Milk 475 

By Products 495 

Choking 475 

Contagious Pleuropneumonia . . . 454 

Constipation 4^7 

Cow Pox of Variola Vaccinae . . 45.'> 

Cow Tonic 475 

Dairy Breeds 491 

Dairy Notes 495 

Dairy Ftensils 490 

Dairying 480 

Dehorning 475 

Diarrhoea 468 

Dysentery 403 

Dyspepsia or Indigestion 467 

Eczema 470 

Feed for Dairy Cattle 482 

Foot Evil 475 

Garget 473 

Gravel or Lithasls 459 

Haematuria 462 

Hard Milker 472 

Hernia or Rupture 46S 

Hollow Horn 463 

How to start a Dairy 492 

Impaction of the Third Stomach . 466 
Inflammation of the Bladder . . . 469 

Inflammation of the Brain 469 

Inflammation of the Udder .... 471 
Little Things on Dairy Farm . . . 494 

I'iee 470 

Lock Jaw 469 

Lumps in Teats 472 

Lumpy Jaw 461 

Malignant Catarrh 463 



565 



I'age. 

Milk Fever 471 

I'ai-alysis of the Tongue 4G5 

Plethora 401 

rieurisy 465 

Pueumonia 464 

lUieumatism 462 

Ring Worm 470 

Self Sucker 476 

Soiling 489 

Sore Teats 472 

Sore Throat 464 

The Baby or Calf 478 

^ The Barn 481 

The Bull 476 

The l''armer's ( .>„• 47S 

The Milk Cow 477 

Things not to do 493 

Tick Fever 456 

Tuberculosis 460 

Tumor 475 

Warts 474 

"Wolves or Grubs 470 

"ow : The Fanner's 478 

Cow : The 471 

Cow Pea Pod Weevil 211 

" Pox 45.J 

" Peas 23 

" Tonic 475 

Cracks in Hoof 322 

Crabb Grass 26 

Cranberry Fruit Worm 246 

Cress : Seed Requied 80 

Crimson Clover 16 

Crops: Rotation of 8 

Crocus 140 

Crosseye 391 

Cucumbers 70 

" Seed Required 86 

Curing Cow Peas 24 

Curing Tobacco 51 

Curl : Peach 112 

Curculio : Apple 204 

" Cherry 246 

" Peach 102, 104 

Cucumber Beetle 221 

■' Squash Vine Borer 246 

Currant Leaf Spot 248 

Currant Worm 248 

Curb 331 

Cushion Scale : Cotton 233, 249 

Cutworms 220 

Cutworm : Tobacco 252 

Cutworm ; Vegetables 253 

Cypress vine 136 

Cystitis 469 

D 

Dahlias 130 

Dairy Breeds 491 

'• How to Start a 492 

" Notes 495 

Dairying 480 

Dairy Utensils 400 

Daisy : Double English 187 

Damping Off 85 

Dead Matter : r>etinition of 4 

Deep Seated Abscesses 335 

Dehorning 476 

Depth of Drains 265 

Delphinium 131 

Dewberry 92 

" Anihracnose 257 

" Orange Rust 252 

■• r>ose Scale 251 



Page. 

Dewberry San Jose Scale 251 

'• Slug 251 

Dianthus 130 

Diarrhoea : llorse 349 

Diarrhoea : Cows and Caives 468 

Digestive Organs : Diseases oi .... 512 
Diseases Associated with Lamja-os . 317 

Diseases of Digestive Organs 343 

Diseases of Hip Region 335 

Disease of the Large Vessels at Shoul- 
der 334 

Diseases I^roducing Lameness at Shoul- 
der 333 

Diseases of Tendons and Ligaments . 329 

Diseases of Brooder Chicks 512 

Diseases of Digestive Organs : Chick- 
ens 512 

f 
Dieases of Respiratory Orgaus .... 350 

Diseases of the Eye 374 

Diser.se of the Huw 376 

D.seases of the Conjunct. va 377 

Diseases of the Cornea 380 

Diseases of the Iris 384 

Diseases of the Tear Apparatus . . . 377 

Diaphragm : Spasm of the 354 

D.seases of the Urinary Organs . . .356 

D. stance between Drains 265 

Downy Mildew: Grape 113, 248 

Downy Mildew 85 

Drainage . .• 263 

Dropsied Condition of Synov.al Sacs. 331 

Drugs 429 

Dry Murrain 466 

Dutchman's Pipe 136 

Duck liaising 533, 555 

Duroc Jersey Hog 430 

Dysentery : Cow 468 

Dyspepsia : Cow 467 

E 

Early Cabbage 67 

Eczema : Cow .' 470 

'• Hog 443 

Egg Plant 71 

■■ Farming 520 

■■ Leaf Spot 248 

•• Potato Beetle 248 

" Seed Required 86 

Enemies to the Farm 270-273 

Bermuda Grass 273 

Johnson Grass 273 

Mice and Rats 272 

Moles 272 

Rabbits ':72 

Ensilage 487 

Endive 86 

I']nthropium 375 

j:s. hschollzia 131 

Evil : I'oll 242 

Exopthalmus 390 

Exercise of Chickens 524 

Eye : Diseases of the 374 

Eyes: Method of Examining 399 

E^-elids : Inflammation of 375 

" Wounds of the 374 

F 

Rail for Drains 266 

Fall Web Worm : Apple 244 

Farmer's Cow 47S 

Farm : Fruit on the '. 119 

Farmer's Garden 62 



Page. 

Fai-m Department . 1-55 

Agriculture as a Science 3 

Alfalfa or Lucerne 11 

Barley 13 

Beggar Weed 14 

Broom Corn 14 

Castor Bean 15 

Chufas 15 

Corn 16 

Cotton 21 

Cow Peas 23 

Crimson Clover 16 

Field Crops 11 

Firming the Soil About Seed Nec- 
essary 10 

Grasses 25 

How Plants Feed 6 

How Plants Grow 6 

How to Keep Land Fertile .... 7 

Large or Small Seeds 9 

Lespedeza 27 

Millet 27 

Oats 28 

Parts of the Flowvr 10 

I'eanut 28 

Potatoes 29 

Preparation of Land 9 

Rice 34 

Rotation of Crops 8 

The Soil and Water 6 

Rye 38 

Sorghum 39 

Sugar Cane 40 

Sun Flower 44 

Tobacco 43 

Velvet Bean 52 

Vetch 53 

Wheat 54 

Feed : How Plants 6 

Feed tor Chickens 510, 525 

Feeding Formulas 486 

Feed for Dairy Cattle 482 

Feeding Horses 412 

" Hogs 437 

•' of Bees 288 

Fertile : How to Keep Land 7 

'■ Eggs 545 

Fertilizer Department 148-173 

Barnyard Manure 159 

Chemical Analysis of the Soil . . 163 

Cotton Seed 160 

Composition of SoJs 152 

Fertilizer Formulas .\162 

Introduction 150 

Land Plaster 161 

Nitrogen 153 

Phosphorus 154 

I'otash 155 

Fertilizer Formulas 162 

Fescue : Meadow 27 

Fever. Milk 471 

" Potechlal 360 

•' Splenetic 456 

" Tick 456 

Field Crops 11-55 

Fig 93 

" Mealey Bog 248 

Fire Blight HI 

•' Pear 250 

Firming Soil About Seed 10 

Fish as a Fertilizer 161 

Fistulous Withers 342 



666 



Page. 

Flat-Headed Borer 202 

Flea Beetles 222, 251 

Flea Beetles: Cantaloupe 246 

•• Egg I'lant 248 

" Grape 248 

" Potato 251 

•' Tomato 253 

Flies : How to get rid of 237 

Floral Department 122-147 

A plea for more Flowers 124 

About Seed Buying 138 

Abronia 125 

Ageratum 125 

Atyssum 125 

Amaranthus 126 

Anteri-hinum 127 

Aristolocbia or Dutchman s IMpe, 13G 

Asters 12S 

Balloon Vine 136 

Balsam 127 

Balsam Apple 136 

Bellis I'erennls 127 

Bulbs for Spring Planting 142 

Bulbs— Pot and Water Culture . . 141 

Cacalia 128 

Caladiums 143 

Cannas 128 

Carnations 127 

Chrysanthemums 129 

Corbea Soandens 137 

Cosmos .' 129 

Climbers for Porches and Trellis. 136 

Coleus 12S 

Crocus 140 

Cultivation 146 

Cypress Vine 136 

Dahlias 130 

Delphinium .131 

Dianthus or Garden Pinks 130 

Eschscholtzia 131 

Flowers from Bulbs 139 

Flowers from Seeds 124 

Forget-me-nots 131 

Gaillardia 131 

Gladioli 143 

How to Sow Flower Seed 124 

Heliotrope 131 

Hollyhock ! 131 

Iberis or Candytuft 132 

Japanese Morning Glories 137 

Japanese Hop 137 

Lantana 132 

Marvel of Peru 132 

Marigolds 133 

Moon-flowers 137 

Nasturtiums 132 

Out Door Culture 139 ' 

Pansies 133 

Petunias 133 

Phlox Drummondi 133 

Poppies 134 

Kicinus or Castor Bean 134 

Salvia Splendeus 134 

Soil Preparation . . . : 144 

Sweet Peas 134 

Sweet Williams 135 

The Narcissus Family 140 

The Rose, The Queen of Flowers, 143 

Time of Planting 144 

Transplanting 145 

Trimming and Pruning 146 

Tuberoses 142 



Page. 

Verbena 135 

Violets 135 

Vinca 135 

Watering 146 

Zinnias 136 

Flowers from Seeds 124 

Flowers from Bulbs 13'J 

Flour Beetles 229 

'" Moths 22* 

Fly : Hessian Wheat 255 

" White 232, 249 

Fodder 20 

Food Value of Honey 290 

Foot Evil : Cows 4T5 

Forget-me-Nots 131 

Formulas : Fertilizer 162 

Formalin 242 

Formaldehyde 242 

Four O'clocks 1»2 

Founder 319 

Fractures 33s 

Fruit on the Farm 119 

Fruit Notes 120 

Fruits and Nuts 87-120 

Apple 89 

Black-berry 91 

Budding and Grafting 114 

Chestnuts 92 

Chinkapin 93 

Dewberry 92 

Figs 93 

J'ruit Notes 120 

Fruit on the Farm 119 

Fungus Diseases 110-114 

Grapes 95 

Increasing the size of the Fruit, 120 

Japanese Persimmon 104 

Mulberry 97 

Oranges 97 

Peach 95 

I"ear 103 

i'ecan 104 

Pine Apple 105 

PUim 106 

I railing 117 

Uaspberry 107 

Straw-berry 107 

Quince 106 

Fungus Diseases of Garden Plants . 82-85 

Anthracnose 83 

Asparagus Rust 82 

Black Rot of Cabbage 83 

Club Foot 84 

Damping Off 85 

Downy Mildew 85 

Leaf Blight 84 

I'owdery Mildew 85 

Rust 83 

Tomato Blight 85 

Tomato Black Rot 85 

Fruit Tree Bark Beetle 190 

Fruit Worm : Cranberry 246 

•• Tomato 253 

Fungicides 239 

Fungus Diseases of Fruits and Nuts. 

110-114 

Anthracnose 112 

Apple Scab 110 

Black Knot 112 

Black Rot Ill 

BrowH Rot Ill 

Cane Rust 113 



Page. 

Cedar .\pple Fungus 110 

Downy .Mildew 113 

Leaf Blight Ill 

■• Blight Ill 

Mildew 114 

Peach Scab Ill 

Peach Curl 112 

" Yellows 112 

•• Rosette 112 

Plum Pocket 112 

Powdery Mildew 113 

Shot Hole Fungus 112 

Strawberry Leaf Blight 114 



Gadfly 449 

Gaillardia 131 

Gall ; Crown Apple 264 

Gall : .Nematode 198 

Game Bantams 550 

Gapes 513, 530 

Garden Department 56-86 

Anthracnose 83 

Artichokes 64 

Asparagus 65 

Asparagus Rust 82 

Beans 66 

Beets 67 

" Blight 113 

Black Rot of Cabbage 83 

Cabbage 67 

Carrots 71 

Celery 69 

Clubfoot 84 

Collards 70 

Cold Frames 59 

Cucumbers 70 

Damping Off 85 

Downy Mildew 85 

Egg Plant 71 

Farmer's Garden 62 

Fungous Diseases of Plants .... 82 

Germination of Seed 60 

How to Prepare a Seed Bed ... 58 

Kale 72 

Leaf Blight 84 

Lettuce 72 

Market Gardening . . 58 

Mushrooms 73 

Muskmelon 74 

Mustard 75 

Okra or Gumbo 75 

Onions 76 

Packing and Shipping Vegetables . 62 

Powdery Mildew 85 

Pumpkins 77 

Quantity of Seed Required .... 85 

Radishes 78 

Rotation of Garden Crops 61 

Rutabagas ..." 78 

Rust 83 

Sage 79 

Salsify or Vegetable Oyster* .... 79 

Sowing Seeds 60 

Squash 79 

Sweet Corn 80 

" Potato 80 

Tea 80 

Tomatoes 80 

Tomato Blight 85 

Tomato Black Rot 85 

Turnip 81 



5S7 



\'egetable Notes 63 

Watermelon S'2 

Gaiden Crops : Rotation of 61 

Garden ; The Farmer's 62 

Garden I'lnks 130 

Garlic : Seed Itequired 86 

Garget 473 

Geese 534 

Germination of Seed 60 

Gladioli 142 

Glaucoma 389 

Glanders 357 

Goat Department 440-457 

Golden Bugs : I'otato 251 

Gourd : Seed Kequ.red 86 

Gooseberry : Leaf Spot 248 

" Worm 248 

Grain for Cattle 490 

Grain Moths 227 

Grain Weevils 226 

Grafting Trees 114 

Grapes 95 

" Anthracnose 248 

Grape: Downy Mildew 248 

•• I<"lea Beetles 248 

"Rot 248 

Grape Slug 248 

Grasses 25-27 

Bermuda Grass 25 

Carpet Grass 26 

Crab Grass 26 

Johnson Grass 26 

Kentucky Blue Grass 27 

Meadow Fescue 27 

Grass Insects : Army Worms 248 

•' Grasshoppers 248 

Grasshoppers 248 

fjrass : Seed Required 86 

Grass Staggers 466 

Grubs : Horses 348 

" Cows 470 

•■ Sheep 449 

Gravel : Horses 356 

" Cows 469 

Gumbo 75 

" Seed Required 86 

H 

Haematuria 462 

Hairy Vetch 53 

Halter fuller : How to Break 404 

Hamburgs Chickens 552 

Hampshire Down Sheep 447 

Harlequin Bug : Cabbage 245 

Hard Alilker 472 

Harvesting Corn 20 

Hatching Season 556 

Hay : How to Cure 24 

Head: Big 364 

Health of Poultry 546 

Head of the Horse 296 

Heaves 354 

Heliotrope 131 

Hellebore 241 

Hemp : Seed Required 86 

Hen Lice 531 

Hernia 468 

Hessian Fly : Wheat 253 

Hip Joint Disease 336 

Hipped Animal 336 

Hives for Bees 286 

Hog Department 431-444 



I'age. 

Apoplexy 441 

Breeds of Hogs 435 

Cholera 440 

Destroying Vermin 447 

Eczema 443 

Feeding 434 

Hog Feed 437 

How to Raise Hogs 437 

Kidney Worms 444 

Paralysis 441 

Pneumonia 441 

Pure Water 435 

Rheumatism 443 

Salt and Ashes 435 

Scratching Post 438 

Sunstroke 443 

Thumps 443 

Hog Feed . . . 437 

Holly Hock 131 

Hollow Horn 463 

Honey as a Food 290 

Horn Worm : Tobacco 225. 252 

Horse Department 292-430 

Age of the Horse 309 

Anatomy of the Horse 295 

Anthrax 361 

Azoturia 367 

Beecher on the Horse 410 

Bellowsed Horse or Heaves .... 354 

Big Head 364 

Bone Spavin 328 

Bots or Grubs 348 

Bronchitis 350 

Canker 318 

Corns 318 

Cracks in the Hoof 322 

Curb 331 

Choke 343 

Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis 300 

Controlling the Horse 402 

Doses and Actions of Drugs . . . 429 
Diseases of Breed iig Aii.mals . . 3uS 

Diseases of the Eye 374 

Diseases of Urinary Orga-'s . . . .350 
Diseases of Respiratory t>rgans . . 350 

Distemper ^ 350 

Diarrhoea 349 

Diseases of Digestive Organs . . .343 
Disease of the Blood Vessels . . . 336 

Disease of the Stifle 336 

Deep Seated Abscesses 335 

Diseases of the Hip Region .... 335 
Disease of Large Blood Vessels at 

Shoulder 3:i i 

Disease of the Tendons 3110 

Dropsical Condition of the Syno- 
vial Sac 331 

Fractures 338 

Fistulous Withers '. . . .342 

Feeding Horses 412 

Glanders 3.'i7 

Hip Joint Disease 330 

Horny Tumor 32! 

.Horses' Teeth 411 

Halter Puller 404 

Inflammation of the K dievs ... 3" • 
Irritable Condition of the Bladder, 3.'i'> 

Infectious Diseases 357 

Influenza 358 

Inflammation of an Artic\ilation .332 
Inflammation of Shoulder Muscle, 335 
Indigestion and Colic 344 



Pago. 
Inflammation of the Bowels . . . .340 
Kicking and Pawing in Stall , . .40.% , 

Lice .' . . . 360 

Lameness or Founder 319 

Navicular Disease 324 

Novel Methods of Hitching Horses, 408 I 
Outward Dislocation of Patella . .337 

Poll Evil 342 

Pneumonia or Lung Fever 351 

Pleurisy 353 

Potechial Fever 360 

Punctures of the Foot 317 

Paralysis of the Nerves of the 

Shoulder ,333 

Paralys s of Rad'al Nerve 334 

Paralysis of Nerves 335 

Quiftar 321 

Rabies 35i> 

Ring Bone 326 

Shoeing the Iloise 307 

Side Bones 323 

Splint 327 

Shoe Bo Is 337 

Snake Bites 342 

Spasmodic Colic 345 

Spasm of the Diaphragm 354 

Skin Disease 365 

Skin Tumors 366 

Shoe'ng Horses 409 

Tetanus 362 

The I'alky Horse 421 

Thrush 313 

\\'ounds 34Q 

Worms 347 

Horse: Controlling the 402 

" Beecher on the 410 

" Feeding 412 

'• Horse in the Stall 403 

" Teeth 411 

Horny Tumor 323 

Houses for Chickens 500 

Hoven 465 

Hot House Plant Lice 248 

" Red Spider 248 

Hot Bed 59 

How to Keep the Boys on the Farm . 3 

Humus: Definition of 5 

How Plants Feed 6 

" Grow 6 

Humulus Japonicus 137 

Hydropthalmus 389 

I 

Iberis 132 

Impaction of the Th.rJ S.uma. U . . .466 

Imperfect Flower 11 

Improved Farm Machl.;er.v . . . .274-280 

Incubators 504 

Indian Games 552 

Indian Peach Scale: 'Vest 184 

Indigestion 467 

Indigestion in Chickens 531 

Indigestion in Horses 344 

Indgestlon : Chronic 344 

Indistinct Vision 391 

Infectious Dlscises 357 

Infectious Conjunctivitis 381 

Inflammation of the Articulation . . .332 

Inflammation of the Bladder 469 

Inflammation of the Brain 469 

Inflammation, of the Bowels 349 

Inflammation qf the Kidney 356 



568 



rage. 

Inflammation of the Eyelids 374 

Inflammation of the Lungs : Chicliens, 512 

Inflammation of the Muscle 335 

Inflammation of the Tongue 465 

Inflammation of the Udder 471 

Influenza 358 

Inoculated Seed 12 

Insect Department 174-253 

Acorn and Chestnut Weevil .... 211 

Apple Tree Borers 201 

Apple Curculio ' . . 204 

Black reach Aph.s 198 

Bed Bugs 234 

Blood Weed Weev.l 212 

Bud Worms 225 

Cabbage Worm 222 

Canker Worms 205 

Carpet Beetle 235 

Caterpillars I'J'J. 204 

Cherry Scale 183 

Click Beetle 212 

Codling Moth 202 

Colorado Potato Beetle 221 

Corn Root Worm 218 

Corn Stalk Borer 217 

Curculio 194 

Cotton Boll Weevil 205 

Cotton Boll Worm 213 

Cotton Caterpillar 216 

Cotton Cushion Scale 233 

Cotton Sharpshooter 212 

Cow Pea Pod Weev.l 211 

Cutworms 220 

Cucumber Beetle 221 

Flat Headed Borers 202 

Flea Beetle 222 

Fleas 234 

Grain Weevils 226 

Horn Worms 225 

Insecticides and Fungicides .... 239 

New Plum Aphis 197 

Orange San Jose Scale 232 

Peach Tree Borer 187 

Peach Tree Bark Beetle 190 

Peach Twig Borer 192 

Peach Lecanium 185 

Plant Lice 223 

Plum Pulvinaria 186 

Putnam's Scale Insect 182 

Red Orange Scale 234 

Root Knot 198 

San Jose Scale 176 

Screw Worm 239 

Seventeen Year Locusts 205 

Spincd Tobacco Bug 225 

Spray Calendar 244 

Squash Vine Borer 219 

Squash Bug 221 

Tobacco Stalk Worm Tj4 

Tobacco Leaf Miner 225 

West Indian Peach Sca'.e 184 

Woolly Aphis 200 

White Fly 232 

Insecticides 239 

Ipomea 137 

Irrigation and Drainage 254-269 

Drainage 263 

Irrigation 256 

Irrigating Celery 262 

Irrigating Onions 262 

Irrigating Orchards 261 

Irrigating Rice 262 



Page. 

Terracing 267 

Water Supply 258 

Irrigation of Rice 34, 36, 262 

Irrigation of Celery 70, 262 

Irish Potatoes 29 

Iris : Diseases of the 384 

J 

Japanese Hop 137 

Japanese Morning Glories 137 

Japanese Persimmons 104 

Japanese Sugar Cane 44 

Jaw Lumpy 461 

Johnson Grass 26 

•' How to Destroy 273 

Joints: Stiff 532 

K 

Kale 72 

Kale: Seed Required 86 

Kentucky Blue Grass 27 

Kerosene Emulsion 182, 240 

Keratitis 380 

Kicking in the Stall 403 

Kicker: How to Break the 424 

Kidneys: Inflammation of 356 

Kidney Worms : Hog 444 

Kind of Drains 265 

Knot Root 108 

Kohn Rabi : Seed Required 8S 

L 

Lady Slipper 127 

Lameness of Horses 317 

Lameness at the Shoulder 333 

Laminitis 319 

Land : How to Keep it Fertile .... 7 

" Preparation of 9 

" Plaster 161 

Langsbans 550 

Lantana 132 

Larkspur 131 

Large or small seeds 9 

Laryngitis 464 

Laws Governing Plants 3 

Leaf Blight 84, 111 

Leaf Blight: Apple 244 

Leaf Blight : Pear 250 

" Strawberry 114. 252 

•• Bean 245 

" Quince 251 

Leaf Disease of Nursery Stock .... 249 

Leaf Curl : Pear 250 

Leaf Miner: Tobacco 225 

Leaf Mold Potato 251 

Leaf Roll : Strawberry 252 

Leaf Rust Violet 253 

Leaf Spot Ill 

" Beet 245 

•• Cherry 247 

" Carnation 240 

" Celery 246 

" Chrysanthemum 246 

'• Egg Plant 248 

" Gooseberry 248 

•■ Potato 251 

" Rose 252 

Leek : Seed Required 86 

Lecanium : Peach 185, 250 

Leg Weakness: Chickens 513 

I^eghorn Chickens 551 

Lespedeza 27 



Page. 

Lettuce 72 

" Seed Required 86 

Lice 470 

'■ Cabbage 224 

" Cherry 246 

" Cotton 247 

" Hen 531 

" Horse 366 

" Hot House Plants 248 

" Peach 249 

" Plant 223 

Light for Horses 413 

Lime-Sulphur-Salt Wash 178, 240 

Lime-Sulphur 179 

Lime-Sulphur Tar Mixture 189 

Lime and Potash Wash 189 

Lime leo 

Limbemeck 530 

Line Breeding 54X 

Lithasis 469 

Literature for Poultry Raisers .... 527 

Liver of Sulphur 242 

Living Matter: Definition of 4 

Lockjaw 4Qi 

Location of Poultry Farm 500 

'..ocust : Seventeen Year 205 

Louse Cantaloupe 246 

"Tea 249 

Lucerne or Alfalfa 11 

Lumps In Teats 472 

Lung Fever 351 

" Inflammation of Chicken 512 

M 

Malignant Catarrh 463 

Mammitis 47^ 

Manure : Barnyard 159 

Market Gardening 5^ 

-Marigold 132 

Marvel of I'eru 132 

Mealy Bag : Fig 248 

Meadow Fescue 27 

Meal Moths 228 

Meal Worms 230 

Meningitis : Horse 36O 

Medicine : How much to give 429 

Methods of Examining Eyes 399 

Melon : Water : Seed Required .... 86 

Melon : Water 82 

Melon : Musk 74 

" Musk : Seed Required 86 

Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil 205 

Mice 272 

Mildew ... ; 246, 250 

Mildew: Downy 85 

" Downy Grapes 113, '248 

" Powdery 85 

■■ Powdery : Grapes 113 

" Strawberry U4, 252 

Milk: Bitter 475 

" Bloody or Stringy 474 

'■ Fever 470 

Milker: Hard 472 

Millet 27 

MInorcas 552 

Miner : Tobacco Leaf 225 

MIrabills 132 

Mites : Chicken .-,31 

Motes 272 

Molting Season 526 

Money In Bees 284 

Moon Blindness 39J 



T,an 



Page. 

Mole : Sooty Orange H9 

Moon Flowers 137 

Morning Glories : Japanese KT 

Moth : Clothes ^36 

•• Codling 202 

" Codling I'ea -50 

" Flour --^ 

" Grain •■- ' 

•• Meal --^ 

Mulberry ^"^ 

Murrain: Dry *'^*^ 

Muskmelon '^* 

Muskmelon : Seed Required 86 

Mushroom '^ 

Mustard ''•' 

N 

Narcissus l*" 

Nasturtiums ^32 

Nasturtium : Seed Required 86 

Navicular Disease 32-1 

Nematode Gall I'JS 

Nest : Trap ^^3 

New Plum Aphis 1'**^ 

Nitrogen 1''3 

Notes : Fruit ^-^ 

•• Vegetable *>3 

Nursery Stock Leaf U.sc-asd 240 

O 

Gates 28 

Oaies : Seed Required . . . 8G 

Oat Smut 249 

Okra ''^ 

•• Seed Required 88 

Onions '*' 

■■ Seed Required 86 

" Irrigation of 262 

Opthalmia : I'eriodic 30:: 

Opacities of the Cornea 383 

Oranges 07 

Orange Insects -3-, 249 

Orange Rust : Blackberry 252 

■ Dewberry 252 

" liaspbei ly 252 

Orpington Chickens 552 

Oyster: Vegetable ,• . . 70 

P 

Packing Soil Around Seed 10 

Packing Vegetables 62 

Pansies 133 

Paris of a Flower 10 

Paris Green 240 

I'arls Green-Bordeaux Mixture .... 240 

Parsnip : Seed Required 86 

Parsley : Seed Required 86 

Paralysis of Hogs 441 

Paralysis of the Tongue 405 

Paralysis of Nerves of the Shoulder . 333 

Paralysis of the Nerves 335 

Paralysis of the Radial Nerve .... 334 

Patella : Dislocation of the 336 

Pawing In the Stall 405 

Peas 23 

•• Seed Required 86 

I'ea Louse 249 

• Weevil 249 

Peach 93 

" Aphis : Black 198. 249 

•■ Black Aphis 198, 240 

•• Borer 249 



Page. 

Peach CurcuUo 194, 249 

Curl 112 

Lecjnium 185, 250 

Plant Lice 197 

Rosette 112 

Scab Ill 

Scale Insects 1T6, 250 

Twig liorer 102, 250 

Peachtree Borer 186 

Peach Yellows 112 

Peanut 28 

Pear 103 

•' Bud Worm 250 

'• Codling Moth 250 

" Fire Blight 250 

•• Leaf Blight 250 

■■ Leaf Curl 250 

'• San Jose Scale 250 

•■ Scab 250 

" Slug 250 

Pecan ^^* 

Pepper : Seed Required 8« 

Perfect Flower H 

Periodic Opthalmia 392 

Persimmon : Japanese 104 

Petals of a Flower 10 

Petunias 133 

Phosphorus 154 

Phlox Drummondl 133 

Pickling Meat -138 

Pine Apple 105 

Pink : Garden 130 

Pistils of a Flower 10 

Plague : Swine 440 

Plant Food 4 

Plant Roots 7 

Plants : How they Feed 6 

" How they Grow 6 

•• Lice 107, 223 

" Lice: Peach 197 

Plethora 461 

Pleuropneumonia : Contagious .... 454 

Pleurisy : Cow 465 

•• Horse 3.53 

Plum IfS 

Plum Aphis : The New 107 

" Bladder 112 

" Insects 250 

■• Pockets 112. 250 

•' Pulvinaria 186 

" Shot hole Fungous 250 

Plymouth Rock Chickens 550 

Pneumonia : Chicken 530 

Pneumonia : ContaglousPIeuro .... 454 

'• Cow 464 

" Horses 351 

Poland-China Hogs 436 

Pollen 10 

Pollination 10 

Poll Evil 342 

Poor Land 8 

Popples 134 

Poppy: California 131 

Potash 155 

•• Spray 241 

Potatoes 29 

" Seed Required 80 

Potato Black Rot 251 

Potato Blight 251 

" Beetle : Egg Plant 24S 

" Tomatoes 253 

" Colorado Beetle 2.50 



Page. 

Potato Beetle : Colorado 221, 250 

" Flea Beetles 251 

" Golden Bugs 251 

" Scab 251 

Potechial Fever 360 

Poultry Department 496-563 

Best Hatching Season 556 

Bowel Trouble 512 

Breeds of Fowls 547 

Brooding the Chicks 515 

Brooding by Hens 509 

Care of Breeding Stock 523 

Care of Little Chicks 514 

Chicken Pox 530 

Chicken Mites 531 

Cholera 528 

Colds and Roupe 529 

Coops 504 

Disease of Digestive Organs . . . 512 

Duck Raising 533 

Duck Raising tor Profit 555 

Egg Farming in the South .... 520 

Exercise 524 

Feed for Chickens 525 

Feeding Chickens 509 

Fertile Eggs 545 

Gapes 513, 530 

Geese 534 

Health of Poultry 546 

Hen Lice 531 

Houses and Yards 500 

Incubators and Brooders 504 

Indigestion 531 

Inflammation of Lungs 512 

Introductory 498 

Leg Weakness 513 

Literature for Poultrymen 527 

Limberneck 530 

Line Breeding 541 

Location of Farm 500 

Moulting Season 526 

Non-Absorption of Contents of 

Yolk Sac 512 

Notes on Little Chicks 515 

Official Score Card 552 

Poultry Ailments 532 

Poultry Pointers 559 

Pneumonia 530 

Rooster Talk 558 

Seasonable Hints 554 

Starting a Broiler Plant 517 

Stiff Joints 532 

Summer Chicks . . . 527 

Trap Nest 543 

Treatment of Show Birds 557 

Turkeys 537 

Water for Chickens 504 

Poultry Ailments 532 

Powdery Mildew 85 

Powdery Mildew : Grapes 113 

Pox : Cow 455 

Preparation of Land 9 

Pruning 117 

Ptosis 376 

Puivinarin. Plum 186 

Pumpkin 77 

Pumpkin : Seed Required 86 

Pupil: Closure of the 385 

Putnam's Scale Insects 182 . 

Pyrethrum 241 



570 



Q 

Page. 

Quantity of Seed Required 85, 86 

Queen Bee 291 

Quince 106 

Quince Leaf Blight 251 

Quince Bust 251 

Quince Slug 251 

Quittor 321 

R 

Kabbits : How to Destroy 272 

Rabies ; Horse 359 

Radial Nerve ; I'aralysis of i-o . •. . . 334 

Radisb iS 

" Seed Required 86 

" Cabbage Web \Voim 'loA 

Raspberry 107 

" Anthracnose 251 

" Orange Rust 252 

" Rose Scale 251 

" San J use Scale 251 

" Slug 251 

Rats, liow to Destroy 272 

Red Orange Scale 234 

Red Spider 248 

Red Water 402 

Rlieumatism of Cows 462 

" of Hogs 443 

Ribbon Cane 40 

Rice . 34 

'• H-rigation of 262 

Ricinus 134 

Ring Bone 326 

Ringworm 470 

Rice Weevil 227 

Rooster Talk 558 

Root Borers ; Botatoes 251 

Boots of I'lants 7 ' 

Root Knot 198 

Boot Worm : Corn 218 

Roses 143 

Rose Chafer 252 

Rose Beetle 252 

" Leaf Spot 252 

" San Jose Scale 252 

" Scale 251, 252 

•• Slug 252 

Rosette : Peach 112 

Rot: Brown Ill, 250 

" Bitter Apple 244 

" Black : Cabbage 83 

" " Tomato 85 

" Grape 248 

" Potato Black 251 

Rotation of Garden Crops 61 

" of Crops S 

Round-Headed Borer 201 

Roupe 529 

Rupture 468 

Rutabaga Turnip 78 

Rust 83. 110 

" Apple 245 

*' Asparagus 82, 245 

" Carnation 246 

" Quince 251 

" Strawberry 252 

■ '• Violet Leaf 253 

Rye 38 

•• Seed Required 86 

S 
Safety Bridle 415 



Page. 

Sage 79 

Salsify 79 

" Seed Required 8G 

Salvia Splendeus 134 

Salt for Hogs 435 

Sand Soil 5 

San Jose Scale : Apple 244 

" Blackberry 251 

" Cherry 245 

" Dewberry 251 

" Orange 233. 249 

" Peach i7(j, 250 

" t'far . . : 250 

" Raspberry 251 

" Rose 252 

Scab : Apple 245 

'* Orange 249 

" Grape 112 

" Peach Ill 

" Pear 250 

" Potato 251 

Scale : Cherry 183 

" Cotton Cushion 233. 249 

*• Insects : Peach 176, 250 

" Putnam's 182 

" Red Orange 234 

" Rose 232 

" San Jose : Apple 244 

" Cherry 245 

'■ Orange 233, 249 

" West Indian Peach 184, 250 

Scarlet Sage . 134 

Screw Worm 239 

Science : Agriculture as a 3 

■■ Definition of 3 

Self Sucker 476 

Score Card : Poultry 552 

Scours 468 

Scrtchlng Post 438 

Seed Bed : How to Prepare a 58 

" Buying 138 

•' Corn 17 

" Germination of 60 

" Firming Soil About 10 

" Quantity Required 85-86 

•• Small or Large 9 

'• Sowing 60 

Sepals of a Flower 10 

Seventeen Year Locust . . '. 205 

Shade Tree Caterpillars ........ 252 

Sharpshooter ; Cotton 212 

Sheep and Coat Department . . . 44.5-451 

How to Succeed 447 

Breeds of S'eep 447 

Average Wool per Sheep 448 

Breeding Age of Sheep 449 

Water for Sheep 449 

Shelter for Sheep 449 

Feeding Places for Sheep 449 

Diseases of Sheep 449 

Goats 449 

Shipping Vegetables 62 

Shoeing Horses 307, 409 

Shoe Boil 1, 337 

Shoulder Lameness 333 

Show Birds 5o7 

Shropshire Sheep 447 

Shying : Cause of 391 

Side Bones 323 

'• Grafting 116 

Size of Fruit 120 

Silos 487 



Page. 

Skin Diseases 3^5 

" Tumors 305 

Slug : Blackberry 251 

" Cherry "247 

" Currant 248 

" Dewberry gsi 

" Grape ' 2iii 

" Pear _^j 

" Quince ! . 251 

" Raspberry 251 

Shot Hole Fungous 112 

" Kose ! ^252 

" Strawberry 252 

Snake Bites 342 

Snap Dragon 127 

Smut : Oats 249 

" ^'heat 1253 

Small or Large Seed 9 

Snout Beetle 212 

Soils g 

Soil : Functions of 5 

Soil and Water g 

" Composition of . . 152 

'• Firming about seed necessary . . 10 

Soiling 4gg 

Soil as related to Irrigation 258 

Sooty Mole : Orange 249 

Sorghum 39 

Sowing Seeds gg 

Sore Head .' ." 'ggo 

•• Teats 472 

" Throat : Cow 464 

South Down Sheep 447 

Spiders 236 

Spasmodic Colic 345 

Spasm of the Diaphragm 354 

Spider Bites 236 

" Red 248 

Spined Tobacco Bug 225 

Spraying 239 

Spavin : Bone 323 

Splenetic Fever 455 

Splints 327 

Spinach : Seed Required 86 

Squash 79 

" Bug 221 

" Cantaloupe 246 

" Seed Required go 

" Vine Borer 219, 246 

Squinting 392 

Stamen of a flower 10 

Starch g 

Stems of a Plant 7 

Stalk Borer : Corn 217 

" Worm : Tobacco 224 

Staphyloma of the Coraea 383 

Sting of Bees 288 

Stifle 336 

Stiff Joints 532 

Staggers 5»i 

Stallion Bridle 415 

Stomach : Impaction of Third .... 466 

Stone in Bladder 3,50 

Strabismus 391 

Strangles 359 

Strawberry 197 

•• Leaf Blight 114, 252 

" Strawberry Leaf Roller 252 

'* Mildew 252 

" Rust 252 

'• Tarnished Plant Bug . 252 

" '""^ ; ." .'252 



571 



/ 



Page. 
Stringy Milk 474 

Striped I'oetles : Cantaloupe -40 

Sugar Caue 40 

•■ Caue Borer 252 

Sunflower 44 

Swarming of Bees 287 

Sweetcorn 80 

•• Peas 134 

" Wiiliam 13.") 

Summer Savory : See Required . . . S',; 
Sunstrul<e of Hogs 44.i 

" Potatoes 32 

Swine I'iague 440 

Syrup Miils 41 

Synovial .Saes : Drops, cal Condition of, 3ol 

T 

Tarnished Plant Bug : Strawberry . . 252 

Tassel Flower 128 

Tea 80 

Teats: Lumps in 472 

" Sore 472 

Teeth of Horses 309. 411 

Terracing 2C>7 

Tent" Caterpillar : American IC'.) 

" Apple 244 

Tendons : Disease of 32'J 

Tester : Babcock 40(1 

Tetanus: Horse . . . 31'.-; 

" Cow 469 

Texas Fever 456 

Thrush 318 

Thumps : Hogs 443 

Tick Fever 45G 

Tile Drains: Size to use 2i'i7 

Tobacco 45 

•' Seed Kequired 86 

■' Bug : Spined 225 

" Bud Worm 225, 252 

" Cutworm 224, 252 

" Horn Worm . . 252 

" Leaf Miner 225 

" Stalk Worm 224 

•' Worm 225 

*' a.'^ an Insecticide 241 

Tomato 80 

" Seed Required 86 

" Blight 85, 25.^ 

" Eiack Rot 85 

" Blossom End Rot 253 

'• Potato Beetle 25."! 

" Worm 253 

Tools for the Preparation of Land . 277 
Tools for Planting and CuItiMtion .278 

Tools for Harvesting 279 

Tongue Grafting 116 

" Inflammation of 465 



Page. 
Topping Cotton 23 

Topping Tobacco 50 

Touch-me-not 127 

Trap Nest 543 

Tube Rose 142 

Tuberculosis of Cows 460 

Tumors on Cows 475 

Tumor of the Wall o£ the Foot . . . 323 

Tree Pruning 117 

Turnip 81 

*' Seed Required 86 

■' Cabbage Web V orm 252 

Turkeys 537 

Twig Borer : Peach 192, 250 

•• Blight : Pear 250 

Typhanitis 465 

U 

Udder: Inflammation of 471 

Ulcer of the Cornea 383 

Umbrella Behind a Horse 417 

V 

Vaccinae: Variola 455 

Variola Vaccinae 455 

\'erbena : Land or California 125 

Verbena 135 

Vegetable Cut Worms 253 

Vegetable Notes t'.3 

Vegetable Oyster "9 

Vegetables: Packing and Sb.pping . . . 62 

Velvet Beans 52 

Vermin : To destroy 444 

Vetch 53 

Victoria Hog 436 

Vinca 135 

Violet 135 

Violet Leaf Rust 253 

W 

Wart: Black 112 

Warts on Cows 474 

Wasp stings 236 

Water : The Soil and 6 

Watermelon 82 

Water Melon : Seed Required 86 

•• tor Chickens 504 

" for Hogs 435 

" tor Sheep 449 

" Supply for Irrigation 25H 

Watermelon Blight 246 

" Louse 246 

" Squash Bug 240 

" Striped Beetles 246 

Weevil : Blood weed 212 

" Cow pea pod 211 

" Grain 220 



: 



•^ Page 

Weevil, Pea . .. 24ij 

'■ Potato 251 

" Rice 227 

West Indian Peach Scale 184 

Whale Oil Soap 241 

Wheat 

■■ Seed Required 8ti 

" Chinch Bug 25:i 

" Hessian Fly 253 

" Smut 25:.! 

White Grubs: Corn 247i 

White Fly 232, 24tM 

Whip Grafting m 

White Georgian Games 540 

Wlit : Cotton 2471 

*' Tomato 253 

Wind Colic 345 

Wire Worms : Corn 24* 

Withers : Fistulous Z4 

Wolves : Cow 4- 

Woolly Aphis 2< 

Aphis : Apple 2 

Worm : Apple 2 

Apple Bud 2 

Bud Pear 2 1 

Bud, Tobacco i 

Cabbage 222 ^ 

Canker ; 

Canker Apple ^ 

Collard ; 

Corn Root ; 

Cotton Boll 213. L 

Cut Tobacco : 

Fail Web Apple i" 

Fruit 1 

Fruit, Cranberry 2 

Horn. Tobacco 2 

Meal 2 

Screw . ; 2: 

Stomach 3. 

Tobacco 2" 

Tobacco Stalk 2'. 

Tomato o.' 

Vegetable Cut 2." 

Worming Tobacco r, 

Wounds 341 

Wounds of the Eyelids 37^ 

Wyandotte Chickens 55( 



Yellows: Peach n^ 

Yolk Snc : Non-absorption of Con- 
tents of 51; 

Yorkshire Hog 43{ 



.13( 



572 






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